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The System Unit

At the most fundamental levels of a computer, the operating system interacts with internal hardware components to
perform its computing tasks. How efficiently hardware and software complete these tasks is called performance. Because a
computer’s internal hardware components directly influence its performance, you should be familiar with these components
and how they work together to process instructions from software.

The system unit is the case that contains a computer’s main system components, including the processor, memory, and the
computer’s main circuit board, which is called the motherboard. A circuit board is a thin metal plate or board with an extensive
electronic circuit. All of the essential chips and the circuitry that connects them are on the motherboard.

Motherboard
When the cover of a system unit is removed, the motherboard, also called system board, can be seen inside the
housing. The motherboard, a single circuit board, provides the path through which the processor communicates with memory
components, other components, and peripheral devices. In a typical personal computer, the components attached to the
motherboard include processor, memory chips, support electronic circuitry, and expansion boards.

A computer chip is a small piece of semiconducting material, usually silicon, on which one or more integrated circuits are
etched.

An integrated circuit (IC) contains many microscopic pathways capable of carrying electrical current. Each integrated circuit
can contain millions of elements such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors.

Transistors act as electronic switches that may or may not allow current to pass through. If current passes through, the switch
is on, representing the 1 bit. If current does not pass through, the switch is off, representing a 0 bit.

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Central Processing Unit

The main processing device in a computer is the processor, also called

the microprocessor, and the central processing unit (CPU), a single
computer chip that contains all the electronic circuitry a computer needs
to process data, making it the most important hardware component in a
computer. It is often called the brain of the computer, or the computer's
engine. Its job is to carry out commands. Whenever you press a key,
click the mouse, or start an application, you're sending instructions to
the CPU. The processor has a significant effect on a computer’s
performance and computing power

Parts of a CPU

The CPU has two primary sections: the arithmetic/logic unit and the control unit.

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic calculations and logical operations. The calculations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. The logical operations involve comparisons, such as determining if two numbers are
equal or if one number is greater than or less than another number. These might seem like simple operations. However, by
combining them, the ALU can execute complex tasks.

For example, if you are playing a video game on your computer and earn points when you complete an action, the game
software instructs the ALU to add those points to your previous score to compute your new score. The game software might
also instruct the ALU to compare that score to other scores you recorded to determine whether your new score is the highest
one you achieved.

The control unit coordinates all of the processor’s activities and manages the flow of information through the processor. The
control unit interprets each instruction it receives from software, and then triggers the appropriate action to carry out the
instruction.

For example, if an application includes an instruction to multiply two numbers, the control unit directs the task to the ALU,
which performs the calculation.

The CPU also contains memory cells for temporarily storing data, including the registers, which mainly store the basic data
the ALU needs to perform its calculations and the results of those calculations.

Machine Cycle

When software sends an instruction to the CPU, the CPU carries out the instruction by repeating four basic operations in the
machine cycle: (1) fetching, (2) decoding, (3) executing, and (4) storing.

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Step 1: Fetching the instruction. The instruction to be executed is obtained from memory by the control unit.

Step 2: Decoding the instruction. The instruction is translated into commands the computer understand. Relevant
data is moved from memory to the register, and the location of the next instruction is identified.

Step 3: Executing the instruction. The commands are carried out. This could involve making either an arithmetic
computation or a logical comparison in the ALU.

Step 4: Storing results. The results are stored in registers or memory.

Clock Speed

Machine cycles are measured in microseconds (millionths of a second), nanoseconds (billionths of a second), and
even picoseconds (trillionths of a second) on some large computers. The faster the machine cycle, the faster your computer
processes data. The speed of the processor directly influences the speed of the machine cycle, and therefore, the overall
performance of the computer. The processor’s speed is also called the clock speed, which indicates the number of
instructions the CPU can process per second.

Every computer has a system clock that generates a regular electronic beat to set the pace and timing of system
operations. Each beat of the system clock is called a cycle. For contemporary CPUs, clock speed is stated in megahertz
(MHz), or a million cycles per second, and gigahertz (GHz), or a billion cycles per second. (A hertz is one cycle per second.)
A CPU that runs at 2 GHz completes 2 billion clock cycles in one second.

