CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition of social issues:

A social issue (also called a social problem or a social ill) is an issue that relates to

society's perception of people's personal lives.

According to Lundberg a social problem is any deviant behavior in a disapproved

direction of such a degree that it exceeds the tolerance limit of the community.

Origin of the concept of social issues:

Different societies have different perceptions and what may be "normal" behavior in one

society may be a significant social issue in another society. Social issues are

distinguished from economic issues. There are also issues that don't fall into either

category, such as wars. Social issues are matters that can be explained only by factors

outside an individual's control and immediate social environment which affect many

individuals in a society. A social problem is an aspect of society that people are

concerned about and would like change. Social problems begin with an objective

condition, some aspect of society that can be measured or experienced. “The second key

element of a social problem is subjective concern, the concern that a significant number

of people have about the condition” (James 2003, p. 3).

It may also be defined as a condition, which effects large number of people in an

unfavorable manner. It can also be said as a difficulty of misbehavior which vast majority

wants to correct. Social problem also arises when there is deviation from accepted social

norms. These are usually threats to establish social ways and therefore, it is necessary to

eliminate them as quickly as possible.

Common social issues include poverty, violence in justice, violation of human rights in

equality (or discrimination), and crime, and usually revolve around conflicting

viewpoints and tensions between people who take different stances. It can also be called a

community problem because it is known to concern a community of people.

According to Eitzen, et.al (2009) the basic needs of human beings are shelter, sustenance,

security, group support, esteem, respect and self-actualization. When these needs are not

met, individuals will be hostile toward society and its norms. The frustration will be

expressed in withdrawal, alcohol and other drugs, the violence of crime, terrorism, and

aggression.

Social issues in world

Personal issues versus social issues

Personal issues are those that individuals deal with themselves and within a small range

of their peers and relationships. On the other hand, social issues threaten values cherished

by widespread society. For example, the unemployment rate of 7.8 percent in the U.S. as

of October 2012 is a social issue.

The line between a personal issue and a public issue may be subjective; however, when a

large enough sector of society is affected by an issue, it becomes a social issue. Although

one person fired is not a social issue, the repercussions of 13 million people being fired

are likely to generate social issues (Brown. A, 2012).

Social disorganization

In sociology, the Social disorganization theory was one of the most important theories

developed by the Chicago School, related to ecological theories. Social disorganization

theory: linking (directly) low crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics,

youths from disadvantaged neighborhoods were participants in a subculture in which

delinquency was approved behavior and that criminality was acquired in social and

cultural settings through a process of interaction.

Crime is largely a product of unfavorable conditions in certain communities. According

to the Social Disorganization Theory there are ecological factors that lead to high rates of

crime in these communities, and these factors linked to constantly elevated levels of high

school dropouts, unemployment, deteriorating infrastructures, and single-parent homes

(Gaines, Miller, 2013).

The theory is not intended to apply to all types of crime, but instead to street crime at the

neighborhood level. The theory has not been used to explain organized crime, corporate

crime, or deviant behavior that takes place outside neighborhood settings. Up to the

beginning of seventies, this theory took a back seat to the psychological explanation of

crime (Weitzer, 2003).

Social problems

Social Problems brings to the fore influential sociological findings and theories that have

the ability to help us both better understand--and better deal with--our complex social

environment. Some of the areas include: conflict, social action, and change; crime

and juvenile delinquency; drinking and drugs; health, health policy, and health services;

mental health poverty, class, and inequality; racial and ethnic minorities; sexual behavior,

politics, and communities; youth, aging, and the life course (Pettit. B, 2013).

Characteristics, classification and cause of social problems:

Characteristics of Social Problems:

Salient feature of social problem is that it charges the situation in such a way that a

problem is created to the extent that existing social order have to be changed. But one of

the significant characteristics of social problem is that it becomes problem only when the

people begin to feel and take that in that sense.

Classification of Social Problems:

So far no universally accepted classification has been produced about social problems.

Our sociologists have tried to give different classification. Harold A Phelps has classified

social problems as biological, e.g. physical defects, bio-psychological e.g. feeble

mindedness, cultural e.g. juvenile delinquency and economic e.g. poverty and
unemployment. Another classification is based on heritage e.g. physical heritage,

biological heritage, and social heritage.

