Church Sound Workshop 4 PDF

Church Sound Workshop
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IAS Technology
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Page Title Page Title
Basic Sound Level 1 Trouble Shooting Concepts

1.1 Sound 6.1 Block Diagrams And Signal Flow
1.2 Frequency 6.2 Intermittent Problems
1.3 Pitch and Wave Length 6.3 Shorts, Opens, and Bad Connections
1.4 Decibel 6.4 Gain Structure
1.5 Equalization 6.4 Balanced Vs. Unbalanced
1.6 Flat Vs. Tailored and Feedback 6.5 Ground Loops
1.7 Fighting Feedback 6.6 Radio Frequency Interference
6.7 Impedance Mismatches
Basic Sound Level 2
2.1 EAD Trouble Shooting Concepts 2
2.2 Inverse Square and ALCons 7.1 Block Diagrams
2.3 Reverb Vs. Intelligibility 7.2 Ohm Load and Tape Outputs
2.4 Critical Distance 7.3 Tape Feedback and Gain Structure
2.5 Cancellation 7.4 Transformers and Ground Loops
2.6 The Living Christmas Tree
Recording For Churches
Mixer Basics 8.1 Approach Recording
3.1 Channel Section: Aux, 8.2 Recording Methods
3.2 EQ, Routing, Volume Control 8.3 Preparing for Recording
3.3 EQ Settings 8.4 During Recording and After
3.4 Master Section
3.4 I/O Section Mixing For the Band
3.6 Signal Flow 9.1 For Best Results
3.7 THE BIG RED KNOB 9.3 The "Correct" Mix and Volume
9.4 Artistic Vs. Mechanical Mixing
Microphones
4.1 Dynamic Microphones Getting the Right System
4.2 Condenser Microphones 10.1 Getting the Right System
4.3 Choosing The Right Microphone 10.2 Why Church Sound Systems Cost More
4.4 Proximity Effect
4.4 Frequency Response Appendix
4.5 Flat vs. Shaped Response A.1 Nomograph
4.6 Microphone Patterns A.2 Q vs. ALCons
4.7 Reading Polar Patterns A.2 Eight Important Decibel Rules
4.8 Distant Miking A.3 Audio Dictionary
4.9 Choir Miking W.1 Web Resources
4.10 Wireless Microphones
Sound Operators Guide

5.1 Goals Vs. Realities
5.2 When To Stop Trying
5.3 Sound Operators Checklist
5.4 Take Good Notes
5.5 Sound Users Responsibilities
Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

Chapter 1 - Basic Sound Level 1
Sound: a. Vibrations transmitted through an elastic material or a solid, liquid, or gas with
frequencies in the approximate range of 20 to 20,000 hertz, capable of being detected by human
organs of hearing. b. Transmitted vibrations of any frequency. c. The sensation stimulated in the
organs of hearing by such vibrations in the air or other medium. d. Such sensations considered
as a group.
Low Pitch High Pitch
Compression
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Time
Rarefaction
Energy – Frequency – Time

Sound occurs when a certain amount of energy causes a vibration in an audible
frequency that lasts a certain amount of time.
Energy How loud is it? Measured in decibels or volts, millivolts, pascals,

(amplitude) etc…
Frequency How many vibrations occur Measured in cycles of energy per second – hertz,
within a given period? kilohertz, megahertz, etc. and pitch
Time How long does the sound last?

Frequency: (Hertz (Hz) / Cycles Per Second (CPS) / Pitch)
The number of times an incident occurs within a period determines its frequency. In audio terms,
the word frequency relates to how many vibrations occur within one second. The more vibrations
that fit within the one-second time period, the higher the pitch. The measurements of the number
of cycles per second are given in hertz. Numbers of 1000 Hz and above are represented by kHz
(kilohertz).
ie., 1800 Hz = 1.8 kHz.
One Second in Time
Octave 4 - 40 Hertz
Octave 3 - 20 Hertz
Octave 2 - 10 Hertz
Octave 1 - 5 Hertz
Frequency = Cycles per second = Hertz
Wave - 1 Cycle

Note Frequency Wave Length
Wavelength: (λ)
C 4186 3.25" The physical distance that it takes to
B 3951 3.5" propagate a complete cycle of a waveform.
A 3520 3.9" The Greek letter Lambda (λ) symbolizes
G 3136 4.3" wavelength.
F 2793.8 4.9"
E 2637 5.1"
D 2349.3 5.8"
C 2093 6.5"
B 1975.5 6.9"
A 1760 7.7"
G 1568 8.6"
F 1396.9 9.7"
E 1318.5 10.3" To find the wavelength that corresponds to
D 1174.7 11.5" Inch a pitch, simply divide the speed of sound
C 1046.5 1.1' Feet (1130 fps at sea level) by the known
B 987.8 1.15' frequency. For example, the 'B' below
A 880 1.3' middle 'C' (250 hertz) would be a sound
G 784 1.4' wave approximately 4.5’ in length
F 698.5 1.6'
E 659.3 1.7'
(1130/250=4.5’). This concept is very
D 587.3 1.9' important as it defines some critical
C 523.3 2.2' elements in feedback control, microphone
B 493.9 2.3' positioning, tone controls, and the limits to
A 440 2.6' creative mixing.
G 392 2.9'
F 349.2 3.2'
E 329.6 3.4'
D 293.7 3.8'
C C 261.6 4.3'
B
A
246.9
220
4.6'
5.1'
Pitch: As shown on the chart, audible
G 196 5.8' pitches are related to frequencies. These
F 174.6 6.5' are really two terms used to describe the
E 164.8 6.9' same concept. For every pitch, there is a
D 146.8 7.7' corresponding frequency.
C 130.8 8.6'
B 123.5 9.2' Every doubling of frequency is equal to an
A 110 10.3' octave increase.
G 98 11.5'
F 87.3 12.9' Example:
E 82.4 13.7' A: 440 Hz increased an octave equals
D 73.4 15.4'
C 65.4 17.3'
A: 880 Hz increased an octave equals
B 61.7 18.3' A: 1.76 kHz
A 55 20.5'
G 49 23.1'
F 43.7 25.9'
E 41.2 27.4'
D 36.7 30.8'
C 32.7 34.6'
B 30.9 36.6'
A 27.5 41.1'

Decibel: (dB) A unit used to express relative difference in power or intensity used in
measuring sound pressure levels. A single dB increase is a small, noticeable difference in levels.
The word decibel comes from deci (1/10) and Bell which is named after Alexander Graham Bell.
10 dB is equal to 1 Bell, which is perceived as twice as loud.
Change In Sound Level

Measurement Perceived Difference Wattage Ratio
+20 dBA About 4 times as loud (2 Bells) 10000 100
+10 dBA About twice as loud (1 Bell) 1000 10
+6 dBA Clearly louder 400 4
+3 dBA Louder 200 2
+1 dBA Barely perceptible difference 125 1.25
0 dB Reference Point *100 1
-1 dBA Barely perceptible difference 80 .8
-3 dBA Quieter 50 .5
-6 dBA Clearly quieter 25 .25
-10 dBA About half as loud 10 .1
-20 dBA About 1/4th as loud 1 .01

Equalization: Changing of volume of a sound system at different ranges of pitch. This
attempts to compensate for deficiencies / excesses of the sound system or the room that the sound
system is in. The goal of equalization is to "equalize" or level out the volume at all pitches
(providing a flat frequency response) or to customize the volume at certain ranges (providing a
tailored frequency response).
If the treble is turned up on a car radio, the equalization is being changed because the treble
became brighter without the bass changing.
Most professional grade equalizers define segments of the audio spectrum and controls pitches at
the center of each range of pitches. These segments can be one octave wide (called a 10 band,
due to the ten volume controls) or narrower 1/3 octave (27 or 30 band).
This becomes a little easier to visualize if we think of frequencies as pitches on the piano. A 1/3-
octave separation means there is a volume control for each four half steps on the musical scale.
One-third octave filters do not have full flexibility since the center points are at fixed frequencies
(pitches). A different type of equalizer approach allows control of three parameters of sound:
energy (how loud), frequency (what note) and bandwidth (how wide is the area of control). This
type of equalizer is called a parametric EQ. Normally, parametric EQ units have fewer overall
filters (3-10). With this type of equalizer, you can increase or decrease any range of notes by as
much as 2 to 3 octaves or as little as a single pitch by changing the bandwidth of the filter. This
very powerful tool is not very user friendly to adjust correctly. It takes very specific calibration tools
to determine frequency and bandwidth for maximum benefit and least detriment to the source
signal. It also requires time and a quiet environment for most adjustments.
Equalization has been one of the most beneficial tools in the live sound reinforcement bag of tricks;
however, it can be and often is overused or used incorrectly.
Equalization cannot control: Equalization can help control:

Room acoustics Reverberation Feedback Resonant frequencies
Echoes Time delay problem Volume deficiencies at Volume excesses at certain
certain frequencies frequencies

Flat response vs. Tailored Response
Flat response occurs when the same sound intensity is measured at each pitch or range
of pitches. Generally, it is a good reference as to how well a system will perform in terms
of reproducing wide band material such as music or speech. However, a flat response is
not always desirable for music playback, depending on the volume level of the playback,
because our hearing is not linear at all volume ranges. At low volumes a significant amount
of bass and treble boost is desirable to make the system sound full, yet the same amount
of bass/treble boost will sound too boomy (or sizzly) when the playback volume is
increased significantly.
Often the most effective approach is to tune the system for a “flat response,” then slightly
boost channel bass and treble controls for those instruments possessing and requiring a
more tailored response.
Feedback: Generally heard as a hollow sound or a squeal, feedback

can cause system damage. Feedback occurs when a sound coming from a
speaker reenters a "live" microphone and the sound is re-amplified in a loop.
Anytime a "live" microphone is amplified through a speaker located in the
same room, there is a potential for feedback. The immediate remedy is to
break the loop by quickly lowering the microphone volume. With proper
system design, the potential for feedback is lessened.
NOM: (Number of Open Microphones) Concept: As more microphones are turned on, the
attainable volume level before feedback decreases.
Feedback
Threshold
6dB Feedback Stability Margin
NOM=1 NOM=1
Maximum System
Operating Range
NOM=2
NOM=2
-3dB
NOM=4
NOM=4
-6dB NOM=8
NOM=8
-9dB NOM=16
NOM=16
-12dB
NOM=32
NOM=32
-15dB

Fighting Feedback
1. Increase the distance between the microphones and the loudspeaker.
2. Decrease the distance from the microphones to the talker’s mouth.
3. Increase the directivity of the loudspeaker system.
4. Increase the directivity of the microphone.
5. Remove the instrument microphones and replace with contact pickups.
6. Reduce the number of live microphones.
7. Place absorption on any reflective surfaces near the problem microphones.
8. Equalize speakers as needed to minimize uneven frequency response problems.
9. Lower stage levels, turn down any monitor speakers, or use “in-the-ear” type of
monitor systems.
10. Aim loudspeakers into seating and away from stage to as great an extent as
possible while still producing the coverage required.
11. Place loudspeakers in front of the microphones.
12. Always remember and respect the causes of feedback:
A. Large areas requiring sound coverage (large spaces or very wide

coverage angles, such as theater in the round)
B. Low source volume (quiet talkers)
C. Too great a distance from sound source to microphones
D. High number (over three) of simultaneous “live” microphones
E. Loudspeakers too close to live microphones, (working distance for
mics to loudspeakers (x) cannot be more than three times the
loudspeaker to furthest listener distance (3x)) Ex. If speaker to
microphone distance is 15’ then projection into the room will be
feedback limited to approximately 45’ – unless talker shortens the mic
to mouth distance.
F. High ambient noise that requires even higher sound levels for good
intelligibility
G. Significant humidity or temperature variations from system tuning to
performance time
H. Loud monitor speakers
I. Uneven response in loudspeakers or monitor systems
J. Poor quality microphones
K. Nondirectional (omni-directional) microphones
L. High reverberation levels

Chapter 2 - Basic Sound Level 2
Equivalent Acoustic Distance (EAD): The distance that provides each

listener with the same sound as at a distance of 8 feet from the talker (as if no sound system were
in use). This formula is based on a single microphone being active and the talker at a distance of
1 foot to the microphone.
Every sound system possesses an EAD. EAD can be used as a means of demonstrating that a
properly designed system is meeting its design goals. It can also be used to determine which
listeners may be candidates for a hearing impaired system and which talkers need to project better
or clean up their diction.
Ask the question: Can this listener hear this talker acoustically at a distance of 8 feet (the EAD)?
Assuming the sound system is correctly designed and tuned and meeting the EAD of 8 feet, then
the problem should be addressed at the talker or listener.
Most professionally designed systems will possess and EAD of 7-8 feet. The nonprofessional
designs will normally exhibit longer EADs (10’-12’). The shorter the EAD desired, the more costly
the sound system, all other things being equal.