Bit Size

CPU clock speed is only one measure of CPU performance. Another measure is bit size, which indicates how many bytes of
data the CPU can retrieve from RAM at once. A byte of data is roughly equivalent to one character, such as x. An 8-bit CPU
can process 1 byte at a time, while a 16-bit CPU can process 2 bytes at a time. Modern CPUs are 32-bit (4 bytes at once) and
64-bit (8 bytes at once) processors.

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Types of Processors

The type of processor also significantly affects its performance and the performance of the computer overall because it
determines how quickly the computer can accept and carry out instructions from software. Different types of processors can
use different techniques to process data and instructions as they complete the machine cycle.

A multicore processor is a single chip that contains more than one processor, and includes dual-core processors (two
processors on one chip) and quad-core processors (four processors on one chip). If your operating system is designed to run
with a multicore processor, its processors can boost the speed of the software so that it responds more quickly to your
commands, especially when you are running multiple programs at the same time.

If a computer has a multicore processor, the operating system can use multiprocessing to split tasks among the processors.
With multiprocessing, each processor can work on a different task at the same time, which improves performance.

In contrast, older computers and mobile computers often have a single-core processor, so they cannot use multiprocessing.
To enhance performance using a single- core processor, the operating system can use two other techniques: multitasking
and multithreading. Multitasking operating system can run more than one program at the same time. With multithreading,
the operating system handles many parts, or threads, of a single program. For example, displaying a document and printing
it are two threads in a word-processing program. Although the operating system still performs tasks in sequence rather than
simultaneously, multitasking and multithreading are the most efficient processing techniques an operating system can use
with a single-core processor.

In short, on a computer with a multicore processor, the operating system can use multiprocessing, multitasking, and
multithreading to improve performance. On a computer with a single-core processor, the operating system can use only
multitasking and multithreading.

Performing tasks with a single-core and a multicore processor

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Currently, three major companies produce most of the CPUs for computers, including servers, personal, and mobile
computers. Intel and AMD manufacture processors for computers ranging from powerful servers to lightweight tablets. ARM
Holdings produces ARM processors, which are exclusively for mobile computers.

The processor manufacturer also defines a computer’s platform. For example, a PC platform is a personal computer that
includes a processor made by Intel or AMD and runs the Windows operating system. For this reason, the PC platform is
sometimes called the Windows platform.

Many Macs now have an Intel processor, which allows you to run some Windows and Linux software. The Linux platform uses
a standard PC or Mac and does not require a certain type of processor, though it runs only software designed for the Linux
operating system.

Intel Processor vs. AMD Processor

User Requirement AMD Intel

Power Consumption Less efficient than Intel More efficient than AMD

Price Range Lower Higher

Cooling Factor Heats up faster Runs cooler for a longer duration

Performance Speed Not very Fast, compared to Intel Faster than AMD

Gaming and Multimedia Better multimedia output due to faster clocking Not very good for gaming

Performance: Price High: Low High: High

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DATA REPRESENTATION IN A COMPUTER

To understand fully the way a computer processes data, it is important to understand how data is represented in a computer.
Usually computers are considered as complex mechanisms, but the fact is that these machines basically know only two
discrete states: on and off. This is because computers are electronic devices powered by electricity, which has only on or off
state. This two-state system is called a binary system.

For data to flow through a computer system and to

be in a form suitable for processing, all words,
symbols, pictures, videos, or sounds must be
reduced to a string of binary digits. The process of
converting data from other format into the binary
digits is called digitization.

A binary digit 0 or 1 is called a bit (short for binary

digit). A bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer
system. By itself, a bit is not very informative.

When eight bits are grouped together as a unit, they

are called a byte. A byte is informative because it
provides enough different combination of 0s and 1s
to represent 256 individual characters including
numbers, uppercase and lowercase letters of the
alphabet, punctuation marks, and other characters
such as the letters of the Greek alphabet.

The combinations of 0s and 1s used to represent

characters are defined by patterns called a coding
scheme.

Two Popular Coding schemes: ASCII and EBCDIC .

The code scheme ASCII, which stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, was developed by the
American National Standards Institute to provide a standard code that could be used by many different computer
manufacturers to make machinery compatible. The ASCII code is the most widely used coding system on a variety of
computers.

