F0 Lead-Acid Batteries

Electricity and New Energy
Lead-Acid Batteries
&RXUVHZDUH6DPSOH
86351-)0
Order no.: 86351-10
Revision level: 12/2014
By the staff of Festo Didactic
© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2010

Internet: www.festo-didactic.com
e-mail: did@de.festo.com
Printed in Canada
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-89640-413-1 (Printed version)
ISBN 978-2-89747-233-7 (CD-ROM)
Legal Deposit – Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, 2010
Legal Deposit – Library and Archives Canada, 2010
The purchaser shall receive a single right of use which is non-exclusive, non-time-limited and limited
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The purchaser shall be entitled to use the work to train his/her staff at the purchaser's site/location and
shall also be entitled to use parts of the copyright material as the basis for the production of his/her own
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be used in this document to refer to either the entity claiming the marks and names or their products.
Festo Didactic disclaims any proprietary interest in trademarks and trade names other than its own.
Safety and Common Symbols
The following safety and common symbols may be used in this manual and on
the equipment:
Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which,
if not avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, hand entanglement hazard
Notice, non-ionizing radiation
Direct current
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 III

Safety and Common Symbols
Symbol Description
Protective conductor terminal
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

reinforced insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
IV © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................. IX
About This Manual ................................................................................................ XI
To the Instructor .................................................................................................. XIII
Introduction Lead-Acid Batteries ...................................................................... 1

DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS ....................................................... 1
Storing electrical energy using batteries .................................. 1
Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals .................................................................. 3

DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 3
Description ............................................................................... 3
Battery types ............................................................................ 3
Cell versus battery ................................................................... 4
Operation during discharge and charge cycles ....................... 4
Open-circuit voltage ................................................................. 6
State-of-charge ........................................................................ 6
Voltage regulation and internal resistance............................... 7
Battery capacity ....................................................................... 9
Depth of discharge ................................................................. 10
Cycle life................................................................................. 10
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 11
Setup and connections .......................................................... 11
Battery state-of-charge (residual capacity) evaluation .......... 11
Battery voltage regulation curve ............................................ 13
Battery internal resistance evaluation .................................... 16
Battery voltage and energy supplied during a discharge
at ͲǤͷʹͲ .................................................................................. 16
Exercise 2 Discharge Characteristics ......................................................... 25

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 25
Cutoff voltage versus discharge rate ..................................... 25
Effect of the discharge rate on the available capacity and
discharge time ........................................................................ 26
Effect of the temperature on the available capacity ............... 27
Energy released during the discharge cycle .......................... 27
Average battery voltage............................................................ 27
Specific energy and energy density ....................................... 28
Sulfation ................................................................................. 28
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 V

Table of Contents
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 29

at ʹͲ ....................................................................................... 30
at ʹʹͲ ..................................................................................... 33
Battery capacity versus discharge rate .................................. 34
Specific energy and energy density ....................................... 38
Exercise 3 Battery Charging Fundamentals ............................................... 41

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 41
Charging fundamentals .......................................................... 41
Valve regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA) ............................. 41
Gassing voltage ..................................................................... 42
Rules for proper charging ...................................................... 43
Charge efficiency ................................................................... 43
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 45
Battery discharge to 20% of residual capacity ....................... 46
Battery charge at ͲǤͶʹͲ(0.92 A) ............................................ 47
Battery charge at ͲǤ͵ʹͲ (0.69 A) ........................................... 49
Battery charge at ͲǤʹʹͲ (0.46 A) ........................................... 50
Battery charge at ͲǤͳʹͲ (0.23 A) ........................................... 51
Exercise 4 Battery Charging Methods......................................................... 59

DISCUSSION ................................................................................... 59
Methods of charging .............................................................. 59
Constant-current charging method ........................................ 59
Constant-voltage charging method ........................................ 60
Modified constant-voltage charging method .......................... 61
Float charging method ........................................................... 62
Trickle charging method ......................................................... 62
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 62
Battery charge using the modified constant-voltage
charging method (fast charge) ............................................... 64
Battery discharge ...................................................................... 64
Battery charge .......................................................................... 65
Battery charge using the float charging method (slow
charge) ................................................................................... 67
Battery discharge ...................................................................... 68
Battery Charge.......................................................................... 69
Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart ...................................................... 73
VI © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Table of Contents
Appendix B Preparation of the Lead-Acid Batteries .................................... 75