Inverse Square Law: A principle that defines the attenuation of sound outdoors or
indoors (in the direct field) where there is no or very little reverberation. The law defines the amount
of attenuation based on a logarithmic formula (20 log (d1/d2)). For every doubling of distance
away from a sound source, the sound level will be reduced by 6 decibels. Every halving of the
distance to a sound source results in an increase of 6 decibels.
How much of an increase is gained when a microphone is moved from 12” away from a singer to
1/8” away? (12” __ 6” __ 3” __ 1.5” __ .75” __ .37” __ .18”. Hint: each _ mark = a 6 dB loss)
Answer is approximately 36 decibels, almost 4 times as loud.
The Inverse Square Law is very accurate outdoors, but is complicated indoors due to the room
acoustics, volume and surface area and the directional characteristics of the loudspeaker or talker.
In the presence of reverberation (indoors), the distance from the loudspeaker at which the Inverse
Square Law stops working is called the “critical distance.”
Articulation loss of consonants: (ALCons) The loss of consonants refers

to the "hard" consonants such as the letter k and t when we speak. These are critical to achieving
intelligibility in English speaking countries. The lower the loss of consonants, the higher the
intelligibility. As a point of reference: 1% - 5% is considered excellent; 6% - 10% is considered
good; and some consider 11% - 15% acceptable (Integrated Audio Systems does not); and 16%
on up is considered undesirable. The human brain will fill in some gaps of “missing” consonants
primarily due to the context of text being presented; however, the higher the ALCons number, the
shorter the attention span of the listener.

Reverberation: The smooth decay of a steady sound source in an enclosed space.
Does not include direct sound or reflections. Reverberation heard alone does not sound similar in
content to the original source and is generally not intelligible.
Direct Early
Sound Reflections Reverberation Echoes
Decibels
Ambient Noise Level

Time
Echoes: This reflected sound arrives late and is very similar in content to the original source.
(Hello, hello, hello...) These are reflections that are greater that 50 milliseconds. "Echoes" that are
shorter that 50 milliseconds are considered early reflections.
Reverberation Time and Intelligibility

The longer the reverberation decay time, the more difficult it becomes to understand the spoken word.
Generally, longer reverberation times are acceptable (or desirable) for non-amplified choral music; however,
the longer times are detrimental to speech. Speech always benefits from lower reverberation times.
Additionally, amplified music benefits from very low reverberation times (contemporary instruments).
Most people talk at a pace of about 3-4 syllables per second. In most small rooms (offices), the reverberation
times are usually so short as to appear nonexistent and the distance is normally short from talker to listener.
Speech intelligibility in small, “dry” rooms are very good due to the conditions present.
In larger, more reverberant spaces, it takes significantly longer for the sound to decay; therefore, the speech
becomes difficult to understand, even when listening to a single word at a time. This scenario is worsened
when multiple words are spoken, as they seem to “run on.” Imagine a fast talker (4-5 syllables per second)
in a room where the reverberation takes 3 seconds to decay. At the end of the first 3-second phase, there
will be a total of 12-15 audible syllables vying for the attention of the listener -- not a very conducive listening
experience, particularly for speech of any significance.
For those with hearing loss, hearing the words in a highly reverberant room can be very difficult. For those
with good hearing, this lack of intelligibility would cause "hearing fatigue." Though this is not harmful to the
listener, the listener's attention span is much shorter. For those with attention deficit disorder, this is an even
greater problem.
Through the use of words, man communicates. The spoken word is the most effective tool in
communication.
With today's technology, sanctuaries can be designed dry (with low reverb times) and reverb can be added
electronically to music (soloist, choir, organ and band.) This provides the sound operator with control over
the ratio between intelligibility of the words and reverberation (musicality). Churches that wish to have
greater amount of acoustical reverb for a pipe organ or the congregational singing must weigh the
importance of intelligibility of the words and find the greatest balance between the two. To a certain extent,
sound systems can be designed around greater reverb times, but these systems have greater cost.

Critical Distance :
(Dc) A point in space where the room reverberation builds up in
such a way as to stop the normal inverse square law losses from occurring. The longer the
reverberation time, the nearer Dc is to the loudspeaker. The lower the directivity of the sound
source or speaker, the nearer Dc is to the loudspeaker. Rooms with short reverberation times and
moderately directional loudspeakers will exhibit the longest Dc.
Room
Dc
DIRECT FIELD FREE FIELD REVERBERANT FIELD

Source Awareness Reduced Source Awareness No Source Awareness
within size of source direct sound losing level No Level Change
Sound systems are more stable in terms of acoustic feedback when microphones are located past
Dc relative to the loudspeaker. For that reason, correctly designed sound systems will nearly
always position the pulpit or lapel microphones at a distance greater than Dc away from the
loudspeaker. Very short Dc creates problems since poor intelligibility will always occur when the
listener position exceeds 3.2 x Dc.
Finding Dc in your sanctuary can be accomplished relatively easily using the following method:
1. Place a small noise producer like a boom box or radio at a height of 5-6’ above floor
level (on the pulpit or lectern is OK)
2. Tune the radio to an area between the stations, use the noise produced as the
reference sound for the test.
3. Using a tape measure mark off distances from the sound source. Start at 2’, then mark
at 4’, then 8’, then 16’ etc... At each one of these marking we would expect the sound
level to decrease by 6dB (inverse square law).
4. Using a Radio Shack or equivalent sound level meter, measure the noise at 2’, then
back away (following the measurement tape marks) to the 4’ distance. The noise will
likely decrease by 6dB.
5. Keep backing away until the noise source stops decreasing at the 6dB per doubling
rate. You will notice than near the loudspeaker the noise is obviously coming from the
source, however near Dc it becomes audibly apparent that the room is now a part of
the listening experience. At Dc the level of the direct sound and the level of the
reverberant (room) sound are equal. Mark this point as Dc
6. Measure the distance from the loudspeaker to the tape mark at Dc, this is the critical
distance for a nearly omni-directional source in your space.
When placing microphones for recording, the following guides will help produce clearer, more
focused sounding recordings.
1. When using directional microphones, place the microphones no further than 50% of Dc
away from the sound source.
2. When using omni-directional microphones, always place the microphones no further

than 30% of Dc away from the sound source.

Cancellation: When two or more identical sound waves hit each other at slightly different
times (within milliseconds), the volume of that sound wave is either voided, increased or decreased
depending on the alignment of the waves. This is caused by multiple sources (loudspeakers) at
different distances or by the sound from one source and its reflection(s). This occurs when the
same sound arrives at the ears (or microphones) at slightly offset times. The frequency shift and
cancellation effects can sound unnatural and/or cause intelligibility problems and/or feedback.
What Effect Cancellation Has On Sound Depends On:

Pitch Frequency: What frequency is being affected?
Distance between each source Time: How out of alignment are the waves?
Volume of each source Energy: How much cancellation will occur?
Hearing capabilities of each ear of listener Reception: How much will it affect that person?
To Reduce The Cancellation:

• Use only one loudspeaker pointed at any listener.
• Use only one microphone to pick up sources.
• Increase the distance between sources that are individually miked.
• Decrease monitor levels.
• Move the location of the listener.
• Reduce reflections.
One to Three Ratio

When placing loudspeakers the best results can be obtained when the loudspeakers are
placed above and in front of the microphones and a 1:3 ratio is allowed between the
microphone to loudspeaker relative to the loudspeaker to furthest listener. Feedback will
nearly often result if the 1:3 distance ratio is not observed.
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The Living Christmas Tree
It is very important for all system operators to follow the proper sound guidelines. It is
equally important to recognize that after all the guidelines have been followed, there are
times when a different tactic is required because the limits of the system have been
reached. Often we hear programs that seem to defy logic and all physical laws explained
in this mixing guide. Keep in mind that when something seems impossible to attain,
we may be hearing or seeing something that is not, in fact, really happening but
only seems to be happening.
A good example of this phenomenon is the annual living Christmas tree program that is
held locally. This program involves a church choir standing on tall risers behind a tall
wooden Christmas tree. I had heard from several musically oriented friends that I should
go see this presentation because the audio was “incredible, very wide frequency range,
stereo reproduction, loud and only three microphones in use." Given the placement of the
speakers and microphones in the church, I realized that what had been described to me
as “incredible, very loud” simply could not be achieved by any system in the given space.
When I questioned the system operator about how he had accomplished this seemingly
impossible feat, he admitted that what we were listening to was not the choir being
reinforced by the microphones at all. Instead of the actual sound of the choir members
being reinforced, we were listening to a recording done in a recording studio by select
members of the choir. The choir was standing in position singing along with a tape made
by others, and the tape was playing loud enough so that the congregation was not even
aware of the actual singing of the "real” choir. This brings us to what I normally call the
“LIVING CHRISTMAS TREE POSTULATE”: "There is no need to reinforce the sound of
the choir when and if you do not want to hear the sound of the same choir in real-time,
simply play back a tape.”
The frustration for most sound people who must deal with the realities of real-time
reinforced sound is that every time the public views a parade, a halftime performance, or
a TV awards show, they are, for the most part, hearing recordings of the performers, not
reinforcement of the live performance. Even in the few cases in which the performers
actually perform live, what we hear at home is not the reinforced mix with the limits of
feedback. Rather, we hear a remixed or sometimes rerecorded version of the
performance, not the actual live performance, often mixed on hundreds of thousands of
dollars worth of recording equipment mixed by professional operators/engineers with
decades of full-time audio experience. This can lead our audiences to unrealistic
expectations, which simply cannot be met with real-time reinforcement constraints,
realistic budgets, and volunteer personnel.

Chapter 3 - Know Your Mixer
MIXER: 1. An informal dance or party arranged to give members an opportunity to get
acquainted. 2. A device that blends or mixes substances or ingredients by mechanical agitation.
3. A device used to combine and adjust sounds from a
variety of sources in order to create a final recorded audio
product.
PARTS OF THE MIXER:

A mixer can be broken into 3 parts; the I/O Section, the
Channel Section and the Master Section.
THE CHANNEL SECTION

This section of the mixer usually takes up a majority of the mixing
consoles workspace. This section can be sliced into small strips
called channels. Each channel controls the item that is plugged into
its' microphone or line input. Each channel consists of trim controls,
an auxiliary section, an equalizer section, a routing section and the
volume control (known as a Fader.)
Gain /Trim Control (input sensitivity): This is controlled by a knob.

Additionally, the manufacturer may provide a gain/trim "shift key" that
decreases the input volume by X dB (usually 20dB). This optimizes
the incoming signal level to that of the mixer. Turn this knob up to
attain best signal to noise ratio. Turn this knob down to avoid
clipping. When looking at the specifcations of a music source
(microphone or other inputs) you will notice that the input power for
eachproduct is different.
AUXILARY
Aux: The auxiliary on a mixer is used to provide additional, customized outputs. Aux mixes are
used for monitors, recordings, narthex, other room outputs, reverb and assisted listening mixes.
Pre / Post Fader: Some of these aux are set up with pre-fader controls…. This means that once
this knob is set, the level of the aux will not effected by the fader. Post-fader means that the aux
level will be adjusted as the fader is moved.