The code EBCDIC, which stands for the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, was developed by IBM in the
1950s and represents character with 8 bits. EBCDIC is used in IBM and other mainframe computers, whereas ASCII is used
in personal computers, some larger computers, and data transmission.

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Example of How Computer Converts Letter into Binary

Coding schemes such as ASCII make it possible for humans to interact with a digital computer that recognizes only bits.

Coding Schemes

ASCII SYMBOL EBCDIC ASCII SYMBOL EBCDIC

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Memory

To store data and instructions, the CPU, operating system, and applications use memory, which consists of chips inside the
system unit. A computer has two major types of memory: volatile and nonvolatile.

RAM is the most common type of Volatile memory, which loses its contents when you turn off the power to the computer.

ROM is an example of nonvolatile memory because it is permanent; it does not lose its contents when you turn off the power
to the computer.

Memory stores three basic categories of items:

(1) the operating system and other system software that control or maintain the computer and its devices;

(2) application programs that carry out a specific task such as word processing; and

(3) the data being processed by the application programs and resulting information

Memory Sizes

The size of memory is measured by the number of bytes available for use.

Unit Abbreviation Size Equivalent

Bit An atom, the smallest unit of memory

Byte 8 bits A single letter, a number, or a symbol

Kilobyte K or KB 1,024 bytes A one-page, double-spaced letter

Megabyte M or MB 1,048,576 bytes A best-selling novel

Gigabyte G or GB 1,073,741,824 An encyclopedia set

Terabyte T or TB 1,099,511,627,776 A bookstore

bytes
Other Memory Sizes

QUANTITIES OF BYTES

Common prefix Binary prefix

Name Symbol Decimal Binary Name Symbol Binary

petabyte PB 1015 250 Pebibyte PiB 250
exabyte EB 1018 260 Exbibyte EiB 260
zettabyte ZB 1021 270 Zebibyte ZiB 270
yottabyte YB 1024 280 Yobibyte YiB 280

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RAM
RAM is short-term memory, also called main memory and primary
memory. Data, information, and instructions from applications and
the operating system are stored temporarily in RAM, which is usually
several chips on a circuit board called a memory module that is
plugged into the motherboard.
The amount of RAM in your computer has a significant effect on
performance. If you have plenty of RAM, the operating system can
manage memory easily and provide RAM as the CPU and applications request it. If you do not have enough RAM, the
operating system must move data in and out of RAM frequently, which slows performance. The operating system can even
spend more time swapping data between RAM and virtual memory than running software, a condition called thrashing. A
computer with a thrashing operating system is sluggish or completely unresponsive.

ROM
In contrast to RAM is read-only memory (ROM), which is stored on single chips on the motherboard. The operating system
retrieves the data or programs stored in ROM when it needs them, such as when the computer starts up. Unlike RAM, however,
the operating system does not regularly write over the contents of ROM, which is why this type of memory is called read-only
memory.

Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is a type of ROM that is nonvolatile, but can be
modified. Flash memory is a type of ROM that can be updated much more quickly than EEPROM and has largely replaced
standard ROM in current computers, though all are sometimes called ROM.

Because flash memory is so much faster than ROM or EEPROM, it is now being used on mobile computers and peripheral
devices to store data such as songs and phone numbers.

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The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is stored on a ROM chip, and it contains instructions for starting the computer before
the operating system is loaded. Because the ROM chip stores these instructions permanently, the chip is often called
firmware, a hybrid of hardware and software. If you change system components on your computer, by adding RAM, for
example, the BIOS must be updated to take the configuration changes into account. Some operating systems update the
BIOS on the ROM chip automatically when you install the new hardware. In other cases, you or a computer technician can
use the BIOS setup utility to make the changes, though you should do so cautiously. Selecting an incorrect setting could mean
that your computer can no longer start.

Caches
In addition to RAM, the CPU accesses memory caches (pronounced cashes) to speed processing. Because it takes longer
to transfer data stored in RAM to the CPU than it takes the CPU to actually process the data, the CPU bypasses this bottleneck
by storing a small amount of memory on the CPU itself, apart from the registers, where it is almost instantly available.
• This small amount of memory is called level 1 cache memory.
• Instead of waiting for data from RAM, the CPU also uses a larger amount of memory called level 2 cache memory.
This memory can reside on the CPU itself or on a chip that has a direct connection to the CPU.