Charging procedure ............................................................... 75
Sulfation test .......................................................................... 76
Battery maintenance .............................................................. 77
Appendix C Glossary of New Terms.............................................................. 79
Index of New Terms ............................................................................................. 81

Acronyms ............................................................................................................. 83
Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 85
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 VII

Preface
The production of energy using renewable natural resources such as wind,
sunlight, rain, tides, geothermal heat, etc., has gained much importance in recent
years as it is an effective means of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
The need for innovative technologies to make the grid smarter has recently
emerged as a major trend, as the increase in electrical power demand observed
worldwide makes it harder for the actual grid in many countries to keep up with
demand. Furthermore, electric vehicles (from bicycles to cars) are developed and
marketed with more and more success in many countries all over the world.
To answer the increasingly diversified needs for training in the wide field of
electrical energy, the Electric Power Technology Training Program was
developed as a modular study program for technical institutes, colleges, and
universities. The program is shown below as a flow chart, with each box in the
flow chart representing a course.
The Electric Power Technology Training Program.
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 IX

Preface
The program starts with a variety of courses providing in-depth coverage of basic
topics related to the field of electrical energy such as ac and dc power circuits,
power transformers, rotating machines, ac power transmission lines, and power
electronics. The program then builds on the knowledge gained by the student
through these basic courses to provide training in more advanced subjects such
as home energy production from renewable resources (wind and sunlight), large-
scale electricity production from hydropower, large-scale electricity production
from wind power (doubly-fed induction generator [DFIG], synchronous generator,
and asynchronous generator technologies), smart-grid technologies (SVC,
STATCOM, HVDC transmission, etc.), storage of electrical energy in batteries,
and drive systems for small electric vehicles and cars.
Do you have suggestions or criticism regarding this manual?
If so, send us an e-mail at did@de.festo.com.

The authors and Festo Didactic look forward to your comments.
X © Festo Didactic 86351-10

About This Manual
Batteries store electricity in a chemical form, inside a closed-energy system. Some

batteries can be re-charged and re-used as a power source in small appliances,
machinery, and remote locations. Advances in battery technolog may one day help to
solve our energy crisis.
About the course Lead Acid Batteries
The Lead-Acid Batteries course is designed to introduce students to the

operation of lead-acid batteries. At the beginning of the couse, students are
introduced to the voltage regulation, internal resistance, capacity, depth of
discharge, and cycle life of lead-acid batteries. Students then learn about and
experiment with both the discharge characteristics and the most popular charging
methods of lead-acid batteries.
The equipment for the course consists of the Lead-Acid Batteries module and the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply. The Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/
Power Supply is a multifunctional module that is used in the Lead-Acid Batteries
course to charge and discharge the batteries. Its operation is controlled by the
LVDAC-EMS software, which also provides the instrumentation required to
measure, collect, and record the experimental data.
Safety considerations
Safety symbols that may be used in this manual and on the equipment are listed
in the Safety Symbols table at the beginning of the manual.
Safety procedures related to the tasks that you will be asked to perform are
indicated in each exercise.
Make sure that you are wearing appropriate protective equipment when
performing the tasks. You should never perform a task if you have any reason to
think that a manipulation could be dangerous for you or your teammates.
Prerequisite
As a prerequisite to this course, you should have read the manual titled
DC Power Circuits, p.n. 86350.
Systems of units
Units are expressed using the International System of Units (SI) followed by the
units expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (between parentheses).
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 XI