EQUALIZATION
HPF: (High Pass Filter or low/bass cut) Some mixers are equipped with a switch that that cuts
out the lowest frequencies while allowing the higher frequencies to "Pass Through". This is helpful
in reducing microphone
"popping" and proximity
effect.
HF: (High frequency

Shelving Equalization)
This "tone control" will
boost or decrease (generally +/-15 dB) the volume of all frequencies on the channel from 12 kHz
up to 20+ kHz. (This range depends on the mixer.)
LF: (Low Frequency Shelving Equalization) This "tone control" will boost or decrease (generally
+/-15 dB) the volume of all frequencies on the channel from 80 Hz down to 20- Hz. (This range
depends on the mixer)
MF: (Mid Frequency Shelving Equalization) This "tone control" will generally boost or decrease
(+/-12 dB) the volume of the frequencies nearest to 1 or 2.5 kHz (This range depends on the
mixer.)
(Mid Frequency Sweep Equalization) A sweep allows the focal point of the equalization
to be movable. This allows particular frequencies to be zeroed in on and boosted or cut.
This provides greater control over resonant frequencies, feedback rings and specific tone
controls. Some sweepable controls allow the mix operator to specify the width of the EQ
area (known as "Q").

EQ Settings
There are two basic uses for equalizers.
1. To fix: problems caused by the room, instrument, microphone, and/or sound system.
2. To enhance: the tonal qualities of the objects being miked.
Number two is what the average

user changes an equalizer for. Adjustment Frequency Bandwidth Tone
Every person hears differently. As Voice
we age our hearing changes. It is Add 300-500 Wide Tonal Warmth
for this reason that we again Subtract 125 Shelf Mud-Noise
mention that you are mixing for the Add/Subtract 8k Varied Lisp
average listener. If there are Add 10k Varied Sweet Sibilants
Add 1-4k Wide Articulation
problems, fix them first.
Guitar
Subtract 250-630 Varies Boxy
The following are tonal Add 1-1.5k Varies Warmth
adjustments that can be made. Bass Guitar
These adjustments depend on the Add 60 Shelf Boom
specific instrument, the room, Subtract 100 Medium Mud
miking technique and the Add .6-1k Varied Growl
microphone. Add 4k Varied Presence
Electronic Keyboards
Below 31.5Hz is pretty much Generally set flat because sound is pre-processed
useless musically, is good for Piano
effects, though most sound Subtract .8-1.5k Varied Piano Key Noise
systems can not handle Kick Drum
substantial levels. Add 150 Shelf Thud
Subtract 350-500 Medium Box or Mud
Subtract 2.5k Medium Quacking-Duck
Add 6k Medium to Tight Click
Add 4.5-5k Shelf Attack
Snare Drum
Add 1.5-2.5k Varied Warmth
Add 5k* Varied Crack
Add 7k Shelf Opens Snare
Hi Hat
Add 4k Varied Sizzle
Rack Tom
Subtract 350-580 Medium Mud
Add 7k Varied Pop
Add 4.5-5k Shelf Presence
Floor Tom
Add 250 Medium/Bell Warmth
Subtract 350-580 Medium Mud
Add 3k Varied Pop
Add 4.5-5k Shelf Presence
Overhead
Add/Subtract 600** Shelf Slosh
Subtract 580 Varied Tinny
Add 7k Varied Sizzle
Add 12k Shelf Definition
*May Cause bleed from H-H
**Depends on technique

ROUTING
Pan Control: In most live situations the pan controls are unused because a majority of live sound
systems are mono.
Subgroup: A group of instruments or vocals can be assigned to a subgroup. Once the mix of the
group has been set, a single fader can control the group volume.
Solo/Cue: With the use of headphones, this switch will allow a single channel to be previewed or
listen to independent of the other channels. This can help you identify which singer has which
microphone, what microphone is causing problems, which singer is singing out of key, or whether
the microphone is on.)
Note: In live sound, a set of headphones sparingly. Operators that continually use headphones
lose the real world perspective of the sound system.
VOLUME CONTROL
Fader: This is a volume control is where a majority of mixing happens. Faders give visible
indication of volume settings.
Mute Switch: This allows channels to be switched off when unused.
THE MASTER SECTION

The master section is where the sum of all of the channel outputs are controlled. This is where
global changes, routing and monitoring of the L/R, auxiliaries and subs can be done.
Virtual knob (placebo knob) This is the knob that the operator turns when someone wants more
monitor level but has already exceeded the maximum level allowable. Please note: the "thumbs
up" sign and a smile are always given when this knob is turned.

THE I/O SECTION
Simply put, this is where all of the Inputs and Output jacks are connected to the mixer. This is
usually on the back of the mixer.
XLR Input: Generally, microphones are plugged into these inputs, but some professional audio
equipment utilizes these balanced connectors.
Line Input: These inputs are for electronic instrument or tape/CD players. For Hi Z Cable
distances greater than 18 feet use, a DI Box and an XLR cable. Increasingly, professional
equipment is utilizing balanced 1/4-inch inputs.
DI Box (direct input or injection) A device that permits direct injection of signals from
instruments such as guitars, it incorporates a transformer and other electronic components
that adjust gain, and it provides impedance matching. An active DI box requires a battery
or phantom power and generally works the best. A passive DI box does not require power.
+48v or Phantom Power: Some microphones, known as condenser microphones, require power
to operate. This power may be supplied by a battery located in the microphone or may be supplied
by the mixer by phantom power. Turn this switch off when phantom power is not in use. Leaving
the global phantom power switch on while plugging in an unbalanced input into the XLR input could
cause damage.
Inserts: These are generally used to add effects processing directly to a channel or to the master
section. On many of today's mixers, these can also be used as direct channel or master outputs.
This is done by partially inserting a mono 1/4-inch connector into the insert only to the first click.
Direct outputs: This output is usually used to connect to a multi-track recorder (for recording) to
a separate mixer for a monitor, recording or broadcast mix.
Talkback: (This may be on the top of the mixing console.) This XLR microphone input allows the
mix operator to use the monitors to talk to people on the platform.

SIGNAL FLOW: The way that signals are routed through a mixer or electronic
equipment. Switches, pots, faders, rerouting cables and hard wiring, can reconfigure
signal flow. The following is a basic outline of a mixer.

THE THEORY OF THE BIG RED KNOB
I have noticed something of a pattern recently among churches that are trying to walk the
line between their liturgical past and the potentially less liturgical “contemporary” service.
This can be viewed something like a three frame cartoon strip: In the first frame the
scene is liturgical: pastor preaching full voice from the pulpit, full choir, pipe organ, and
large voiced soloists (who accurately view microphones as something unneeded and in
the way). The second frame shows the same basic participants, only this time with
microphones and no system operator at the audio mixer. The third frame captures a
praise band in a “contemporary” service. The participants seem more performance
oriented (for better or worse) as they handhold the vocal microphones, sing with tape or
CD background music, and struggle to hear the monitors over the volume levels of the
praise band. The operator is very involved with the audio requirements, however is less
able to actually participate in the worship around him.
I see a frustration in most churches represented in frame two and frame three that is
audio oriented. Let’s assume for a minute that the loudspeaker system in all three
examples is capable of reaching the volume levels and quality required and that the
number of microphones was sufficient for the task. What then is the frustration? Almost
always the frustration lies with US – the operators. Nothing personal here. It’s not that
we are unloved but we are in the loop, and we can make or break weeks worth of work
on the part of the ministers and musicians. If you create a good mix and hit all the right
cues on time, and are not too loud or too soft then you can be unnoticed and therefore
be the hero for the day. If however, you miss cues or are out of balance or mixing at an
inappropriate level you will be causing a distraction to the service. Also, we are often
physically in the way. We need to be in the sanctuary, preferably on the main floor and
not near a corner or reflective surface – in other words, IN THE WAY.
What many churches seem to want is the BIG RED KNOB.
The BIG RED KNOB can be thought of as a knob near the pastor that accomplishes the
following:
1. Is out of the way

2. Is consistently correct in the ability to know what microphones need to be turned
on and off and does this task seamlessly, every time.
3. Pays attention to the number of live microphones and reduces the master volume
as needed (to avoid feedback) if several microphones turn “on” when the organ
plays.
4. Knows when the talker has a softer than normal voice level and turns up
accordingly.
5. Knows when the talker is speaking louder than normal and turns down
accordingly.
6. Is able to determine without rehearsal the correct volume levels from three
different singers and balance them with the appropriate levels so the melody is
slightly louder than the harmony vocals.

7. Knows the lead guitar player is out of tune and wisely buries him in the mix of
signals so as not to offend the musically gifted members of the congregation.
8. Knows the choir needs to hear the background music track of the CD with a little
of the actual track vocals, while the congregation needs to hear only the CD
background music plus the reinforced choir (without the CD vocals).
9. Knows how loud is loud enough for the under 30s and how much is too much for
the over 50s. Somehow manages to make everyone happy at the same time, no
matter where they are sitting and how much hearing loss they have.
10. Is always available, always on time, always friendly and does not demand
anything except to be the BIG RED KNOB.
These are not the frustrations of a church sound guy. I love that part of my life. Wouldn’t
trade it. Wouldn’t change it if I could. However, it’s worth noting that as much as I see
churches willing to spend whatever it takes to buy the BIG RED KNOB, I am constantly
forced to tell them that in this world there is no BIG RED KNOB. There are automatic
mixers and systems that can accomplish items 1-5 very well, but there are no automatic
mixing scenarios where the automatic mixer actually knows anything other than items 1-
5. Items 6-10 require a qualified operator, who is in fact the real deal, the big kahuna,
the real BIG RED KNOB. The only one who can accomplish items 2-10.
Often we at Integrated Audio Systems design systems that are “hybrid” in that they
combine automatic mixers to perform the routine “liturgical” parts of the service, but
provide a full featured manual mixer for those times when music and monitoring
requirements demand more from the sound system than what an automatic can provide.
One other thought. An automatic system that requires an operator is not really an
automatic system. Systems that require the users to use a computer platform to change
levels and adjust monitors cannot be thought of as automatic as they require an operator
skilled in both audio and computer skills to make even simple adjustments. Remember:
if your operator is having trouble learning to mix music with an six channel Peavey box
mixer it is not going to get better when he has to make mid service adjustments with a
mouse or touch screen computer interface.
There was a bad “B” grade movie years ago that described how everyone wants the
“B,B,D – The bigger, better deal”. Sometimes we in the church see the BIG RED KNOB
as the bigger, better deal. Even though the church may think it wants the BBD and it
may view the BBD as the Automatic or Computer Based system (the BIG RED KNOB), it
is not usually in the best interest of any church except those most committed to “liturgical
only” type of service.
Most of us in the church audio field want the same thing for our churches: That is, we
want the sound to be clearly understood and tonally accurate to the source. Viewed in
this way the sound system simply reinforces the music created by the participants. The
sound system should never become the focal point of attention, good or bad. In the best
sense, the system should sound as good as the best concert or theater system because
the message of the church is certainly more important. It is also true that when un-
churched people are present in the service they will likely be comparing the sensory

inputs from the sound and lighting systems to those found outside of the church. We
want our church systems to equal or exceed other systems being referenced. The
operator with the right system design and mixing tools is the real key to making this
happen.
That said, repeat after me “I am the big red knob, I am the big red knob, I am the big red
knob”. Doesn’t it feel good to know your role? Now go out there and mix away.