RAM, ROM, registers, and caches are types of memory for storing data. All of these elements fit together in a hierarchy. The
closer instructions and data are to the CPU, the faster the CPU can process them.

CMOS
Some RAM chips, flash memory chips, and other types of memory chips use complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) technology because it provides high speeds and consumes little power. CMOS technology uses battery power to
retain information even when the power to the computer is off. Battery-backed CMOS memory chips, for example, can keep
the calendar, date, and time current even when the computer is off. The flash memory chips that store a computer's startup
information often use CMOS technology.

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Memory Access Time

Access time is the amount of time it takes the processor to read data, instructions, and information from memory. A computer's
access time directly affects how fast the computer process data. Access time is measured in fractions of a second

The access time of memory contributes to the overall performance of the computer. The higher the megahertz, the faster the
access time.

Ports and Buses

A port is a connecter located on the system case that you use to plug peripheral devices into the computer. Inside
the system unit, a port is attached to a bus on the motherboard. A bus is a sequence of electronic circuitry used to transfer
data among computer components. For example, the CPU has buses to move data between CPU components, such as the
control unit and the ALU. Peripheral devices use a bus, sometimes called an expansion bus, to exchange data with the
motherboard. A computer has different types of ports to accommodate a variety of device plugs. So that the device can
communicate with the CPU and other components when it is plugged into a computer, each port must be connected to an
appropriate bus on the motherboard. One of the most common types of buses is the Universal Serial Bus (USB), which you
can use to connect 127 different devices to a single USB port. Personal computers typically have four to eight USB ports on
the back, front, or side of the system unit. If you run out of ports on a computer, you can attach a USB hub to increase the
number of ports you can use. A USB hub is a device that contains a number of USB ports itself, and plugs into a single USB
port on a computer.

Another type of bus is called FireWire, or IEEE 1394, which was developed by Apple as a high-speed method for connecting
multimedia devices such as video cameras to a computer. Like USB, a single FireWire port can accommodate many external
devices.
In addition to USB and FireWire ports, you might find the following types of ports on computing devices. Some of these ports
are identified in the image below which shows the side and front of a laptop computer.

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• Audio—Connects speakers, headphones, and a microphone to the computer

• RJ-45—Connects the computer to a wired network using an Ethernet cable
• Video Graphics Array (VGA) and High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)— Standards for connecting display
monitors

A connector joins a cable to a port. A connector at one end of a cable attaches to a port on the system unit, and
a connector at the other end of the cable attaches to a port on the peripheral. Most connectors are available in one
of two genders: male and female. Male connectors have one or more exposed pins. Female connectors have
matching holes to accept the pints on a male connector.

The System Unit Showing Many Ports

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Expansion Cards
Circuit boards called expansion cards or adapter cards can be plugged into expansion slots on the motherboard of a desktop
or server computer. As their name suggests, expansion cards expand the capabilities of the computer or let you attach a
peripheral device to the computer. For example, most desktop computers include a sound card to connect a microphone,
headphones, and speakers to the computer. Most computers also include video cards, sometimes called graphics cards, to
attach a monitor to the computer. These cards are installed so they provide audio and video ports on the outside of the
computer case. The motherboard usually provides extra expansion slots so you can install expansion cards for new hardware,
such as a high definition TV tuner that makes it possible to watch television shows on your computer.

Power Supply and Cooling Technology

The power supply is the component of the system unit that

converts the wall outlet AC power into DC power. Different
motherboards and computers require different wattages on the
power supply. If a power supply is not providing the necessary
power, the computer will not function properly.

The power supply unit in a computer converts the power from

the wall outlet to the type of power needed by the computer. It
sends power through the cables to the motherboard and other
components.

Built into the power supply is a fan that keeps the power supply cool. Many newer computers have additional fans near certain
components in the system unit such as the processor, hard disk, and ports. Processor chips generate quite a bit of heat, which
could cause the chip to burn up. A heat sink is a small ceramic or metal component with fins on its surface that absorbs and
disperses heat produced by electrical components such as a processor

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