Causes of Social Problems:

Social problems are not a welcome in any society. These create disharmony and

maladjustment but still the problems exist. So far the problem has fond no solution and

every attempt made in this regard has failed. The main reason for this is that the

sociologists cannot pinpoint a single cause responsible for creating a social problem. The

cause, which may be responsible in one society, may not be responsible in the other

society. (Bhatti. F, 2011. 6)

Social issues in Pakistan

Illiteracy:

Education is considered as the cheapest defense of a nation The Constitution of Islamic

Republic of Pakistan says that the state of Pakistan shall remove illiteracy and provide

free and compulsory secondary education within minimum possible period. The primary

completion rate in Pakistan, given by Date Center of UNESCO, is 33.8% in females and

47.18% in males, which shows that people in the 6th largest country of the world are

unable to get the basic education (Aneel, N, 2013).

Social evils:

It is very unfortunate that social evils in our country have developed into institutions. The

carriers of social evils are human beings. Bribery and corruption are found everywhere.

These have put a stop to true progress, equality, development, and hope for a better

future. Smuggling is also a social evil that is extremely harmful to the country’s

economy. To sum it up, these evils are weakening the roots of society and are presenting

a tarnished image to whole world (Ilyas. U, 2011).

Terrorism:

Pakistan plays a key and highly conflicted--role in the global war on terror. Today

terrorism is threatening the very roots and fabric of Pakistan’s nationhood. More

tragically, terrorism in Pakistan draws its justification from the very faith which provides

the country its ideological bases.The major causes of Terrorism in Pakistan are political

instability, economic conditions, standard of living and religious extremism. (Aneel. N,

2013).

Poverty:

In Pakistan, poverty is the main issue of Pakistan. Main factors of poverty are poor

industrial standards, lack of adequate governance, feudalism, natural disasters, and

inequality. There is poor Governance; they are not able to implement the rules and laws.

They are failed to decrease the concept of discrimination among the people of Pakistan.

The second is Economic determinants; they have no knowledge and idea of economic
growth that what is the situation of economy of Pakistan and how they can take it to the

betterment of nation (Muhammad. U, Baig. S, Shoaib. M, 2009).

Misuse of media:

The corrupt Pakistani media is playing negative role and worldwide is damaging the

reputation of country. In the greed of some money corrupt media channels are destroying

our culture and misguiding the youth of country. Some private TV channels are working

on American agenda. Pakistani media is misusing its freedom. Corrupt media is using its

power in wrong way. The main objective of corrupt media is to make money by hook or

by crook(Andleeb. S, 2013).

Lack of Education:

Lack of education is one problem that needs to be solved as only it can lead to a brighter

future for Pakistan. Gender Disparity in education is majorly affected by the new era of

Taliban’s and terrorism. Taliban enforced a complete ban on female education in the

Swat District. At a stroke, 60 girls were deprived of their education, joining countless

others across Pakistan with little chance of ever going to school. Now terrorism is

something that the Government of Pakistan is trying its best to solve but the awareness

odd education can actually stop this spread of terrorism (Pakistan: as a society 2009.11).
Education

Education is an important determinant of economic and social development of a nation.

Quality of education in a country indicates the quality of its human resource. Expenditure

on education is considered as an investment in human resource enrichment. The

developed countries spend a lot of money for the provision of education to their people

while developing countries also spend money according to their resources to provide

education free or at minimal cost to their citizens.

Jimenez & Lockheed (1995) argued that across the developing countries public schools

enroll approximately 90 % of all primary and 70 % of all secondary students. Due to

financial constraints a trend to rely on private schools is increasing. Government alone

can’t fulfill the responsibility to provide education to fast growing population. Therefore,

both the public and private sectors are engaged in providing education to the masses.

The system of education in Pakistan is operative in match with the local needs and

ground realities. It is almost a decisive factor that the education in the mother tongue

surrenders more dividends but we have the system more segregated and diversified just

contrary to our requirements. Corruption causes the educational policies, plans and

projects to fail because of being the major contributing factor. Private Schools in

Pakistan, enroll more students than in other countries of the region (Rashid. K, Mukhtar.