Chapter 4 - Microphones
Microphone: A transducer changes one form of energy into another. In audio, a

microphone changes acoustic energy into electrical energy. On the other end of the system, there
is another transducer - the speaker - that changes electrical energy back into acoustic energy.
Microphone Types
Dynamic: A dynamic microphone generates an electrical flow. Basic Operation: Sound waves
strike a thin plastic membrane (diaphragm), which vibrates in response. A small coil of wire (voice
coil) is attached to the rear of the diaphragm and vibrates with it. The voice coil itself is surrounded
by a magnetic field created by a small permanent magnet. It’s the motion of the voice coil in this
magnetic field, which generates the electrical signal corresponding to the sound picked up by the
dynamic microphone.
Pros Cons
Rugged Not always the best choice if you are looking for flat
response
Relatively unaffected by extremes in temperature Typically, not the best choice if you need to
and humidity accurately reproduce the extreme high end of the
audio spectrum.
Phantom power not needed - but won’t damage
dynamic mic if left on
Can handle extremely high SPL’s
Cost effective - best bang for the buck!
Readily available

Condenser / Electret: A very thin metal or metal-coated plastic diaphragm mounted
just in front of a rigid metal or metal-coated ceramic back plate. The entire assembly serves as a
capacitor and has the ability to store a charge or voltage. A special material deposited on the back
plate or on the diaphragm maintains a permanent charge. When charged, an electric field is
created between the diaphragm and the back plate, proportional to the spacing between them. It’s
the variation of this spacing, due to the motion of the diaphragm relative to the back plate, which
produces the electrical signal. This type of transducer is referred to as an "electret-condenser"
element. The majority of condenser microphones for sound reinforcement are of the electret type.
Non-electret condenser mics (typically high end studio mics) require an external power source to
maintain the charge between the diaphragm and the back plate. All condenser microphones
contain active circuitry, that is, they must be powered either by batteries or by phantom power.
Pros Cons
Higher sensitivity - (greater output) More complex - electronic circuitry inside mic
Because they typically have a smaller, lower Small amount of circuitry noise present in all
mass diaphragm, they respond faster to rapidly condensers
changing sound waves (transients).
Can provide a smoother, more natural sound, Limited to the maximum signal level the
particularly at high frequencies electronics can handle
Flat frequency response and extended frequency Adversely affected by temperature and humidity
range are easier to obtain in a condenser. extremes - can become noisy or can fail
temporarily
Condensers can be made very small without Typically not as forgiving to rough handling.
significant loss of performance. Condenser microphones
Somewhat more costly

Selecting Dynamic or Condenser Microphones
Dynamic Microphones
May be the best choice:
• For handheld or close-talk vocals - shaped response is tailor made for close miking, and
it will still work after it’s dropped!
• For miking loud instruments - drum kit (i.e., snare, toms, kick drum, etc), guitar, bass,
and keyboard amplifiers
• For outdoor sound - handles wind, temperature, and humidity variations with little
problem
• When you need a high quality multi-purpose microphone.
May not be the best choice:

• For miking a pulpit or lectern at more than 10 inches away from the talker
• For "distant" miking any musical instrument - "rolled-off" of low end and peaked
response on high end can cause "glassiness" to the tone.
Condenser Microphones
May be the best choice:
• When you have a controlled environment
• For pulpit and lectern applications
• For overhead miking of choirs
• For miking instruments that have an extended frequency range end overtone structure
such as piano, violin, cymbals, acoustic guitar
• For critical, highest quality recordings
May not be the best choice:

• If you do not have phantom power built into your mixer
• When they will be subjected to rough use. (i.e., high risk being dropped, or hit with drum
sticks, etc,)
• If you need to mic very high sound pressure levels
• If you must mic outdoors in extreme humidity and temperatures

Proximity Effect
What is it?
• Bass response increases at the mic as it is moved closer to the sound source
• All unidirectional microphones have proximity effect - - just to different degrees
1/8 in
+5 dB
1 in
0 dB
2 in
-5 dB
2ft
20 Hz 50Hz 100Hz 200Hz 500Hz 1kHz 2kHz 5kHz 10kHz 20kHz
Can vocalist use proximity effect to their advantage?
Rear Entry Ports

• Allows delayed sound to strike the rear of the diaphragm - - makes the microphone
"unidirectional."
• How to make a unidirectional mic into an omni-directional microphone.

Frequency Response: The output level or sensitivity of a microphone over its
operating range from lowest to highest frequency.
Flat Response: A microphone whose output is equal at all frequencies has a flat frequency
response.
Advantages of flat response:

• When used at a distance, it does
not color the original sound.
• Greater gain (volume) before
feedback
Why flat is not always better:

• Up close proximity effect without a
corresponding presence rise can
make a flat response mic sound
"bassy" or "tubby"
• Extended low frequency response
can pick up chancel / platform rumble or HVAC noise.
• Some condenser microphones have a bass roll-off switch to help reduce proximity effect.
Where to use flat response microphones:

• For miking instruments that have an extended frequency range end overtone structure such as
piano, violin, cymbals, acoustic guitar
• For critical, highest quality recordings
Shaped Response: A microphone whose response has peaks or dips in certain frequency
areas exhibits a shaped response.
Advantages of shaped response:

• Low frequency roll-off helps
compensate for proximity effect.
• High frequency presence rise
adds definition and clarity when
close talked.
• Shaped response can add
additional "punch" when miking
percussion instruments
Why shaped response is not

always better:
• For "distant" miking any musical instrument - "rolled-off" of low end and peaked response on high-
end can cause "glassiness" to the tone.
Where to use shaped response microphones:

• For handheld or close talk vocals - shaped response is tailor made for close miking.
• For close miking loud instruments - drum kit (i.e., snare, toms, kick drum, etc,), guitar, bass, and
keyboard amplifiers.

Polar Pattern: A microphone's sensitivity to sound relative to the direction or angle from which the
sound arrives. Or in other words, how a microphone "hears sound"
Comparing Patterns
Omni- Cardioid Super Hyper Bi-

Directional Cardioid Cardioid Directional
Classification Omni-Directional Uni-Directional Uni-Directional Uni-Directional Uni-Directional
Coverage
Pattern
360° 131° 115° 105° 90°
Width
Monitor In-Ear or
Placement Headphones
Best
None 180° 126° 110° 90°
Rejection
Ambient
Noise 100% 33% 27% 25% 33%
Sensitivity
Distance
1 1.7 1.9 2 1.7
Factor
Generally Not Favored for Most
Concert
Recommended for Live Sound Concert Sound Recording
Sound
Live Sound Applications
Where Floor Where Floor
Monitors to Front of
Recording Monitors Are Monitors Are Concert Sound
Best Use Singe
Right and Left Right and Left
For A
Where Feedback Is Choir Choir With Side Fill
Church Broad Cast
a Problem Microphone? Microphone? Monitors
Pulpit
Microphone? Pulpit Pulpit
(Only if Microphone? Microphone?
necessary)

What to Watch Out for When Viewing Polar Patterns
- Confirm
microphone holds its pattern at different frequencies
Breath Blasts (P, B, T) and How to Avoid Them

Some sounds create air blasts in front of the mouth. These are called “plosives” most
commonly heard in “B” and “P” sounds. Other air blasts move air downward (T’s). To
reduce these problems always place the microphone slightly below and off center of the
mouth, coming in at approximately a 35-40 degree angle.

Distant Miking
When is it used?
• Can’t place wireless lavaliere on everyone.

• Need to pick up chorus or group singing.
• When microphones need to be as
inconspicuous as possible.
The problem with using conventional microphone floor stands
Correct way to distant mic

Must have a reflective floor - wood, tile, concrete for this technique to work
3 to 1 Rule
Use of two microphones side by side

Choir Miking
Determining correct mic placement
Overhead View
If the mic is at a distance of 3 feet
then the distance should be wider than 9

Wireless Microphones
Why wireless systems have problems

• Must be high band (VHF-155 MHz to 215 MHz range,
or UHF-550MHz to 800MHz range).
• Must be quality system.
• Should have line of site to antennas.
• Diversity reception.
• Must use proper remote mount antenna and antenna cable.
• Gain structure must be set.
• Squelch must be set.
• Receiver spacing and stacking - 1/4-wave spacing.
• No rechargeable batteries - the terrible truth.
• Did you really buy new batteries?
Tone code squelch

• What is it?
• Why is it important?

Chapter 5 - Sound Operators Guide
Operational Goals vs. Problems
Goal 1) The voice / music should be heard by all.
i) Listener hearing problems
ii) Sound cancellation
Goal 2) The voice / music should be understood clearly by all

i) Limitation of existing system
ii) Room problems
iii) Existing equalizer not set correctly - System requires professional set equalization
iv) Listener hearing problems
v) Excessive monitor sound on the platform
vi) Operator weakness
Goal 3) The sound should be enjoyable to all (levels are set consistent and correctly)
i) Excessive monitor sound on the platform
ii) Sound Cancellation
iii) Limitation of existing system
iv) Room problems
v) Operator weakness
Goal 4) The system should run distraction free
a) When I pickup a microphone I want to know that it's on.

i) Sound operator not paying attention
ii) (Lack of communication) User acting too fast or out of site of sound operator
b) Feedback Free (See fighting feedback)

ii) Room problems
iii) Excessive monitor volume on the platform
iv) Excessive house volume on the platform
v) Microphone to close to loudspeaker
vi) Too many microphones on at one time
c) Equipment problem free

ii) Unlimited access to system controls
iii) Lack of maintenance
iv) Equipment improperly installed
v) Equipment being used improperly
d) Operator error free

i) Lack of training
ii) Lack of operator maturity
iii) Too much to do
iv) Too many distractions
v) Lack of coordination/communication between user and operator

When to Stop Trying
It is important for all operators to know when to stop trying to increase the level of the
system. Often the most significant problems occur when lay readers or other people not
used to public speaking are required to speak through the sound system. When they hear
the sound of their voice being reinforced into the room, it is common to think that the sound
system is too loud. At this point, the talker either may move back away from the
microphone or may simply talk more quietly. It is critically important for the system
operator not to attempt to turn the talker up as the talker is trying to hear less of their self.
It is simply a matter of time until the talker wins the battle of wills, leaving the soundperson
struggling with a feedback or near feedback situation. It is better to accept the limitations
of the sound system than to try to work beyond the limitations and create feedback in the
process.
It is not the operator's fault!
A correctly designed sound system will create a very even volume and tone throughout
the seating area. Thus, if the operator can hear well, you can feel confident that others
with the same quality of hearing will be well served by the sound system and your mix.
If people do not notice the job that you do, you are doing it right. (Our goal is not to prove
that the church has a sound system.)

Sound Operator Checklist
 Make sure all equipment is on (mixer, then amp)

 Make sure wireless batteries checked
 Make sure pastor / speaker(s) have wireless microphone
 Check for mixer changes.
 Review bulletin and service notes and make notes of your own
 Review bulletin and service notes with leaders to confirm no changes. Check for last minute
changes and/or unannounced events.
 Do a sound check. (Before people arrive)
• Plan ahead so users are not waiting on you and expect users to arrive on time
• Demand Quiet from all users not directly involved at their turn in the soundcheck
• Expect users to realize the importance of the activity to the result
• If possible, hardwire a talkback microphone from the mix location to the stage monitors to
allow the users to better hear you.
 Make sure there are enough microphones out and in their proper location
 Make sure excess mics are removed from the chancel. (leave one or two for backups)
 Make sure vocalist know which microphone(s) to use
 Make sure microphone cables are out of the way and clean looking
 Make sure tapes and CD's are properly cued
During Service
1. Avoid feedback.
2. Recognize the limits of reinforcement and your system.
3. Make the house mix priority one over monitors, and other mixes.
4. Mix for the average person.
5. Pay attention.
6. Help educate system users
7. Do not get involved in the service/event on a personal level.
 Turn the system off (amp then mixer).

 Return the mixer to the proper settings when you are done.