To the Instructor
You will find in this Instructor Guide all the elements included in the Student
Manual together with the answers to all questions, results of measurements,
graphs, explanations, suggestions, and, in some cases, instructions to help you
guide the students through their learning process. All the information that applies
to you is placed between markers and appears in red.
Accuracy of measurements
The numerical results of the hands-on exercises may differ from one student to
another. For this reason, the results and answers given in this manual should be
considered as a guide. Students who correctly performed the exercises should
expect to demonstrate the principles involved and make observations and
measurements similar to those given as answers.
Equipment installation
In order for students to be able to perform the exercises in the Student Manual,
the Electric Power Technology Training Equipment must have been properly
installed, according to the instructions given in the user guide Electric Power
Technology Training Equipment, part number 38486-E.
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 XIII

Sample Exercise
Extracted from
the Student Manual
and the Instructor Guide
Exercise 4
Battery Charging Methods
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with some methods
of charging.
DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
Methods of charging
Constant-current charging method
Constant-voltage charging method
Modified constant-voltage charging method
Float charging method
Trickle charging method
DISCUSSION Methods of charging
A number of methods for charging lead-acid batteries have been developed to

meet the "rules for proper charging" presented in the previous exercise. Some of
these methods are known as the constant-current method, constant-voltage
method, modified constant-voltage method, float charging method, and trickle
charging method.
Constant-current charging method
In the constant-current method, a fixed current is applied for a certain time to the
battery to recharge it. The charging current is set to a low value (usually less
than ͲǤͳ‫ )ܥ‬to avoid the voltage across the battery from exceeding the gassing
voltage as the battery charge approaches 100%. Consequently, this results in
long charge times (usually 12 hours or longer). Figure 25a shows the charging
characteristic curves obtained with the constant-current method (single step).
Multiple decreasing current steps can also be used to shorten charge times
obtained using the constant-current charging method as shown in Figure 25b.
Though it is used for charging some small lead-acid batteries, the constant-
current charging method is not widely used for lead-acid batteries, because of
the gassing which is likely to occur when charging a battery too long. The risk of
gassing is more important when charging a battery which is only partially-
discharged. Constant-current is also used in trickle charging, another charging
method described later in this discussion.
© Festo Didactic 86351-10 59

Exercise 4 – Battery Charging Methods Discussion
Partially-discharged battery
Gassing voltage
Charging current rate (‫)ܥ‬
Cell voltage (V)

Fully-discharged battery
Time (h) Time (h)
(a)
Partially-discharged battery
Charging current rate (‫ܥ‬ଶ଴ )
Gassing voltage
Cell voltage (V)
Fully-discharged battery
Time (h) Time (h)
(b)
Figure 25. Single-step and multiple-step constant-current charging method.
Constant-voltage charging method
In the constant-voltage charging method, a fixed-voltage is applied to the battery

to recharge it. The initial charging current (current at the beginning of the battery
charge) is at its maximum and can even reach higher values (even exceeding the
maximum charge current prescribed by the battery manufacturer) when the
battery depth of discharge is high. For this reason, purely constant-voltage
charging is seldom used to charge lead-acid batteries that are used in cyclic
charge-discharge applications (e.g., battery in an electric vehicle). However,
constant-voltage charging is often used to maintain the charge of lead-acid
batteries used in standby applications (e.g., as in uninterruptable power
supplies), in which case the charge process is referred to as float charging
(another charging method described later in this discussion). Figure 26 shows
the charging characteristic curves obtained with the constant-voltage charging
method. The waveform difference between the charger output voltage and the
battery cell voltage at the beginning of the charge cycle is caused by the internal
resistance of the battery.
60 © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Exercise 4 – Battery Charging Methods Discussion
Charger output voltage per cell (V)
Cell voltage (V)

Cell voltage
Current (A)
Current
Time (h) Time (h)
Figure 26. Typical charging characteristics of a SLI battery using the constant-voltage
charging method.
Modified constant-voltage charging method
In the modified constant-voltage charging method, both a constant initial current

and a constant finishing charge rate (float charging) are used. Battery charging
starts with a constant current until a certain voltage is reached (usually the
gassing voltage). Battery charging continues with a constant-voltage just equal to
or slightly below the gassing voltage until the current decreases to a value of
about ͲǤͳ‫ܥ‬ଶ଴ . At this point, the constant-voltage is reduced to the float value (see
float charging method) to complete and maintain the battery charge. The higher
the initial constant-current and constant-voltage, the shorter the charge time.
Figure 27 shows the charging characteristic curves obtained with the modified
constant-voltage charging method. This charging method is also known as the
fast charging method. This charging method is used in the lead-acid battery
charger (fast) implemented with the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply.
Initial stage Middle stage
(constant-current (constant-voltage Finishing stage
charge) charge) (float charge)
Charging current
Charging current rate (‫ܥ‬ଶ଴ )
Cell voltage (V)
Gassing
voltage Float voltage
Cell voltage
Time (h)
Figure 27. Modified constant-voltage charging method.

