Memory Models

Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J.
Sternberg
Chapter 5
Chapter 5: Memory:
Models and Research
Methods
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Memory Is …
•The mechanism we use

to create, maintain and
retrieve information
about the past
Chapter 5
Processes in Memory
• Encoding
– Processes used to store information in
memory
• Storage
– Processes used to maintain information in
memory
• Retrieval
– Processes used to get information back
out of memory
Chapter 5
Methods Used to Study Memory

• Which type of memory test would you
rather have?
– An essay or a multiple choice exam?
– The difference between these two types
of tests captures the difference between a
recall task and a recognition test
Chapter 5
Methods Used to Study Memory

• Free Recall
– Recall all the words you can from the list you saw
previously
• Cued Recall
– Recall everything you can that is associated with the
Civil War
– Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall
• Serial Recall
– Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order
they were elected
– Need to recall order as well as item names
Chapter 5
Recognition Tasks
• Circle all the words you previously
studied
• Indicate which pictures you saw
yesterday
• The participant selects from a list of
items they have previously seen
Chapter 5
Implicit Versus Explicit Memory Tasks

• Explicit memory tasks
– Involves conscious recollection
– Participant knows they are trying to retrieve
information from their memory
• Implicit memory tasks

– Require participants to complete a task
– The completion of the task indirectly indicates
memory
Chapter 5
Implicit Memory Tasks

Participants are exposed Participants then complete
to a word list word puzzles, they are not
aware they are a type of
Tiger memory test
Lion Word fragment Completion:
Zebra C_E_TA_
Panda E_E_ _A_ N_
Leopard _E_RA
Elephant Word Stem Completion:
Mon _____
After a delay… Pan_____
Chapter 5
Procedural Memory
• Knowing how to do something
– Ride a bike
– Skateboard
– Skiing
Chapter 5
Methods to Assess Procedural Memory

• Rotary-Pursuit task
– Keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk
• Mirror-tracing task
– Watch mirror image to trace a figure
Chapter 5
Process-Dissociations in Memory
• Single dissociations
– Single variable effects one expression of
memory, explicit or implicit, but not the
other.
• Double dissociations
– Single variable has opposite effects on
explicit and implicit memory.
• Demonstrate that two processes are mediated
by separate brain systems.
Chapter 5
Models of Memory
• Represent ways that memory has been
conceptualized
– Atkinson & Shiffrin’s 3 Stage Model of
Memory
– Craik & Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model
– Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
– Tulving’s Multiple Memory Systems Model
– McClelland & Rumelhart’s Connectionist
Model
Chapter 5
Traditional Model of Memory

• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) 3 Stage
Model
Short -Term Long -Term
Sensory
Stimuli Store Store
Store
Information Processing Model

Chapter 5
Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory

Research
• Whole report procedure
– Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
– Identify as many letters as possible
– Participants typically remembered 4 letters
• Partial Report Procedure
– Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
– Participants are told to report bottom row
– Participants were able to report any row
requested
Chapter 5
Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration

• A matrix of 12 letters and numbers
will be briefly flashed on the next few
slides
• As soon as you see the information,
write down everything you can
remember in its proper location
Chapter 5
Whole Report
Here’s where the letters and numbers will appear-- Keep your eyes on the
“X” on the next slide
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
Chapter 5
B 5 Q T
2 H XS 9
O 4 M Y
Chapter 5
B 5 Q T
2 H S 9
O 4 M Y
Chapter 5
Partial Report – No Delay

For the next demonstration, report only the top, middle, or bottom row.
The row to report will be identified by markers IMMEDIATELY after
you see the letters.
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
Chapter 5
2 V 9 R
Q M X7 L
> K H 5 F <
Chapter 5
2 V 9 R
Q M 7 L
> K H 5 F <
Chapter 5
Averbach & Coriell (1961)