Take Good Notes Make Less Mistakes!
Welcome to….
Peoria First Church of the Nazarene
5504 N. University • Peoria, Illinois 61614 • 692-3131
Morning Worship
CD Track 3
Call To Worship "We Will Glorify" (Choir)
Lapel 2
Welcome / Scripture / Prayer Pastor
Al Denson
"Let All the People Praise Him" (Use microphone 9)
"To God Be the Glory" Michael Smith

(Microphone 10)
Offering
Children Dismissed Dino plays piano
(Piano 12 and mic 14)
"As We Gather"
Watch: Pastor (Lapel 2)
*
"Jesus Draw Me Close"
Surprise presentation!
Watch: Billy Graham
(Wireless handheld)
"The Power of Your Love"
Phil Keagy
Family Prayer Pastor
(Guitar Solo 7)
"In The Name Of The Lord" Lapel 2
Special Music Elizabeth Tuba solo

(Microphone 7)
Ministry From God's Word Pastor
Benediction

Sound System User Responsibilities
1. Pay attention.
2. Be prepared (coordinate which microphone you will use with the sound person).
3. Be aware of what causes feedback.
4. Be consistent in your microphone use.
5. Let the sound person control your microphone volume.
6. Realize that the house mix is priority one over monitors (use minimal monitors).
7. Project your voice towards the microphone.
8. Remember that a sound system operator cannot read your mind.
9. Thank the sound person every once in a while.
During times of extreme volume changes, it can be beneficial for a vocalist to back off the
microphone. The sound person may not be able to adjust the system quickly enough.
This will also help prevent the microphone from being overdriven. The technique of
backing off of a microphone takes some practice.
Remember the inverse square law: an increase in distance from the microphone is equal
to a decrease in volume. Every time that you increase your distance from the microphone
by roughly 2.5 times, you cut your volume in half. So, when you are singing 1 inch from a
microphone and move 2.5 inches from the microphone, your perceived volume is cut in
half. This is why it is important to keep you distance between you mouth and microphone
consistent.
When a sound person is present, do not change singing volume because you feel that
your voice level through the system is not correct. The sound person is at a better location
to decide. Make sure you have had a sound check with the sound person who is mixing
during your performance. This will help the both of you to preset volume levels before the
performance and should help you feel more comfortable with the levels. People absorb
sound. This means that between your sound check and performance, the sound you hear
from the room (sound reflected from the main speakers) will be decreased. Monitor levels
should stay the same

Chapter 6 - Trouble Shooting
Diagrams and Signal Flow
1. A good block diagram is your road map to success.

a. If you don’t have one, make one!
b. Label diagram and equipment with same designations
c. Document equipment locations on diagram
2. Understanding signal flow is the shortcut to your destination.

a. Outputs (sources) feed inputs (loads)
b. One output can feed multiple inputs (Figure 2)
c. Never connect outputs together without proper mixing network!
d. The input/output feedback loop (Figure 4A and 4B)

Intermittent Problems….
The Trouble-shooter’s Worst Nightmare
1. Gather history, weigh evidence

a. Personal observations (5 points each)
b. Interrogate users (2-5 points each)
c. Unsolicited reports, advice, and theories (0-5 points each)
2. Duplicate the problem

a. If it ain’t broke, break it!
b. Spend some quality time
c. Multi-session repairs
3. Mechanical problems
a. Connectors
b. Damaged wiring
c. PCB (printed circuit board) fractures
d. Noisy volume controls
4. Thermal problems
a. Inadequate ventilation
b. Too hot – thermal shutdown
c. Too cold – condensation
d. Heat gun or hair dryer to duplicate thermal problems
5. Time related problems

a. Could be thermal
b. RFI / EMI
c. Ac power line fluctuations
6. Location related problems

a. Outdoor
i. Heat from direct sunlight
ii. Humidity
iii. Poor grounding
iv. Corrosion
b. Bad power receptacles
c. Dirty power receptacles
d. High locations & RFI

Shorts, Opens, and Bad Connections
Static, Hum Buzz, Radio Reception, Loss Of Signal
1. Short circuits
a. Line to line shorts
b. Shorts to ground (often missed)
2. Open circuits, most common

a. Break in circuit
b. Bad connection
c. Blown fuse
3. Connectors
a. 1/4" Stereo and Mono
b. XLR
c. Speakon
d. IDC
e. Molex
f. Spade Lugs
4. Poor splices
5. The poor solder joint
6. Crimped lugs and pins
7. IDC and Molex pins
8. Wiring
a. Wiring Strain Relief
b. Stranded & solid wiring
c. Damaged insulation
d. Microphonic wiring
e. Staples, burrs, clamps and other wire-eating insects

Gain Structure Problems
Distortion, Hiss, Hum and Buzz
1. Limits
a. Output limits
b. Input limits
c. Signal to noise ratio
2. The weakest link
3. Beware the “overload” LED
4. High power, noise, and headroom
5. The wimpy vu meter
6. Eq boost and clipping
Balanced vs. Unbalanced

Hum, Buzz, and Radio Reception
1. Unbalanced
a. One side zero, other has signal, single polarity
b. Coaxial cable
c. Subject to interference, EMI
d. Short distances only
2. Balanced
a. No side zero, dual polarity
b. Twisted pair
c. Common mode rejection, CMR)
d. No ground required for true transformer balanced
e. Shield optional, but beneficial
3. Transformer balanced
a. No signal path to ground
b. RFI suppression inherent
4. Active balanced
a. Signals referenced to ground
b. Really two unbalanced back to back
c. Impossible to break common mode ground loop without transformer

Ground Loops
Hum and Buzz
1. The way they were

a. Transformer theory condensed
b. Transformer outputs & inputs
c. No two grounds are created equal
d. The ground loop, just a big transformer
e. Cut shield wire to correct problem
2. Ground loops today
a. Active outputs and inputs
b. Common mode hum
c. No ground isolation
d. Must add transformer and cut shield to correct problem
3. Most common causes
a. Split equipment locations
b. Grounded microphone plates
c. Shorts to ground on any wire
d. Ac distribution panel grounding, multi-panel distribution

Radio Frequency Interference
Hum, Buzz, Radio Reception, and Static
1. Who’s fault is it?

a. Don’t call the FCC
b. To sound systems
c. To wireless microphones
2. Sources of Sound System Interference
a. CB, HAM, Two-way radios (walkie-talkies)
b. FM & AM broadcast and TV
c. Cell phones, microwave and radar
d. Business band radio (police, fire, taxi, aircraft, pagers, etc.)
3. Sources of wireless microphone interference
a. Any of the above sources
b. Police scanners
c. Other wireless transmitters
d. Computers
e. Light dimmers
f. Fluorescent lights
g. Mercury vapor lights
h. Televisions & radio receivers
i. Automobile engines (spark plugs)
j. Bug zappers
k. Electric chairs
4. Radio frequency interference solutions
a. Braided shielded wiring
b. Low pass filters
i. Know the source (frequency)
ii. Capacitors in parallel
iii. Inductors in series
iv. LC combinations
v. Toroidal cores
c. Transformers
d. Metal equipment enclosures
e. The dedicated RF ground

Impedance Mismatches; Electronics 101
Distortion + Poor Frequency Response
Why do I care about impedance?

• Great discussion material at parties
• Limits & laws of nature
• Power limits & Power requirements
What is impedance?
• Impedance and resistance are a measure of opposition to the flow of electrons in
an electrical circuit
• Impedance is used to describe opposition to current flow in AC circuits such as
audio and 120VAC house wiring
• Resistance is used to describe opposition to current flow in DC circuits such as car
batteries and flashlight batteries
• Impedance (or resistance) is one of four inter-related properties of electrical circuits
1. Electrical pressure or force which is expressed in Volts
2. Electron flow in a conductor or current which is expressed in Amps
3. Resistance (or Impedance) to the flow of electrons which is expressed in
Ohms
4. The total work done which is expressed in Watts (Volts x Amps)
• Of the four electrical properties any two must be known to determine the other two
So, what does that have to do with a 100 watt 8 ohm stereo power amp?
• Source impedance is a measure of maximum power available from a device (not
used to determine impedance matching, may destroy device or blow fuse)
• Minimum recommended load impedance is a measure of the maximum
recommended power available from a source.
• Input impedance is a measure of the power required by a device.
• High impedance = Lower power, Low impedance = Higher power
Adding impedance (or resistance)

• Parallel and series combinations
• Two 100 watt light bulbs in parallel = 200 watts
• Two 8 ohm speakers in parallel = 4 ohms
• Two 8 ohm speakers in series = 16 ohms
Specification sheets and levels

• DBV
• DBU
• DBmw
• Impedance

Chapter 7 - Trouble Shooting 2
Block Diagram

Recommended Ohm Load
It is common practice to feed many inputs with one output. This is acceptable as long as
the recommended Minimum Load Impedance is not exceeded. The
impedance values shown are typical for present day electronic devices Amplifier
used in audio. 15k ohm input
Amplifier
15k ohm input
Amplifier
15k ohm input
Equalizer Amplifier
Recommended Minimum load: 15k ohm input
600 ohms
Amplifier
15k ohm input
Amplifier
15k ohm input
15000 = 1875 ohms load
8 Amplifier
15k ohm input
Amplifier
15k ohm input
Tape Outputs
Never connect two outputs together without the proper combining network! This is a
common source of distortion and premature equipment failure.
Incorrect
CD Player RCA Left Out RCA
RCA Right Out Y Cable
Correct
CD Player RCA Left Out
5k ohms
RCA Right Out

Tape Feedback
Never use the same cassette machine for both recording and playback, unless a custom
mode selector switch is used! If the mixer is not 1 Mixer
properly set, you will end up with a feedback loop or 2
3 House
double mix the other inputs through the mixer via the 4 Out
tape monitor path. 5
6
7 Tape
8 Out
To insure proper operation a 4PDT mode selector Incorrect
switch must be added, so that the desired function
can be selected and the tape monitor path is always
Tape Player
broken. Tape Monitor
Output Input
1 Mixer
2
3 House
4 Out
5
6
7 Tape
8 Out
Correct
Shown in Record Mode
Tape Player
Tape Monitor
Output Input
Gain Structure
Wave A) shows poor signal to noise ratio

Wave B) shows an optimal gain structure
Wave C) Shows the wave clipping (causing distortion)

Transformers . . . The Sound System Elixir
600 ohms 600 ohms

balanced or balanced or
unbalanced unbalanced
Input output
Transformer Advantages Transformer Disadvantages

Convert Unbalanced to Balanced Cost
Convert Balanced to Unbalanced Space
Change Impedance Slightly Reduced frequency response
Eliminate RFI Subject to near by magnetic fields
(Radio Frequency Interference)
Protects Equipment from Static Electricity Small amount of signal loss
Removes DC Voltage Removes DC voltage (phantom power)
Ground Loops Shielded Unbalanced Audio Cable
Unbalanced Hot Unbalanced

Figure 7a: Unbalanced output with
Input Output
severe ground loop hum. Shield
Figure 7b: Balanced output with Ground Ground

.02 volts .01 volts
reduced ground loop hum, do to
common mode rejection (CMR) of Figure 7a
balanced input.
Shielded Balanced (Twisted Pair) Audio Cable
Balanced Balanced
Input Output
Shield
Ground Ground
.02 volts .01 volts
Figure 7b

Chapter 8 - Recording Services
Critical Points to consider before determining the approach

1. Does the ensemble sound good (balance) without mics?
2. Do they need to be amplified?
3. Do they need monitors to hear themselves or accompaniment?
4. Is there a live accompaniment (organ, piano or choir)? If
so, where is it located relative to the singers?
5. Keep PA at a reasonable volume: less reinforcement will
yield a better recording.
6. Do not use wireless microphones if possible as the sound
quality is not as good and the quality may be spotty.
7. What is the desired result of the efforts and costs?
(Cassette ministry to shut-ins, AM broadcast, CD Duplication, Web or TV broadcast?
8. Is it important to break even or make a profit, or does it make any difference at all?
Is this recording a mission project in itself?
9. Does the church have the equipment and staff necessary to produce the quality of
product desired?

Recording Methods
The four main methods are listed from easiest to most complex; coincidentally they also are listed from the
least costly to the most costly.
Type Method Advantages Disadvantages

Room Mix X-Y, Coincident Can give a very accurate stereo No remix capability
Ensemble Miking Pair, Spaced pair recording of the blend of music in
for recording only of microphones the room Can have too much room sound
and reverberation for non choral
Relatively simple and low cost music (instruments and speech
may sound unnatural)
Equipment required is minimal, a
pair of good quality microphones, Same microphones and placement
stands with boom arms, cannot be achieved if ensemble is
microphone preamps or mixer and to be miked for reinforcement.
MD, CD or DAT recorder
In the case of an unaccompanied
vocal group or orchestra without
soloists, the optimum recording
distance for most ensembles for
recording is 10-12’ above floor
level and 8-12’ in front of the choir.
This contrasts to a height of 7-9’
height and approx. 2’ in front of the
choir for reinforcement.
Board Mix If using a single If full choir with orchestra then a When using a board feed it is very
Do not use the mixer for both board feed of closer mics, mixed for important to rehearse with all
HOUSE feed for reinforcement and recording or a multi-track recording musicians present (choir and
the recording mix recording use a will yield the best results orchestra) to allow the operator the
as the role of the stereo output for chance to “re-balance and tweak”
PA system is to the recording and the recording mix as needed.
blend with the put the house mix
sounds coming on a post EQ / post House mix will be mono
from the singers, fader auxiliary mix.
complimenting the Use of auxiliary mix for house
live sound and is removes the possibility of using
therefore not a mix subgroups for reinforcement, which
that can stand can be a problem in difficult live mix
alone situations.
Second Console, Split signals are Second mixer receives a split from Mixing "live" therefore there is a
Live Recording mixed real time the channels of the house mixer chance for operator errors. Must
during service. before the channel EQ is performed mix recording from isolated booth or
for the house mix This gives the recording truck Cost is higher both
recording operator the best chance in terms of equipment and qualified
of receiving a mix unaltered by the operator.
needs of the live reinforcement
Multi-track Mix Utilizes multi-track Multi-track recording allows for Cost, Time & Complexity. Requires
recording remixes and overdubbing resulting separate mix control room or remote
techniques after in potentially a better product. truck and significant recording
the microphone investment
signals are split Nearly all professional recording for
broadcast or CD recording is Requires additional mix down and
Signals are stored accomplished using multi-track overdub time allotted, at studio rates.
individually on recording techniques
digital tracks to be
remixed and
combined later.