Exercise 4 – Battery Charging Methods Procedure Outline
Float charging method
In the float charging method, a constant voltage, set to a value just sufficient to
finish the battery charge or to maintain the full charge is applied to the battery.
Typical float charging voltage values range from about 2.15 V to 2.3 V per battery
cell. The float charging method is commonly used to maintain the charge of lead-
acid batteries used in stationary applications, such as in uninterruptable power
supplies and SLI batteries (when the battery is charged from the motor
alternator). Note that to achieve a full recharge with a low constant voltage
requires the proper selection of the starting current, which is based on the
manufacturer’s specifications.
Trickle charging method
In the trickle charging method, a low-value constant current (about ͲǤͲͳ‫ )ܥ‬is
applied to the battery. This small current is sufficient to maintain the full charge of
a battery or to restore the charge of a battery that is used intermittently for short
periods of time. The trickle charging method, also called the compensating
charge, is used to maintain the charge of batteries used for stationary
applications and SLI batteries. During trickle charging, the battery is
disconnected from the load (e.g. in the case of an SLI battery, the battery is
disconnected from the electrical circuit of the car).
PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:
Setup and connections

Battery charge using the modified constant-voltage charging method
(fast charge)
Battery charge using the float charging method (slow charge)
PROCEDURE Setup and connections
In this part of this exercise, you will set up and connect the equipment.
a Before beginning this exercise, make sure that both batteries in the Lead-Acid
Batteries are fully-charged by performing the ''Battery state-of-charge (residual
capacity) evaluation'' described in the Procedure of Exercise 1. If the batteries
are not fully charged, ask your instructor for assistance. Appendix B of the
Student Manual indicates how to prepare (fully charge) each battery in a Lead-
Acid Batteries before each laboratory period.
1. Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart in Appendix A to obtain the list of

equipment required to perform this exercise.
Install the equipment required in the Workstation.
2. Set the main power switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply to O (off), then connect the Power Input to an ac power outlet.

Exercise 4 – Battery Charging Methods Procedure
Set the Operating Mode switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply to Power Supply.
Connect the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to a USB port of

the host computer.
Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply on by setting the main

power switch to I (on).
3. Turn the host computer on, then start the LVDAC-EMS software.
In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply is detected. Select the network voltage and
frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency of the local ac power
network, then click the OK button to close the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window.
4. Connect one battery in the Lead-Acid Batteries module to the Four-Quadrant

Dynamometer/Power Supply as shown in Figure 28.
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply
12 V
* Lead-acid
battery
(*) Meter in the Battery Discharger window of LVDAC-EMS
Figure 28.Battery connected to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operating as a

battery discharger.

Battery charge using the modified constant-voltage charging method (fast

charge)
In this part of the exercise, you will first discharge one battery of the Lead-Acid
Batteries module to approximately 20% or residual capacity. Then you will
charge the battery using the modified constant-voltage charging (fast charge)
method. During this charge cycle, you will observe the battery voltage and
current as well as the energy returned to the battery.
5. Make sure that both batteries in the Lead-Acid Batteries module are fully-
charged by referring to the “Battery state-of-charge (residual capacity)
evaluation” section of the Procedure of Exercise 1. If you do not perform the
optional float charge in the next part of the exercise, you will need only one
battery.
Battery discharge
6. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply

window and make the following settings:
Set the Function parameter to Battery Discharger (Constant-Current

