What is development?

 Continuously evolving concept – from economic development involving rise in per-capita

income to human development focusing on living conditions and choices of the population.
 Different sociologist have defined it differently.
o Marx- capitalist design leading to pauperization and bourgeiouization
o Weber- rationalization of society
o Dependency theories – mechanism through which rich countries become rich and poor
countries become poor
 Mass production and consumption of goods and services within the overall framework of
industrialism and post-industrialism.

Crisis of development

 Basically means crisis arising out of development

 Refers to a paradoxical situation in which questions are raised against the prevailing notions of
development owing to emerging problems arising because of it. The questions broadly revolve
around the target, purpose, nature and social cost of development
o It is argued that not only does development destroy homoeostatic and holistic
relationships between nature and culture (Pathy) but has also leads to emergence of
new problems that are extremely harmful for the current population in general and
vulnerable section in particular.
o Argues that development planning is designed by the dominant class for the furtherance
of own interest
o Victims of development are pushed into a state of marginalization and hopelessness.
 Problems like ecological degradation, global terrorism, inter and intra country migration, climate
change etc.

Reasons for crisis

 Wrong assumption that development = industry + advanced technology

 Following of western model of development on Indian conditions – India is labor intensive and
not capital intensive like west
 Development without changing the existing socio-economic power structures leading to
benefit of only the dominant class

Negative consequences of development

Beneficiaries from development projects are the dominant classes. The Indian experience with
development projects and their impact on tribal and rural communities offer a glaring instance of
human right violation and acceleration of mass poverty.

 Large scale impoverishment of indigenous and often self sufficient communities along with
near-destruction of their culture
 o Eg. Post independence industrialization pulverized the lives of people living in resource-
rich forests and mining belts of the country; the origin of naxalism and prevalent
extremism in tribal areas is often attributed to this.
 Forced displacement and migration leading to so and so issues
o Highlighted by studies of Fernandes and Thukral.
o Per UNHCR, as the end of 2014, 38 million people were forcibly displaced within their
own country by the violence of ‘development’ ( a dam, mine, nuclear plant etc.)
 Gives way to multiple forms of dispossessions
o Extensive mining in Chottanagpur Plateau has made indigenous people systematically
dispossessed
 of their ownership over means of production,
 over their products, labor,culture and very means of human existence.
 Even their political autonomy.
 Ecological consequences including climate change, destruction of local flora and fauna,
increasing vulnerability to hazards.

Types of displacement

Can be divided into three types

1. Primary displacement – caused by developmental projects

2. Secondary displacement – caused by migration, war and violence
3. Tertiary displacement – result of inadequate adjustment with new ecological conditions at
rehabilitation site.

Reasons for displacement

 Can be direct or indirect

o Indirect – feature of every society; marriage, job mobility etc
o Direct – construction of developmental project (like Mega Power Projects, nuclear
plants, SEZs, hydroelectric projects) which require usurping of huge amounts of land and
often forced eviction

Problems due to displacement (can also be added for development)

Displacement due to development is not just a geographical question but has got a large socio-psychic
dimension as well.

 Problems in terms of inadequacies of support mechanisms

o Problem of identification and estimation of displaced
 Those victimized by the process of secondary displacement and “project
affected” are not considered
 o Absence of well defined, targeted and multi-dimensional policy for displaced which
fails to account for emotional trauma of upheaval as advocated by Vasudha
Dhagamwar.
o Delayed or misallocation of relief and rehabilitation facilities including allocation of
infertile land, shoddy housing facilities, low compensation etc. There is also a market
absence of cognizance of the fact that people’s productive capacities are a function of
their association with an environment over a long period of time and that sudden
allocation of alternate land cannot fill the lacunae that is generated owing to sudden
displacement
o Absence of a unified leadership and organization owing to which the plight of the
displaced go unheard
 Problems in terms of consequences
1. Increase in poverty, marginalization, food insecurity, frustration and despair.
2. Forced migration leading to demographic changes, rise of manual laborers, congestion
in urban areas, breakage in family and kinship ties
3. Increase in hardships for vulnerable section of the displaced including women, children,
aged, tribals and dalits.
 Walter Fernandes highlighted that among the displaced, the proportion of
tribals has been increasing.
 This includes rise in child mortality, child labor, insecure working conditions for
the women
4. Perceived and actual threat to identity of the displaced
5. Problem of integration in new social and culture environment - Increase in conflict
between the natives and resettled, cultural lag
 Advocated by studies of Mathur and Cernea (1995)

Sustainability

 Brundtland Commission: Developing in a manner that meets the needs of the present without
compromising on the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Has economic ,
social and environment priorities
 Main elements
o Human being are at the centre of concern in development
o Environmental protection should constitute an integral part of developmental process.
o Eradication of poverty, better living conditions and medical facilities.
o Utilization of resources, orientation of technological development and institutional
changes are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet
human needs and aspirations.
 Criticism
o Definational and interpretation issues – related to vagueness of terms, logical
contradictions and semantic ambivalence
  Scholars like Ramesh Deewan who believe that development and sustainability
are incompatible with each other.
 Sukhamoy Chakravorty believes that it is vague and institutions interpret it
differently based on their own agenda and philosophical orientation.
 In this context, the Sardar Sarovar Project is much talked about. While
some argue that it was necessary in order to mitigate future hazards
and meet the increasing need of the economy, some argue that it over-
exploits existing resources and will only benefit the rich. However, both
these opponents and proponents take their own interpretation of
sustainable development as their foundation.
 Developed countries view it as a way to ensure pollution free living
 Developing countries view it as a way to retain their independence and identity.
o Future orientation is criticized as it is impossible to know the orientation of demand of
future generations – V. Ratna Reddy. Morever, who decides the needs of the future
generation in the contemporary polarized world.
o It assumed as a political innovation by the developed world so as to stifle the progress
of the developing world and ensure the later’s dependence on the former – KR Nayar