Setting the Date for Recording
• Whenever possible: Plan at least 2 months to assure recording equipment and personnel are
all available for rehearsals, recordings and performances.
• Do not record at night after a day of work; try for Saturday recording if possible.
• Do not record very early or very late in the day, most people are vocally strongest between
10am and 4pm.
• Do not record on the same day as the performance as the second event (usually the
performance) will suffer
Pre-Details
• Assume nothing – plan everything (in this way you will only have unplanned disasters occur
10% of the time)
• Arrange for any equipment needed, purchase or rental at least 2 months in advance.
• Go over logistics of program and facility with any outside crew or unfamiliar operators
• Call equipment suppliers 7-10 days before performance to remind them of equipment needed
and verify equipment and personnel availability.
• Plan for technical run through for any dual mixer or multi-track recording no less that 24 hours
before recording date. The time for the recording truck to arrive is NOT 2 hours before the choir
and orchestra arrive.
• If a quick turn around time is desired for the congregation to purchase CD’s then it is imperative
that the church create (or have) the cover and insert for the CD. Generally the turn around time
for most commercial printers is 7-10 days, so if timeliness of sales is important then do whatever
can be done before the recording is created.
• Check with ASCAP and/or BMI or church royalty agents to assure proper copyright fees are
paid and appropriate records kept.
• 24 hours before the recording, check all special lighting to assure that no ground or power
problems exist.
• If good recording results are desired, it is important to have the sound person responsible for
only the sound. There is no place in a sound person description to be the light person and in
significant productions the dual role of sound and lights for a single person can only lead to
problems.

During Recording
Depending on what type of recording is in process the role of the sound operator will vary to a
certain degree. However, whenever the best sound results are desired (live or recording) the
following steps should be observed:
1. Don’t talk to or otherwise distract the sound person

Seriously, distractions cause problems and cannot be viewed as OK if the best results are to occur.
Don’t talk to or otherwise distract the sound person.
Sound People
1. Don’t let yourself be distracted, remember the importance of the task at hand
2. Stay awake and alert.
3. Keep hands above the controls
4. Stay at the mixing console
After The Service

• Make a duplicate copy of any Masters before beginning editing. Remember the importance of
the Master tape or disk - it is often the cumulative result of hundreds of person-hours of effort
and should be given that level of importance.
• Perform any edits or remixes as needed
• Arrange for delivery, mixing and postproduction work (if necessary) then deliver final product to
radio/TV station or duplication facility. Stay in the loop until the final product is complete.

Chapter 9 - MIXING FOR THE BAND
Concepts; Head, Heart, Ears & Tools Required
Head: Appropriate Sound Levels – House
Appropriate Sound Levels – Monitors
Age of listener, age of new members desired
Heart: Are musicians and staff willing participants in the process?
IEMs and headworn microphones?
What quality do we want to achieve?? How badly do we want it??
Ears: Quality of sound desired, natural, bassy, and duplicate of recording/broadcast

sound?
Perception is only reality for one person, at one place in one time
Tools: Measurement Tools needed – RS sound level meter
Personal Receptors: eyes & ears
If Best Results Are Desired . . .

Concept: Minimalistic Approach, start with fewest acoustic instruments (widest range, hardest to
mic) move towards louder instruments. Begin with house sound and IEM only, NO amplifiers or
stage monitors on
Set up house mix first. Particularly important if the band is physically close to the congregation
and the band level has been a problem for the congregation.
Begin with the acoustic instrument that has the widest range and/or generally dominates the
leading of worship. (Normally this would be a piano of some type). Work with channel EQ and
microphone placement to achieve the sound and level desired for that instrument. Do not move
on to the next instrument until the sound and level of the existing instrument are as needed.
The second instrument should also be acoustic and having the second widest range of tones. This
may be violins, wind instruments or acoustic guitars miked or mic and pickup combination units.
Work with channel EQ and microphone placement to achieve the sound and level desired for that
instrument. Do not move on to the next instrument until the sound and level of the existing
instrument are as needed.
After all acoustic instruments are playing; begin adding electric instruments starting with the widest
range first. Normally this will be the synthesizer or electric piano. Work with channel EQ and

microphone placement to achieve the sound and level desired for that instrument. Do not move
on to the next instrument until the sound and level of the existing instrument are as needed.
Move to the lowest range of electronic instruments, normally bass or kick drum. Then move
through the instruments in order from lowest range to highest range. Work with channel EQ and
microphone placement to achieve the sound and level desired for each instrument. Do not move
on to the next instrument until the sound and level of the existing instrument are set as needed.
If subwoofers are an integral part of the system than it will be necessary to filter out sub frequencies
on those mic channels which contain instruments which do not create sub frequencies.
If possible, place the subwoofer on a separate post fade, post EQ auxiliary mix to allow for the
addition of sub to only those channels that require the sub enhancement.
At this point in the mix process, all instruments played individually should sound appropriate. This
gives us the best possible starting point to the mix. The next steps involve placing a mix of the
acoustic instruments together, and then add vocals. At this point, it is time to add the electric
instruments.
You will likely notice that as instruments and voices are added the low mid to midrange begins to
sound muddy, as if there is too much information being produced in that range. This is exactly
what happens. Nearly all instruments and voices reproduce some amount of signal in the range
from one octave below middle C to the octave above middle C. Frequencies affected are in the
100-500 Hz range. As more and more instruments/voices are added together, this range of
sounds tends to be quite overfilled.
Our task is to selectively remove some of this range from sources that can live without it. For
example, it is common practice to reduce a section of frequencies between 100-200 Hz when
miking an acoustic guitar in a band setting. This does not makes the guitar sound as good
individually, however the total mix becomes “better”. This is one significant advantage to larger
scale mixers and digital mixers that they provide an abundance of tone control flexibility per
channel. If the tone controls on each channel are “sweepable” i.e. frequency selectable, it is
possible to create a more layered effect to the mix of instruments.
Once the house mix and level sound good to your ear, it is time to turn our attention to the monitors.
If monitor speakers and stage amplifiers are in use follow these guidelines: We only want to
add sufficient monitor level to let the person on stage hear enough to “fill in” the highs which are
missing on stage from the main speakers firing the hf forward into the congregation. Begin with
the song leader singing with the band through the house mix. Monitors off. Slowly bring up the
level of the monitor near the song leader until they can just begin to hear it. Give enough to satisfy
the requirement – but no more. At this point with the band playing through the main system, take
two SPL readings at the front row of house seating location. One measurement should be with
the house system on only then the second measurement should be a combination of the house
and monitor system. The trick is to get the band to play without recalibrating their ears to balance
with the house system. Ideally, the interaction of the two systems at the front row should add no
more than 3-4dB to the sound of the overhead main speakers. This is difficult, but worth the effort.
If headphone or IEMs are in use, adjust the levels as desired by the performers always checking
to assure the monitor levels are not too high. High levels in monitor speakers, instrument amplifiers
and IEMs can and do cause hearing loss. If the equipment is available, it is always a good idea to

limit the signal level to the monitors to avoid the risk of hearing damage. Be very careful and
make every effort to get the musicians to use volume sparingly.
THE “CORRECT” MIX AND VOLUME
RULE # 1 - determining the correct mix is a complex issue – understand that under ideal
conditions not everyone will agree or even tolerate your mix without some degree of
complaining. It’s ok, your doing fine.
The most important part of the “artistic” side of mixing for church services is knowing your
audience and their demographics. For example: If they are all under 30 and are into body
piercing, it is safe to assume they may like the sound louder and bassier than average.
Conversely, if they are all retirees it is safe to assume they may like it less loud and less
bassy. If your church is an outreach oriented church involved in trying to get younger
members by adding a band or alternative service, then you can count on comments from
the older set that the sound is too loud. Again, this is OK and it may well be a time to bite
your tongue and know that you are not mixing for your own glory. On the other hand, if you
don’t need the level and you are merely seeing how loud (bassy, bright, etc) you can make
the system sound, then you need to come in after service for your “sound experiments”
session.
RULE # 2 – see Rule # 1

Artistic Mixing vs. Mechanical Mixing
What does it take to be an "artistic" sound operator?
1. Learn the mechanical side of mixing.

2. Work on your critical listening skills.
3. Experiment.
4. Have patience.
5. Practice.
When we as operators take our position behind the mixing console, we are continuing a tradition of people
who have a desire to improve the way the listener hears the presentation. Given the importance of the task,
it is worth doing it to the best of our ability, whatever that ability may be. In over twenty years of personal
mixing, I have concluded that virtually anyone who wants to be a mix operator can be an operator at some
level. That said, there are tremendous ranges of skills that are required to mix at a very high or professional
level.
The skills required for mixing sound are not very different for the skills that are required to play a musical
instrument. These skills include hand-to-eye to ear coordination and critical listening. For simplicity's sake,
we will look at two types of mixing skill levels, though in reality, these two abilities fall at the ends of the
spectrum and there is a wide level of skills bridging the gap between the mixing types. -- Much as the high
school student who plays “Chopsticks” on the piano at a party differs from a concert pianist playing “Flight
of the Bumblebee.” Just as most piano players progress to an intermediate level between “chopsticks” and
professional, most system operators will likewise progress from entry level mixing to more advanced mixing.
For point of this guide, mixing can be viewed as a completely mechanical skill or as an artistic skill.
The mechanical side of mixing is the beginning level of mixing for all operators and depending on the amount
of practice and the interest level of the operator, sometimes it remains the method of mixing for some
operators. There is much positive which can come from an operator who mixes on a mechanical level,
especially in worship services where the goal is for the system to be as unobtrusive as possible. This type
of mixing relies on the operator using primarily the channel mute switches to achieve a respectable
performance level from the system. By turning off any unused channels the manually oriented operator,
provide the users of the system a moderate to high working distance from the microphones while avoiding
feedback and distortion. Any operator in the first few years of training should feel very good about personal
mixing skills if the tasks that they perform results in improved performance of the system and no appreciable
problems (feedback or distortion).
The artistic elements of mixing only come with complete knowledge of the system and hours of practice
achieved outside the realm of the service or performance. Improvement in operation skills allows the
operator more control of the overall system through the use of individual channel tone controls, signal routing
using the sub-groups, selection and placement of microphones, etc.. As critical listening skills develop, it is
possible to achieve balance and tone on each voice more consistent with a good recording than a typical
public address type of reinforcement system.
THE MAIN CAUTION IN THE CHANGE FROM THE MECHANICAL TO THE ARTISTIC SIDE OF MIXING
IS THE PATIENCE REQUIRED DURING THE LEARNING PROCESS. OPERATORS MUST BE WILLING
TO PRACTICE AND EXPERIMENT ON THEIR OWN TIME OUTSIDE THE SERVICE OR
PERFORMANCE. WHEN THE PRACTICE SESSIONS ARE COMPLETE, THE MIXER MUST BE RESET
TO THE ORIGINAL CONFIGURATION AS NOT TO CREATE PROBLEMS FOR ANY OTHER OPERATOR.
IN ADDITION, ULTIMATELY THE CONGREGATION MUST BE WILLING TO RISK AND POSSIBLY
ENDURE THE LEARNING CURVE FOR ALL OPERATORS. WE OPERATORS MUST ALWAYS STRIVE
TO PROVIDE THE HIGHEST QUALITY AND GREATEST CONSISTENCY SO THAT THE LISTENERS
WILL BE WELL SERVED AND THE RESULT WILL BE WORTH THE TIME AND EFFORT.