Timed Discharge with Voltage Cutoff).
Set the Discharge Current to 2.3 A (‫) Ͳʹܥ‬.
Set the Discharge Duration to 30 min.
Set the Cutoff Voltage to 9.45 V.
Reset the meter Energy.
a The setting of the discharge duration corresponds to the time required to

remove approximately 80% of the energy contained in a fully-charged battery
when discharging at a rate of ‫ܥ‬ଶ଴ .
7. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Data Table window. In the Timer Settings window
of the Options menu, set the timer to make 400 records with an interval of
30 seconds between each record. This setting corresponds to a 200-minute
period of observation, which includes the time required to recharge the
battery. The actual period of observation should be shorter.
In the Record Settings window of the Options menu, select Voltage, Energy,
Current, and Time Data as parameters to record.
8. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the Battery

Discharger then immediately start the timer in the Data Table window.
Depending on the state-of-charge of the battery at the beginning of the

discharge, the discharge cycle may end before the discharge duration
(30 min) has elapsed if the cutoff voltage is attained. Stop the timer as soon
as the discharge duration has elapsed or the cutoff voltage is attained.

9. Record the energy released by the battery (indicated by the meter Energy in
the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window) during the
discharge cycle.
Energy released during discharge: Wh
Energy released during discharge: 13.5 Wh.
10. Wait at least 30 minutes for the battery’s chemical reaction to stabilize before
proceeding with the next step.
Battery charge
11. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, modify the

settings as follows:
Select the Lead-Acid Battery Charger (Fast) function.
Set the Maximum Charge Current to 0.92 A.
Set the Gassing Voltage to 14.4 V.
Set the 0.1 Current to 0.23 A.
Set the Float Voltage to 13.8 V.
a Do not reset the meter Energy.
12. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the Lead-

Acid Battery Charger (Fast) then immediately start the timer in the Data
Table window.
13. While the battery is charging, briefly describe the charging process steps by
referring to the parameters that you have set.
a While the battery continues to charge, it is suggested that you answer the
review questions of this exercise.
At the beginning of the charging process, the charge current applied to the
battery is 0.92 A as set by the Maximum Charge Current parameter. This
causes the battery voltage to gradually increase until it attains 14.4 V as set
by the Gassing Voltage parameter. At this moment, the charge current starts
to decrease while the battery voltage remains at 14.4 V until the charge
current attains 0.23 A as set by the ͲǤͳ‫ ܥ‬Current parameter. Once the charge
current is 0.23 A, the battery voltage is reduced to 13.8 V as set by the Float
Voltage parameter to complete and maintain the battery charge.

14. Once the charge current is 0.23 A and the battery voltage is reduced
to 13.8 V, let the battery charge for 20 min then stop the Lead-Acid Battery
Charger (Fast), then stop the timer in the Data Table window.
Save your data, export it to a spreadsheet application and plot the graph of
the battery voltage, current, and energy versus time.
a It is suggested that you include the data tables and graphs plotted in this
exercise in your lab report.
20 1.25
Voltage 1.00
15 0.75
0.50
10 0.25
Energy (Wh) and voltage (V)
0.00
5 -0.25
Current
Current (A)
-0.50
0 -0.75
-1.00
-5 -1.25
-1.50
-10 -1.75
Energy -2.00
-15 -2.25
-2.50
-20 -2.75
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000
Time (s)
Charge of a lead-acid battery using the modified constant-voltage charging method (fast
charge).
15. You may have observed that the energy returned to the battery exceeded the
energy released by the battery during the discharge cycle. Explain why.
Although the battery charging process is highly efficient, it is not 100%

efficient.
16. By referring to the graph plotted in step 14, determine the time taken to
return the energy released by the battery during the discharge cycle.
Approximately 3870 s.