S, 2012).
Education and public schools

Educational inequality:

Educational inequality is the disparity that certain students experience in their education

as compared to other students. The measures of educational success focus on grades, test

scores, drop-out rates, college entrance numbers, and college completion rates.

It is important to acknowledge that educational inequality is greatly determined by

economic, and thus racial, lines. Segregation is more than race because it is inseparable

from socioeconomic status, residential location, and, more recently, by language. Skin

color is linked to other forms of inequality, which is evident in education. Educational

inequality between white students and minority students continues social and economic

inequality. Research reveals that there was a shrinking of inequality between racial

groups from 1970-1988, but since then the gap has grown again (2013).

Education and Private School

Quality of education in Pakistan:

Dar (2012) found that while most of the aforementioned private schools target the

relatively wealthy strata of society, there are others like Dar-e-Arqam Schools and Allied

Schools, which focus on middle-income groups – a larger amount of the population. Dar-

e-Arqam has a religious dimension as well, although it cannot be termed a madressa.

Sir Barber (2010) in his paper points out towards the unfortunate experiences the parents

have regarding poor facilities, locations and learning outcomes which reduces parents’

enthusiasm for government schools.

Dar (2012) found Pakistani schools can and must play a role in the international market

for education and studies. Beaconhouse has already started operations in some other

countries, like Malaysia, Bangladesh, Thailand, UK, etc, but it is necessary to bring

sizable foreign investments to build more, and larger, schools, colleges and universities.

History of social issues in schools:

Everyone seems to agree that the schools have problems. Indeed, many believe that the

severity of school problems has increased over the last forty years. According to a survey

reported in a 1988 issue of TIME magazine, the 1940's schools were faced with the

following "problems" that look quite minor compared to those forty years later

(Clabaugh. E, Rozycki. G, 2002).

Compare the lists given below:

In the 1940's In the 1980's

Talking, Drug Abuse

Chewing Gum, Alcohol Abuse

 Making Noise, Sexual Abuse

Running in Suicide

Halls, Rape, Robbery Assault,

Getting out of Stealing, Bombings

place in line,

Improper

Clothing,

Littering

Solutions of Pakistan education:

According to Admin (2012) to improve the education the basic step is that the education

should be made compulsory and in this regard government should come forward and play

its vital role so that this basic problem should be resolved. English language should be the

medium of instruction from beginning to the higher levels of learning. Teachers should

be offered more financial benefits by increasing their pays. Government should strictly

check all private educational institutions for keeping a balance of standards and level of

practices. - In the view of importance of education, the Government should take solid

steps towards implementation instead of projecting policies (Rashid. K, Mukhtar. S,

2012).
Types of Social Issues in Education

Emotional Issues:

Society has changed considerably in the last few decades. Growing up in broken homes

can adversely affect the emotional health of a student and this may lower his performance

at school. However, even when children are brought up in homes where both parents are

present, it's not necessary that there emotional needs will be met, as in majority of

families today, both the parents are working.

Ethnic Issues:

Children belonging to certain ethnic groups such as blacks are expected to be slower

learners as compared to others. There are certain stereotypes that have been attached to

specific races and, children belonging to them, suffer from low self-esteem.

Gender Issues:

Another social issue in education is differentiation on the basis of sex. Girls have lesser

opportunities, compared to boys for studying, in certain sections of the society.

Expectations from girls to score high in studies or study further, are less too.

Economic Issues:

Some social issues arise due to the economic strata a student belongs to. Students, who

belong to poor families, go to public schools which are not so well equipped with

technology. This automatically puts them at a disadvantage, when compared to the

students who go to some good private schools.

Cultural Issues:

Students belonging to immigrant families may not be well versed with English language.

This creates a barrier in communication between students and teachers and thus, such

students are not able to receive proper education.