Instrument Frequency Range Chart
Note: Most instruments and the human voice are in the
middle and lower middle range of the frequency spectrum
Keyboard Piano
Instruments Organ
Singing Voices Soprano

Alto
Tenor
Bass
Percussion Cymbals
Instruments Bass Drum
Woodwind Piccolo
Instruments Flute
Clarinet
Bassoon
Brass Trumpet
Instruments Trombone
Bass-Tuba
French Horn
String Violin
Instruments Viola
Cello
Double Bass
Guitar
440Hz
25 31.5 40 50 60 80 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1.0k 1.25k 1.6k 2.0k 2.5k 3.15k 4k 5k 6.3k 8k 10k 12.5k 16k 20k
Reducing Frequency Competition

Creative use of EQ to separate instruments or vocals that are using the same octaves
Create Valleys and Subtle Peaks to spread the harmonic content around to provide more
distinction and clarity in the mix.

Chapter 10 - Getting The Right System
Through the use of words, man communicates. The spoken word is the most effective tool in evangelism.
In today's society, our ears have been trained. When we buy a stereo for our car or home we look for fidelity,
systems that give us clarity, good bass and a quality tone. That is what we like! Venues similar to the church
have long since realized the effectiveness of a quality sound system.
A majority of churches that are growing today have invested in a quality sound system. We will not promise
that if you buy a quality sound system that people will magically appear. Nevertheless, sound affects the
effectiveness of your presentation.
While "Stewardship" demands that we spend the money of the church wisely, the lowest price is not always
the wisest choice. The average church purchases four sound systems before they get one that meets their
needs. Usually this progression will take this form.
1. The Church may start out with equipment that has been picked up from radio shack or parts
of the system that have been donated. This system usually last less than a year.
2. The church utilizes someone in the church that knows something about sound. After a year
or two of system headaches, it is time for system 3.
3. The church gets a system package from the local music store or a budget sound contractor.
After 1 to 4 years of the systems not meeting the needs of the church, it is time to redo the
system.
4. The church utilizes a professional sound contractor. This system will last 20 years plus,
depending on growth and physical/style changes in the church. Some smaller additions,
changes, and replacements can be expected.
How would you like to be the person that just recommended system 3 and having to recommend looking for
system 4? By the time you have purchased the first three systems, you have spent what you would on one
of a professionally designed and installed system. This expense does not include the time, the frustration
and less than impressive sound that you have had to deal with all along the way.
A professional sound contractor deals with physics. In sound design, there are at least three sides to every
coin. A good professional sound contractor has learned the art of compromise. "I can place this speaker
here and it will have this effect or I can place this speaker here and it will have this effect." Which is best?
It is their job to find balance. This balance cannot be found if you do not know all of the rules.
A professionally designed sound system will provide professional quality sound. I have included a basic
price guide to give you an idea of where a church should start to budget for a new sound system. Prices
are listed per every seat that will be covered by the sound system. A music and voice church that normally
runs 100 people and the sanctuary will hold 150 people would start to look at $11,250.00.
Voice Only $50.00 Pre Seat Covered

Music & Voice $75.00 Pre Seat Covered
Concert Music $100.00 Pre Seat Covered
Obviously, these are estimated prices, which will be impacted by the churches chosen options and needs.
Options such as wireless units, speaker clusters or sound to other rooms will increase cost. The higher the
reverb level in the church is the higher cost of the sound system. Sometimes that cost can be lowered by
providing qualified person(s) in the church to do some of the labor and/or by reutilizing proper existing
equipment.

Ten Reasons Why Church
Sound Systems Cost More
by Pat Brown of Syn-Aud-Con.
#1 - Dynamic Range
Church sanctuaries are usually quieter than other
"places of gathering," and as such, the sound system
must be quieter than usual to prevent audible noise in the audience area. Our proposals provide for 96 dB
of dynamic range - a figure typical for recording studios and other critical listening environments. This
extended dynamic range assures that the sound system will not be the "weakest link" when it comes to
system performance.
Audio equipment is not "plug and play." There are no strict standards that all manufacturers follow when
establishing the operating parameters of their equipment. All electrical devices produce noise, that annoying
"hiss" that can be heard in the background on some systems during quiet portions of the service. Audible
hiss can be eliminated from a sound system if its gain structure is adjusted properly. This process is carried
out after the system in installed, and when done properly, will result in the maximum potential of all equipment
to be realized. Our proposal includes an accurate and meticulous adjustment of the gain structure of the
sound system.
#2 - Energy Ratios
Many listening environments have a "sweet spot" for which the sound system performance is optimized. In
a house of worship, every seat must be optimized for adequate signal-to-noise ratio and suitable early-to-
late energy ratios. Our proposal provides a minimum of 25 dB signal-to-noise ratio and an appropriate early-
to-late energy ratio for your type of worship - for every seat in the audience area.
#3 - Uniform Coverage
Many auditoriums are plagued with "hot" and "cold" spots in the sound coverage. This can usually be
attributed to interaction between multiple loudspeakers, and is unavoidable when more than one
loudspeaker is required to provide sound coverage for the audience. A good de-sign assures that there is
even coverage in the audience area, and that no seats are rendered unusable by loudspeaker interaction.
Our design addresses this critical issue, assuring you that there will be excellent sound quality at every
listener seat.
#4 - Versatility
While it is possible to design sound systems that are optimized for speech OR music, your system must
perform well for speech AND music. Since the attributes of these two types of systems are often at odds,
this is a very difficult task. The proposed system has the accuracy and clarity required for speech
reproduction, while maintaining the extended frequency response and power handling required for music.
#5 - Hum and Buzz

Audible hum is a major detriment to a church sound system. It usually results from improper grounding
practices, either in the installation of the wiring or the actual equipment. The average house of worship
purchases four sound systems before they get one that meets their needs... equipment. Off-the-shelf
equipment must often be modified to work without hum. The proposed system shall be grounded properly,
and all system wiring shall be routed and shielded properly. The proposed equipment will be tested for
proper grounding, and suitable modifications made when necessary, ensuring "hum-free" operation.
#6 - Gain-Before-Feedback
Whenever a microphone is placed in the same room as a loudspeaker, the potential for feedback exists.
Things that aggravate this further are multiple microphones and long miking distances - necessities for most
churches. Two things are required for a system to work properly.

1. The sound system must be extremely stable, meaning that loudspeaker array design and mic
placement are critical to the end result.
2. Your sound personnel must understand the limitations of the sound system and be trained to
manage the open microphones and working distances for people using the system.
Our proposals address these issues, providing a stable system along with operator training to assure that
feedback does not hinder the performance of the system.
#7 - Wireless Microphones and RFI

Sound systems can be adversely affected by frequencies above the audible band. They must be properly
shielded against such, and appropriate filtering devices must be in-stalled when required.
Wireless microphones provide some excellent benefits for houses of worship. These are actually small radio
stations that broadcast on a specific frequency. The selection of frequency is critical to the microphone's
proper operation. The operating frequencies for your wireless microphones must be care-fully selected to
work properly in the presence of other RF broadcasts in your area.
#8 - "Clean" Installation Practices

An important yet often overlooked aspect of a sound system design is the installation of the system. It is
imperative that proper interconnect practices are carried out, and that all applicable electrical codes are
observed. A "clean" installation means that wiring has been concealed as much as possible, and that the
finished system blends well with the decor of the building. Wall plates and connectors must be wired properly
for the system to work correctly. Our proposal includes a meticulous check of all cables for proper
termination and identification. A system-wiring diagram will be presented to you upon the completion of the
system so that future modifications to the system can be made correctly and at the lowest possible cost.
#9 - Professional Equipment
There are many brands of equipment available in the audio market place. Fortunately, many reputable pro
audio companies make equipment suited for your needs. Our proposal only includes equipment from such
companies. Our years of experience in the audio field have enabled us to eliminate marginal equipment
from our inventories. We deal only with companies that provide reliable, repairable products. All proposed
loudspeakers have been "stress tested" for safety, and can be suspended above a congregation with
confidence. In addition, all equipment meets applicable codes for fire safety and radio frequency emissions.
#10 - Calibration, Training and Documentation

A properly calibrated sound system will be much easier for your personnel to operate. A significant amount
of expertise is required to make a system "user friendly." The proposed system must be calibrated using
advanced audio and acoustic instrumentation. Upon completion of this process, all controls that do not
require user adjustment must be rendered inaccessible.
After calibration, your personnel will be trained to operate the system, and a user's manual shall be compiled
which will include equipment manuals, system wiring diagrams, and operating instructions.
In conclusion, your sanctuary is a critical listening environment for speech and music. As such, the sound
system must provide adequate acoustic gain, intelligible speech, even coverage and extended bandwidth to
all listener seats. The best value in a sound system is one that meets all of these criteria. Such a system
will provide years of trouble-free service and serve to complement your worship services.
There is much more to a sound system than acquiring some equipment. An audio professional can work
with you from the planning stages and save you considerable time and money on your system. Most
importantly, you will have a system that has been tailored to your specific performance needs and aesthetic
requirements, and money spent in the future can be used to compliment the existing system rather than
replace it.

Appendix
Figure 1: Nomograph

Figure 2: Q vs. ALCons
Figure 3: Eight Important Decibel Rules

1. Decibels are numeric values representing relative differences in volume.
2. The word decibel comes from deci (meaning 1/10th) and Bell (as in Alexander Graham).
3. A Bell is a doubling of sound pressure level (SPL) or loudness.
4. A decibel is 1/10th of a doubling of SPL or volume and is the smallest amount of change that
most people can hear.
5. A change of 3 dB requires a doubling of amplifier power, and while a 3 dB, change is easily
perceived, it is NOT twice as loud.
6. A 10 dB change in SPL will be perceived as twice as loud. The same 10 dB change which we
perceive as twice as loud requires an increase of 10 times the power at the amplifier outputs.
7. Changes in distance generally reduce SPL by the inverse square law, a principle that means
that every doubling of distance will cause a 6 dB reduction in SPL. Conversely, every halving
of the distance to a sound source will result in a 6 dB increase.
8. Every doubling of the number of open (live) microphones, called the NOM, results in a 3dB
lowering of the available gain before feedback. Since this calculation is based on logarithm,
the use of 10 live microphones would lower the available gain by 10 dB (a decrease which
would be half the apparent volume to our ears).

Audio Dictionary
AFL (after fader listen): A button in the the tone, level, and routing of an individual
group section of some mixers similar to a PFL microphone or line level signal.
(pre-fader listen), except the AFL allows the
operator to hear the mix of signals at the Clipping: A distortion of the sound wave.
group input (after the channel faders). When viewed on an oscilloscope, the
waveform is square rather than round. The
Altar Monitor Speaker: A small speaker sound of hard clipping is similar to a
located behind the altar or communion table crunching (hard consonant “ch”) sound.
that contains a monitor or mix function.
Sometimes this monitor speaker will contain Compressor: A device used to regulate the
prayer request or other congregational signal to a smaller envelope between loudest
microphones. The feed to this monitor and softest sounds
speaker should be turned off as soon as
possible when pastor is not in the listening
position. Decibel: One tenth of a Bell or 1/10th of twice
as loud. Normally thought of as the smallest
Amplifier: A device that is designed to amount of signal change that most people
increase or boost the incoming signal. The can hear.
sound system has one of more of these
devices, used to turn relatively low-level Delay: An addition of time relative to a signal,
signals such as microphone and tape levels which allows two signals to be out of time
into higher power levels required to activate reference to each other. Delays are normally
the loudspeakers. used to synchronize speakers close to an
audience with speakers that are further away
and that would therefore normally arrive later.
Balanced Line: A line with two signal
conductors and a separate shield, wired for Distortion: A change of the signal from
equal voltages to appear on the two-shielded accurate to inaccurate. Clipping is a type of
conductors. This line typically looks like a distortion, but not all distortions are clipping.
three-pin microphone type connector or a If a sound input to the system is clean ( a
stereo headphone type plug. singers voice for example) and the sound
coming from the sound system does not
Bass: Low pitches usually in the male sound equally clean, the system has added
speaking or singing range. Most listeners some type of distortion to the singer's
think of bass as frequencies below 200 Hz (G microphone.
below middle C on the piano). Sub-bass is
the lowest of the audible bass frequencies
with signals normally in the 20-80 Hz range. Equalization (EQ): In terms of a mixer
channel, it is the tone controls. In terms of
Bell: A doubling of sound intensity at the ear. the main sound system and monitor systems,
Named for Alexander Graham Bell the equalizers are devices that are inserted
into the signal path to adjust groups of
Broadcast Mix: A mix of signals which when frequencies (pitches) for the overall mix of
combined is sent to a broadcast or tape signals. May also be used as a verb to
recorder. described the act of changing the controls on
the equalizer: eg: Did you EQ the system
Channel: A vertical strip of dials or buttons yet?
on the audio mixing console, all controlling