17. Compare the energy returned to the battery at the moment where the
gassing voltage is attained to the energy released during the discharge cycle.
How do the energy values compare?
During this portion of the charge cycle, approximately 88% of the energy
released during discharge has already been returned to the battery.
18. From the point where the charging current starts to decrease gradually as the
voltage across the battery is kept near the gassing voltage value, does the
energy continue to be returned to the battery and approach the energy
released during discharge?
Yes No
Yes
19. By referring to the graph plotted in step 14, describe how the charge current
varies before the battery voltage attains the gassing voltage.
The charge current is constant at the value set by the Maximum Charge
Current parameter (0.92 A).
20. If time allows, wait 30 min after the end of the charge cycle, then determine
the current state-of-charge of the battery (expressed in percentage) by
measuring the open-circuit voltage.
State-of-charge of the battery: %
State-of-charge of the battery: 100%.
Battery charge using the float charging method (slow charge)
a Since the float charging method lasts several hours (typically 10 to 12 hours), it
cannot be performed within a normal lab session. For this reason, it should be
considered optional.
In this part of the exercise you will first discharge the remaining fully-charged
battery of the Lead-Acid Batteries module to approximately 20% or residual
capacity. Then you will charge the battery using the float charging method.
During this charge cycle, you will observe the battery voltage and current as well
as the energy returned to the battery.
21. Replace the battery connected to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power

Supply with the remaining battery (fully charged) of the Lead-Acid Batteries
module.

Battery discharge
22. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, modify the

settings as follows:
Set the Function parameter to Battery Discharger (Constant-Current

Timed Discharge with Voltage Cutoff).
Set the Discharge Current to 2.3 A (‫ܥ‬ଶ଴ ).
Set the Discharge Duration to 30 min.
Set the Cutoff Voltage to 9.45 V.
Reset the meter Energy.
23. In the Data Table window, open a new data table, and set the timer to make
1440 records with an interval of 30 seconds between each record. This
setting corresponds to a 12-hour period of observation, you may set other
parameters that best correspond to your period of observation.
In the Record Settings window of the Options menu, select Voltage, Energy,
Current, and Time Data as parameters to record.
24. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the Battery

Discharger then immediately start the timer in the Data Table window.
Depending on the state-of-charge of the battery at the beginning of the

discharge, the discharge cycle may end before the discharge duration
(30 min) has elapsed if the cutoff voltage is attained. Stop the timer and the
Battery Discharger as soon as the discharge duration has elapsed or the
cutoff voltage is attained.
25. Record the energy released by the battery (indicated by meter Energy in the
Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window) during the discharge
cycle.
Energy released during discharge: Wh
Energy released during discharge: 13.7 Wh.
26. Wait at least 30 minutes for the battery’s chemical reaction to stabilize before
proceeding with the next step.

Battery Charge
27. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the Function

parameter to Lead-Acid Battery Float Charger. Make sure the Float Voltage
parameter is set to 13.8 V.
a Do not reset the meter Energy.
28. Start the float charge by pressing the Start/Stop button in the Four-Quadrant
Dynamometer/Power Supply window, then immediately start the timer in the
Data Table window.
29. Once the charge cycle is ended (many hours later), stop the float charge by
pressing the Start/Stop button in the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power
Supply window, and then stop the timer in the Data Table window.
Save your data, export it to a spreadsheet application, and plot the graph of
the battery voltage, current, and energy versus time.
a It is suggested that you include the data tables and graphs plotted in this
exercise in your lab report.
Voltage
15 1.25
Current
10 0.50
Energy (Wh) and voltage (V)
5 -0.25
Current (A)
0 -1.00
-5 -1.75
Energy
-10 -2.50
-15 -3.25
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000 55000 60000
Time (s)
Charge of a lead-acid battery using the float charging method.
30. At the end of the float charge, does the energy returned to the battery equal
or exceed the energy released during the discharge at 20% of residual
capacity?
Yes No