Ethical Issues:

There are certain ethical issues in education which too, affect students such as - whether

to allow cell phones in school or not, should school uniforms be made compulsory, etc

(Saanj, 2011)

Social issues in schools and impact of these issues on students:

A school is often seen as a moral community whose members cannot easily profess lack

of concern for anything which might be thought to impact upon children. The question,

"How drugs and alcohol are abuse a school problem?" sounds heartless and unworthy of

a "real" educator. But the catch is this: schools are imagined also to be productive

organizations, "factories" as it were which are expected to yield substantial results. By

accepting concerns on moral grounds, educators are trapped into possibly unfulfillable

expectations for results (Gary K. Clabaugh & Edward G. Rozycki, 2002).

Aggression:

Through the media, one learns of an adolescent who commits some horrifically violent

etc. another adolescent, for no apparent reasons or critical incident, seemingly erupts and

seriously injures or kill someone. Students learn to build friendships and interact socially
with kids and adults while at school. However, friendships and social expectations often

lead to stress in adolescents, especially students who face social problems. Common

social problems in schools include peer pressure, cliques, classroom racism, unequal

opportunity, economy, substance abuse, abuse, neglect, crime and violence, cyber

bullying, bad habits, sexual abuse, media influence, aggression, shifted preferences etc.

(Sheahan. K, 2013)

Alcohol and drugs:

Drug and alcohol use is a major public health problem. Multiple studies indicate that

substance use is a risk factor for physical and mental disorders in adolescents. Secondary

schools and the communities they serve have been facing a long-standing problem of

substance abuse. The major consequences related to alcohol abuse included drunkenness,

violence, motor car accidents, irresponsible sexual behaviour and criminal activities

(Estrin. I, Sher. L, 2006).

Peer Pressure:

Peer pressure occurs when students try to influence each other's decisions. Peer pressure

can be positive; for example, a student could remind her friend about the math homework

or encourage him to go out for a sports team. However, peer pressure is often negative,

such as pressure to drink alcohol, smoke cigarettes, cut class, cheat on a test or shoplift.

Students often find it difficult and stressful to refuse peer pressure (Sheahan. K, 2013 ).
Classroom Racism:

Racism is a social problem that exists in all facets of society, from business environments

to schools. That this issue has worked its way into classrooms is evidenced by prejudiced

peers full of discriminatory remarks toward classmates of minority backgrounds. While

teachers can ban language wars at school, racism might continue to exist if parents do not

also help to correct the prejudice behaviors of their children in the home. However, if

students are learning their racist beliefs and remarks from their parents, teachers will not

be able to rely on parents to help resolve the issue (Sheahan. K, 2013).

Neglect:

Neglect occurs when a child's physical, social or emotional needs are not met. Sometimes

neglect is related to poverty or financial hardship. A child's parents or caregivers may not

have the financial resources needed to provide the child with adequate shelter, clothing

and nutrition. Alternatively, foster care homes or community shelters many not have the

funds or resources to give children what they need to thrive and be healthy. Neglect can

have lasting and permanent consequences on a child's mental, social and physical health

and well-being (Farley. A, 2013).

Economy:

The economy plays a significant part in social problems that affect students and schools.

As children get older, they begin to notice the financial pressures that their parents and

families experience. According to a 2004 study by the National Center for Education

Statistics, income is a primary issue involved in a student's decision to drop out of school,
and studies show that children from low-income families are six times as likely to drop

out as children from high-income families (Sheahan. K, 2013).

Crime and Violence:

In many communities, children face crime and violence. Crime and violence have the

potential to affect children in different ways. For instance, a child may be the victim of

crime or violence. Alternatively, the child may be a regular witness to crime and

violence. As a result of either of these instances, the child may be more likely to engage

in crime and violence him self. (Farley. A, 2013).

Media influence:

The students learn violence by seeing movies and T.V programs. They imitate super

heroes. They see in the screen which may cause danger to their life. The over exposure to

media make them behave more aggressively, which spoils their future also. The children

get immense pleasure in playing video games and they append hours together before

computer, surfing through internet. Over exposure to media may cause health problem

also. Some fake news given in the news paper may raise blood pressure and create

negative feelings in the mind (Andleeb. S, 2013).