Iconic Memory Research
N M L C WD PQ
A X I N YK J U
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Place a small mark above a letter at different delays
- Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique
Chapter 5
Second Demonstration
G E U L M F S X
WP M B D H J Y
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Place a small mark above a letter at different delays
- Results indicated that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique
Chapter 5
Sensory Stores
• Iconic store or Visual sensory register
– Holds visual information for 250 msec longer
– Information held is pre-categorical
– Capacity – up to 12 items
– Information fades quickly
• Econ or Auditory sensory register
– Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds
longer to enable processing
Chapter 5
Short-Term Memory Rehearsal
• Attention
– Attend to information
in the sensory store, it Short Term
moves to STM Memory
• Rehearsal (STM)
– Repeat the
information to keep
maintained in STM
• Retrieval Attention
Storage &
– Access memory in Retrieval
LTM and place in
STM
Chapter 5
Research on Short-Term Memory

• Miller (1956)
– Examined memory capacity
– 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”
• Chunking - organize the input into larger
units
– 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 3 - Exceeds capacity
– 1980 1998 2003 - Reorganize by chunking.
Birth- College
H.S Graduation
year
graduation
Chapter 5
Storage Capacity of STM

• Vogel, 90
80
Woodman & 70
Luck (2001) 60
• Used colors 50
40
East
West
and 30 North
20
orientations 10
0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Qtr Qtr Qtr Qtr
Chapter 5
Vogel, Woodman & Luck

Results(2001)
• Can retain 3-4 colors or orientations
• Stores integrated objects, not just
features
Chapter 5
Long-Term Memory
• Capacity Long Term
– Thus far limitless Memory
(LTM)
• Duration
– Potentially permanent
Chapter 5
Bahrick’s Research on Very Long Term

Memory
• High school year books containing all of the names and
photos of the students were used to assess memory
• 392 ex-high school students (17-74) took 4 different
memory tests:
– Free recall of the names
– A photo recognition test where they were asked to
identify former classmates
– A name recognition test
– A name and photo matching test
• For some of the participants, it was as long as 48 years
since they graduated from High school
Chapter 5
Bahrick et. al., (1975) Results

• 90% accuracy in face and name recognition
after 34 years
• 80% accuracy for name recognition after 48
years
• 40% accuracy for face recognition after 48
years
• 60% accuracy for free recall after 15 years
• 30% accuracy for free recall after 30 years
Chapter 5
Levels of Processing Model of Memory

• Craik & Lockhart (1972)
– Different ways to process information lead to different
strengths of memories
– Deep processing leads to better memory
• elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory
– Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features
of the stimulus
• the memory trace is fragile and quickly decays
– Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and
elaborative rehearsal
Chapter 5
Support for Levels of Processing

• Craik & Watkins (1973)
– Participants listened to lists of words
– Task was to recall the last word in the list
which began with a particular letter
– The number of intervening words between
words beginning with the target letter was
varied
Chapter 5
Craik & Watkins (1973) Results

• Recall of words was independent of the
length of time (the number of intervening
words) it was maintained in STM
– Conclusion: Maintenance rehearsal did not
automatically lead to LTM
– Levels-of-Processing Interpretation:
Students rehearsed the words without
elaborating on the meaning of the words,
only concentrating on the initial
consonant sound—rehearsing at a
shallow level
Chapter 5
Support for Levels of Processing

• Craik & Tulving (1975)
– Participants studied a list in 3 different ways
– Structural: Is the word in capital letters?
– Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog?
– Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence?
The ______ is delicious.
– A recognition test was given to see which type
of processing led to the best memory
Chapter 5
Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

1
Case
0.9
Rhyme
0.8
0.7 Sentence
Recognize
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Yes No
Sentence Type
Chapter 5
Criticisms of LOP Model

•Circular definition of levels
•Transfer appropriate processing effect
– Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977)
– Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme
– Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test
– Memory performance also depends on the match between
encoding processes and type of test
Encoding Task Recognition Rhyme

Semantic 0.83 0.31
Rhyme 0.62 0.49
Chapter 5
Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model
Central Executive
Visual Scribe Articulatory Loop
Visuo-spatial Phonological
Episodic Buffer
Sketch Pad Store
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model

• Articulatory Loop
– Used to maintain information for a short time and
for acoustic rehearsal
• Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
– Used for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial
information
• Episodic Buffer
– Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an
integrated episode between systems using different
codes
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model

• Central Executive
– Focuses attention on relevant items and
inhibiting irrelevant ones
– Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals,
schedules processes in complex tasks, often
switches attention between different parts
– Updates and checks content to determine next
step in sequence of parts
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model Support