Exercise 4 – Battery Charging Methods Conclusion
Yes
31. If time allows, wait 30 min after the end of the charge cycle, then determine
the current state-of-charge of the battery (expressed in percentage) by
measuring the open-circuit voltage.
State-of-charge of the battery: %
State-of-charge of the battery: 100%.
32. By referring to the recorded data, compare the time taken to return 100% of
the energy to the battery using the float charge method with the time taken to
return 100% of the energy to the battery using the modified constant-voltage
charging method. Does your comparison confirm that the modified constant-
voltage charging method is a more rapid method of battery charging?
Yes No
Yes
33. Close LVDAC-EMS, then turn off all equipment. Remove all leads and
cables.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you were introduced to a number of methods for charging lead-
acid batteries. You learned that in the modified constant-voltage charging method
(fast charging), a constant current is first applied to the battery until a certain
voltage is attained, and then the battery charging continues with a constant
voltage until the current decreases to a value of ͲǤͳ‫ܥ‬. At this moment, the voltage
is reduced to the float voltage value to complete and maintain the battery charge.
In the float charging method, a constant voltage set to a value just sufficient to
finish the battery charge or to maintain the full charge is applied to the battery. In
the trickle charging method, a low-value current is applied to the battery. This
low-value current is sufficient to maintain the full charge of a battery or to restore
the charge of a battery that is used intermittently for short periods of time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. In which applications is the float charging method commonly used?
The float charging method is commonly used to maintain the charge of lead-
acid batteries used in stationary applications.

Exercise 4 – Battery Charging Methods Review Questions
2. What will the effect be of increasing the initial constant current and constant
voltage on the charge time when charging a battery using the modified
constant-voltage charging method?
The higher the initial constant current and constant voltage the shorter the
charge time will be.
3. Give another name for the trickle charging method.
Compensating charge.
4. Which charging method is considered as a fast charging method?
Modified constant-voltage charging method.
5. Which charging method should be used to maintain the charge of a stored

battery (the battery is not connected to the load)?
Trickle charging method.

Bibliography
Linden, David, and Reddy, Thomas B., Handbook of Batteries, 3d ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN 0-07-135978-8.

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Electricity and New Energy

By the staff of Festo Didactic

© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2010

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, hand entanglement hazard

Notice, non-ionizing radiation

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 III

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

IV © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Introduction Lead-Acid Batteries ...................................................................... 1

Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals .................................................................. 3

Exercise 2 Discharge Characteristics ......................................................... 25

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 V

PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 29

Exercise 3 Battery Charging Fundamentals ............................................... 41

Exercise 4 Battery Charging Methods......................................................... 59

Appendix A Equipment Utilization Chart ...................................................... 73

VI © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Appendix B Preparation of the Lead-Acid Batteries .................................... 75

Appendix C Glossary of New Terms.............................................................. 79

Index of New Terms ............................................................................................. 81

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 VII

The Electric Power Technology Training Program.

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 IX

Do you have suggestions or criticism regarding this manual?

If so, send us an e-mail at did@de.festo.com.

X © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Batteries store electricity in a chemical form, inside a closed-energy system. Some

About the course Lead Acid Batteries

The Lead-Acid Batteries course is designed to introduce students to the

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 XI

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 XIII

Battery Charging Methods

DISCUSSION Methods of charging

A number of methods for charging lead-acid batteries have been developed to

Constant-current charging method

© Festo Didactic 86351-10 59

Charging current rate (‫)ܥ‬

Cell voltage (V)

Time (h) Time (h)

Cell voltage (V)

Time (h) Time (h)

Figure 25. Single-step and multiple-step constant-current charging method.

Constant-voltage charging method

In the constant-voltage charging method, a fixed-voltage is applied to the battery

60 © Festo Didactic 86351-10

Charger output voltage per cell (V)

Cell voltage (V)

Time (h) Time (h)

Setup and connections

Set the Function parameter to Battery Discharger (Constant-Current

Set the Discharge Current to 2.3 A (‫) Ͳʹܥ‬.

Set the Discharge Duration to 30 min.

Set the Cutoff Voltage to 9.45 V.

Reset the meter Energy.

Select the Lead-Acid Battery Charger (Fast) function.

Set the Maximum Charge Current to 0.92 A.

Set the Gassing Voltage to 14.4 V.

Set the 0.1 Current to 0.23 A.

Set the Float Voltage to 13.8 V.

Set the Function parameter to Battery Discharger (Constant-Current

Set the Discharge Current to 2.3 A (‫ܥ‬ଶ଴ ).

Set the Discharge Duration to 30 min.

Set the Cutoff Voltage to 9.45 V.

Reset the meter Energy.