Unequal Opportunity:

Within the realm of discrimination is the social issue of unequal educational opportunities

for individuals who come from low-income, minority backgrounds. Students who belong

to this demographic risk missing out on the same level of educational quality as middle-

to upper-class students of non-minority backgrounds. The big social problem here is that
the education system has inequities and offers disproportionate opportunities based on

cultural affiliation and income level, when; ideally, all children should have exposure to

an equal education. (Sheahan. K, 2013).

Extinction of moral values:

Pakistani Culture is very unique in terms of its social and ethical values. These values are

something which are given due importance. This culture revolves around the religion of

Islam which teaches equality among every human being that exists on this planet.

Moreover, though we ourselves are non-English, we are still clung to the English

education system, thus the evil that they bear in society almost get doubled when we

follow their tract (Ilyas. M, 2013).

Cliques:

Cliques refer to groups of friends that exclude other people. Cliques usually have codes

of behavior -- such as requirements to dress a certain way or play a certain sport -- and

tend to focus on status and popularity. Cliques often bully or insult outsiders. Belonging

to a clique can be stressful and harmful, too, because cliques often discourage members

from socializing with anyone else (Sheahan. K, 2013).

Bullying:

School bullying is a type of bullying in which occurs during the time period a child is in

school. Bullying can be physical, verbal, or emotional. Bullying is when a person is

“exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other

persons.” Examples include: saying hurtful things, mean nicknames, teasing, hitting,
shoving, pulling hair, and mean gossip. Boys generally threaten, fight, name call, and

steal. Girls generally exclude others, gossip, and undermine friendships (Lesli. M,

Layman. N, Luna. R, Kelly. M, 2013).

Sexual abuse:

Respondents sometimes did not feel comfortable discussing issues like sexual violence or

harassment. Harassment, kidnapping, elopement and cases of sexual assault appear to

have a dramatic effect on school attendance. The vulnerability of girls to sexual attacks

and abduction may explain the lower educational attainment of girls observed during

violent conflict. The debilitating effects of sexual violence on individuals, communities

and families inevitably spill over into education systems (Thompson. S, Bolton. L, 2012).

Misuse of internet:

The internet has become an indispensable part of most people’s life in contemporary

world and children are not excluded. The websites are considered harmful when they

contain negative content including pornography, violent online games, online gambling,

sexual soliciting and more. Negative content online can damage the child’s personal and

social development and produce numerous negative results like intensified aggression,

unsocial behavior, fear, poor performance at school, low self-respect and so forth

(Sheikh. M, 2009).

Societal issues students face outside of the classroom

Three societal issues students face outside of the classroom are poverty, gender, and race.
Poverty is a societal issue that students face, and this issue can be very destructive to a

student’s success. Schools should make it a priority to educate students about financial

aid options and scholarships.

Gender is another social issue student’s face. Schools should teach strategies and values

to help overcome this issue. The gender stereotype should not be reinforced in schools;

gender should not be emphasized in schools.

Race is another societal issue that students are plagued with. Many people have

stereotypical ideas about race and many of these ideas are not only false, but they are

counterproductive to the livelihood of a student (Ganly. S, 2007.8).

Suggestions to deal with social issues of schools:

 Teachers are the key in the process of education. Teachers’ participation in the

curriculum development will enhance the degree of quality of education in

schools.

 A teacher should have discipline, punctuality, dedication, innovation and self

evaluation.

 A should establish a positive relationship with their students by communicating

and properly providing feedback to them.

 Parents can choose a positive environment for their children to learn, and can get

to know their child’s friends.

 Teacher should use humor to avoid boringness during lecture.

 Teachers have the ability to identify student problems and needs.

 Parents need to make sure that their kids are not spending too much on the

internet or watching T.V around exam/test-dates.

 By creating an environment of trust and strengthening in the school systems, the

role and performance of the teachers could be improved.

 For the improvement of quality of teaching and learning schools are needed to be

provided with different teaching and learning resources.

 Parents have to reasonable expectations about your child’s social skills.

 Government should establish more schools and appoint qualified and trained

teachers.

 Technical education must be given to all the classes.

 Government should promote primary education.