• Baddeley (1986)
– Participants studied two different list types
– 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top
– 5 syllables: university, opportunity, aluminum,
constitutional, auditorium
• Reading rate seemed to determine recall
performance
• Supports conceptualization of an
articulatory loop
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model Support

• Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
– Dual-task paradigm
– Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring
participants to tap repeatedly a specified
pattern of keys or locations while using
imagery at the same time
Chapter 5
Techniques Examining Working Memory

Chapter 5
Tulving’s Multiple-Memory
Systems Model
• Semantic Memory
– General knowledge
– Facts, definitions, historical dates
• Episodic Memory
– Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)
• Procedural Memory
– Memories on how to do something (skiing, biking,
tying your shoe)
Chapter 5
Multiple-Memory Systems Model

Support
• Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)
– PET technology to look at episodic and semantic
memory
– Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic
memory tasks while being monitored by PET
• Results
– Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in
encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval
– Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active
in retrieval of episodic memory
Chapter 5
Connectionist Perspective
• Parallel distributed processing model
– Memory uses a network
– Meaning comes from patterns of
activation across the entire network
– Spreading Activation Network Model
– Supported by priming effects
Chapter 5
Koriat & Goldsmith (1996)

• Suggest a change in the metaphors
used to conceptualize memory
• Propose a correspondence metaphor
– Emphasize function of memory
– Emphasize how memory works in real
world
Chapter 5
Exceptional Memory
• Case studies of mnemonists
• Studies of skilled memory
Chapter 5
Case Studies
• S. (Luria, 1968)
– Long strings of words
– Remembered over 15-18 years
• Rajan Mahadevan
– Can recite pi to 31,811 places
– No forgetting on matrices up to 20x20
digits
Chapter 5
Deficient Memory
• Amnesias
– Retrograde Amnesia
• Loss of memory for events that occurred
before the trauma
– Infantile Amnesia
• Inability to recall events of young childhood
– Antereograde Amnesia
• No memory for events that occur after the
trauma
Chapter 5
Amnesia Studies
• Study antereograde amnesiacs using
implicit and explicit memory tests
• Amnesiacs show normal priming
(implicit), but poor recognition
memory (explicit)
• They did not remember having seen
the word list, but completed the word
fragments at the same rate as normals
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Leads to memory loss and dementia in older
population
• Atrophy of the cortical tissue
– Alzheimer brains shows abnormal fibers that appear
to be tangles of brain tissue and senile plaques
(patches of degenerative nerve endings)
– The resulting damage of these conditions may lead to
disruption of impulses in neurons
• Over the age of 65 are labeled ‘late onset’
• ‘Early onset’ is rare but can affect those in their
mid 30's and in middle age
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Symptoms (Gradual, Continuous & Irreversible)
– Memory loss
– Problems doing familiar tasks
– Problems with language
– Trouble knowing the time, date, or place
– Poor or decreased judgment
– Problems with abstract thinking
– Misplacing things often, such as keys
– Changes in mood and behavior
– Changes in personality
• These symptoms could be an early sign of Alzheimer's
when it affects daily life
Chapter 5
Hippocampus and Memory

• Hippocampus
– Critical for integration and consolidation
– Essential for declarative memory
– Without the hippocampus only the
learning of skills and habits, simple
conditioning, and the phenomenon of
priming can occur

Memory Models

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Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J.

•The mechanism we use

Methods Used to Study Memory

Methods Used to Study Memory

Implicit Versus Explicit Memory Tasks

• Implicit memory tasks

Implicit Memory Tasks

Methods to Assess Procedural Memory

Traditional Model of Memory

Information Processing Model

Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory

Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration

Partial Report – No Delay

Averbach & Coriell (1961)

Short-Term Memory Rehearsal

Research on Short-Term Memory

Storage Capacity of STM

Vogel, Woodman & Luck

Bahrick’s Research on Very Long Term

Bahrick et. al., (1975) Results

Levels of Processing Model of Memory

Support for Levels of Processing

Craik & Watkins (1973) Results

Support for Levels of Processing

Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

Criticisms of LOP Model

Encoding Task Recognition Rhyme

Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model

Working Memory Model

Working Memory Model

Working Memory Model Support

Working Memory Model Support

Techniques Examining Working Memory

Multiple-Memory Systems Model

Koriat & Goldsmith (1996)

Hippocampus and Memory

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