Fader: The linear volume controls nearest sub-group; then all choir microphones can be
the operator on the mixing console turned up or down with only one fader. Use
of the group volume controls or muting
Feedback: The acoustic or electronic functions do not normally turn off the
regeneration of sound. Normally this occurs channels within the group; therefore, so the
in the acoustic realm when the sound from a operator must be aware of the potential
loudspeaker re-enters the microphone and feedback risk. Microphones must still be
creates a loop of the signal. In the electronic turned off at the channel strip to avoid
realm feedback is created when a device feedback.
capable of signal inputs and outputs
(cassette recorder) is allowed to feed signals
into a channel which then routs back into the Headphone Output: A ¼’ stereo output jack
cassette recorder on the recording inputs. at headphone level with an independent level
control from main system. In normal
Frequency: A numeric designation for pitch. operation, the mix assigned to the
It is also defined in hertz or cycles per headphone output is the left/right mix. If the
second. Each cycle or oscillation is one channel solo button is depressed, the signal
hertz. The fewer cycles per second, the going to the headphone output changes from
lower the frequency (sound or pitch) and the the main L/R mix to the soloed channel only.
higher the number of oscillations (more hertz
per second), the higher the frequency or Hearing Impaired System (ALS or
pitch. A doubling of the frequency raises the Assistive Listening System): Usually, a
musical pitch of a note by one octave and the wireless transmission taken directly from the
dividing of frequency by one half lowered the mixer and sent to individual pocket-sized
pitch by one octave. radio receivers. These systems receive a
feed directly from the sound system and are
capable of huge increases in sound level to
Gain Control / Trim Control: A rotary knob the listeners without risk of feedback. A great
near the top of the mixer channel strip which help to those with hearing impairments.
provides gain or reduction of gain as required
to achieve the optimum signal to noise ratio Hiss: High frequency wide band noise found
for each individual input source. Ideally in poor quality systems or mixer. Operators
should be adjusted for each channel based can sometimes improve the situation by
on the sound intensity (SPL) of the source. increasing the earlier stages of amplification
The louder or closer sources require less gain (mixer output) and reducing the later stages
than stronger or closer sources. In the event (amplifier outputs).
of clipping a small LED will light, indicating an
overload condition. The overload indicator House Mix: The primary mix that the
provided indication that the TRIM control listeners hear
needs to be reduced to prevent audible
distortion. Hum: Low frequency, consistent oscillation in
the sound system, often related to improper
Gain: Any increase in sound level or voltage. grounding or shielding of the audio signal.
Gain reduction would be any decrease in SPL
or voltage.
Impedance: In very general terms, the
Groups or Sub-Groups: A series of volume resistance of the current through the wire or
controls similar to the channel faders, which transducers (as in low impedance
can be assigned to function as sub-masters microphones or high impedance
for like--input devices. For example, the choir microphones or guitar pickups). A low
microphones can be assigned to the choir impedance line means the signal isA.4 not

impeded to a great degree, and it is therefore care should be applied before increasing the
possible to drive long distances of wire amplitude of these frequencies on the mixer
without significant losses in terms of signal channel strip.
strength or high frequency roll-off (loss).
Mix: A balance of signal present at a given
output: house mix, solo monitor mix, band
Limiter: A device that can be used to create monitor mix, and choir monitor mix are typical
a maximum output for the sound system, or mix designations.
in milder settings may be used to smooth out
the peaks between the loud passages of a Mixer: The device that amplifies, balances,
musical piece or erratic speech of a talker. routes and provides tonal adjustments to the
Generally a high ratio of limiting such as 10:1 sound system.
or greater is used to set a "ceiling" on how
loud the system can be driven, while a slight
amount of limiting (2:1 or 3:1 ratio) is more Monitor Speaker: The speaker system that
appropriate for musical applications. enables the performer to hear him or others.
This system can cause significant distortions
Line Level: A signal level in the middle of the quality of sound in the listening area
strength of audio amplification range. The (also feedback) if the sound to the monitors is
outputs of virtually all mixers are considered turned up too loud. If the stage monitors are
“line level”. The level hierarchy from lowest turned up to the point where they can be
to highest is microphone level, line level and easily hear at the mix position, they will be too
speaker level. loud for the listeners. When the monitor
systems are too loud, they tend to “cloud” the
sound at the listener's ears as the listeners
Master Output: On the audio mixer, the line hear two arrival times for the reproduced
levels that sends the signal to the main house sound. The difference in arrival times creates
reinforcement system. an echo or blurring of the signal.
Microphone Level: The lowest voltage Monitor Mix: A mix that is derived from the
normally found in the sound system signal on the channel strip, normally taken
hierarchy, (See also line level.) before the channel level and channel EQ.
This creates a “dry” mix which is not affected
Microphone: The transducers that are by changes to the channel fader. The
typically the first stage in the path of the signal advantage of the dry mix is that changes to
in the sound system. Dynamic-type the mix levels or EQ required to improve the
microphones do not require phantom power, house sound may cause feedback if placed
but most can be operated with the phantom into the monitor mix. The drawback to a dry
power on. Condenser microphones operate mix is that when feedback occurs; the
on a different principal from dynamic-type operator must be alert to the possibility that
microphone and require a voltage (phantom the monitor system may be causing
power) to operate. Older style ribbon feedback. If that is the case, lowering the
microphones should never be used with house mix will not remove the feedback from
mixers, which provide phantom power, since the system.
the power will destroy the ribbon element.
Motorboating: An undesired pulse type
Mid Range: The frequency range from about oscillation, usually low in frequency. It is
250 Hz to 2 kHz. This is roughly a three- often related to wireless microphonesA.5
with
octave range of pitches that begins around improperly adjusted squelch controls.
“middle C” on the piano. The human ear is
very sensitive to these frequencies, and great

Noise: Any unpleasant sound such as hiss, Sensitivity: The rating for speakers and
distortion, hum, clipping microphones that provides a portion (but not
all) of the efficiency rating of the system. As
a general rule, a loudspeaker with a high
Octave: A range in music that covers eight sensitivity will create a higher sound pressure
scale tones in the pattern whole step, whole level (SPL) into a given space than a device
step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole with a low sensitivity will create, given that the
step, half step. A doubling of frequency frequency, coverage angles, and input
equals a one-octave elevation, while a powers are the same.
halving of frequency lowers the pitch by one
octave. Signal to Noise Ratio: A mathematical ratio
between the signal (program material) and
Output Power: The power delivered by a the noise below the signal (circuitry noise,
system or transducer to its load. crown noise, tape noise, reverberation, etc.).
The higher the numeric value, the more
distance there is between the signal and the
Pad: A button type switch which inserts a noise floor. The optimum signal to noise ratio
resistor network into the channel strip, is generally achieved when the input stages
thereby lowering the gain of the channel by a to the system are driven hard but not into
fixed number of decibels. clipping or distortion.
PFL (pre fade listen): A button-type switch Solo Monitor Speaker: A wedge shaped
which routs the headphone signal to the speaker which are normally placed on the
channel that has the PFL switch activated. floor in front of a singer to allow the singer to
Useful in determining if the channel selected hear a different mix of signal than what is
requires adjustment. Can also preview appropriate for the house mix or broadcast
channels to assure the user has activated a mix.
wireless microphone, or determine if the
channel contains hum or buzzing. Solo: Another term for the PFL switch, also
the act of using the PFL switch.
Phantom Power: a voltage between 9 and
48 volts, which is, carried on pins two and Speaker: A transducer that is amplified by a
three of the microphone connector. Used to power amplifier, generally designed to
power condenser microphones. provide accurate reproduction of signals over
a wide frequency range. It may also be driven
Polarity: The correct relationship of positive into a focusing device called a horn.
voltage to negative voltage. A positive Generally, horns are driven by devices called
charge on the positive element of a compression drivers that perform well at high
transducer will result in a positive (forward) frequencies but not well at low frequencies,
motion of the transducer element. A negative due to the limits of excursion of the driver
charge will result in a backward motion of the mechanism.
transducer. When transducers are placed
near each other and are operating in Sweep EQ: A modified EQ section on the
POLARITY, the result will be an accurate channel strip that allows the operator to
increase in bass frequencies. If two adjust the volume of a particular range of
transducers are operated out of polarity, the frequencies but and to actually choose the
result is a decrease in the low frequency center of the frequency range to be adjusted.
signal. Provides a much more accurate way of
A.6
changing the tone of an instrument or voice.
Also provides a means of simple feedback
reduction in certain cases.

Transformer: A device that modifies the
signal path by changing the impedance or
removing the signal ground. Isolation
transformers are often used to isolate system
grounds and remove 60-cycle hum. Some
transformers that operate at speaker level are
designed to alter the impedance of
loudspeakers in multiple speaker paging-type
systems. These transformers are generally
operated with transformer-based amplifier
outputs, normally those creating a 70v output.
Speakers are tap selected at lower power
levels, generally up to a total (additive) of 70-
80% of the total amplifier capability.
(Example: A 100 watt amplifier with a 70v
output could power up to 80 watts worth of
loudspeakers, or a total of 20 speakers with
transformers tapped at 4 watts per speaker,
40 speakers tapped at 2 watts each, or 80
speakers tapped at 1 watt each).
Treble: Upper band of tone controls on most

mixers. Use of this filter reduces or increases
the amount of sibilance (sharp “s” sound) in
the system. Reduce cautiously and generally
do not increase above 2:00 o’clock.
Unbalanced Line: A two-conductor audio

circuit in which the negative portion of the
signal is carried on the shield. It is a possible
noise inducer. Unbalanced lines generally
cannot be run distances beyond 15-20’
without causing some loss of high
frequencies. Not used in most professional
systems, the unbalanced line is often found
on guitar amplifiers and keyboard systems.
Wireless Lavaliere: A system comprised of

a small lapel worn microphone (usually a
directional condenser type) with a belt pack
transmitter and a receiver. Lavaliere
microphones are used by public speakers to
allow hands free mobility. Generally, these
provide less fidelity than comparable quality
podium microphones, but often seen as
worthwhile tradeoff, given the mobility
desired by most presenters.

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Church Sound Workshop

Basic Sound Level 1 Trouble Shooting Concepts

Sound Operators Guide

Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

Low Pitch High Pitch

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Energy – Frequency – Time

Energy How loud is it? Measured in decibels or volts, millivolts, pascals,

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One Second in Time

Frequency = Cycles per second = Hertz

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Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

Change In Sound Level

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Equalization cannot control: Equalization can help control:

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Feedback: Generally heard as a hollow sound or a squeal, feedback

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A. Large areas requiring sound coverage (large spaces or very wide

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Equivalent Acoustic Distance (EAD): The distance that provides each

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Articulation loss of consonants: (ALCons) The loss of consonants refers

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Ambient Noise Level

Reverberation Time and Intelligibility

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DIRECT FIELD FREE FIELD REVERBERANT FIELD

2. When using omni-directional microphones, always place the microphones no further

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What Effect Cancellation Has On Sound Depends On:

To Reduce The Cancellation:

One to Three Ratio

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Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

PARTS OF THE MIXER:

THE CHANNEL SECTION

Gain /Trim Control (input sensitivity): This is controlled by a knob.

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HF: (High frequency

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Number two is what the average

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Mute Switch: This allows channels to be switched off when unused.

THE MASTER SECTION

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Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

What many churches seem to want is the BIG RED KNOB.

1. Is out of the way

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Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

Microphone: A transducer changes one form of energy into another. In audio, a

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Simple Solutions. Exceptional Experience.

May not be the best choice:

May not be the best choice:

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20 Hz 50Hz 100Hz 200Hz 500Hz 1kHz 2kHz 5kHz 10kHz 20kHz

Can vocalist use proximity effect to their advantage?

Rear Entry Ports