PLANNING WATER HARVESTING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS

1.1 Basic components of a RWH and storage system

Rainwater harvesting systems are orderly schemes in which organized components and techniques
harness and make rainwater available for human consumption and environmental conservation.
Thus, the planning and design of rainwater harvesting and storage in various structures should be
based on water supply for multiple uses. This is because communities in the target areas may use
the water not only to grow crops, but also for domestic use, livestock watering, as well as industrial
and commercial purposes.

Thus, a good quality RWH system is planned to provide communities with access to an on-site
water supply, if possible at home, or near their homesteads, or at locality that is easy to access.
Ideally, the RWH collection system should involve basic construction techniques, be inexpensive
to maintain, and have a long functional life span. If the system is designed well, it should provide
a good safe source of water at a relatively low cost when compared to the conventional methods
such as river diversion or ground water pumping.

In order to determine whether or not rainwater catchment systems are an appropriate choice of
water supply in any given situation it is necessary to estimate the potential rainwater yield to check
that it can meet the required demand. The reliability of the systems along with technical, socio-
economic and environmental considerations must be compared with all alternative forms of
supply.

Rainwater catchment system consists of a number of components. These include:

 Rainfall potential (in amounts and intensities to generate runoff)
 A catchment surface where the rainwater runoff is collected
 A storage reservoir where the rainwater is stored until required
 A delivery system for transporting the water from the catchment to the storage reservoir
e.g. delivery pipes, gutters or drains, down pipes
 Extraction device to take the water from the reservoir e.g. piping, a tap, bucket, or pump.
 Other auxiliary structures such as filters, sedimentation basins, foul flush systems, covers,
spillways and safety features.

1.1.1 Rainwater harvesting potential

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater
endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water
harvesting potential. Among the several factors that influence the rainwater harvesting potential of a
site, climatic conditions specially rainfall and the catchment characteristics are considered to be the
most important.

Rainfall Characteristics
The amount of water that can be harvested depends on the rainfall amounts, seasonal patterns and
intensities. Thus rainwater can be harvested in both wet and dry zones, and actually, it should be
more cost-effective in the wet areas where structures can be made smaller. In the arid, semi-arid
or sub-humid zones rainfall is characterized by low amounts of up to 700mm per annum. Further,
it is erratic with periodic droughts and unreliable patterns. Inter-annual rainfall varies from 50-
100% in the arid zones with averages of up to 350 mm. In the semi-arid zones, inter-annual rainfall
varies from 20-50% with averages of up to 700 mm. Thus it is necessary to gather rainfall data and
its characteristics.

Rainfall data
In order to determine the potential rainwater supply for a given catchment, reliable rainfall data
are required preferably for a given period of at least 10 years. Ideally if accurate local historic
rainfall data for the past few decades are available a 20 or 30-year rainfall series is preferable
especially in drought prone climates.

Water Demand
Water demand is the volume of water requested by users to satisfy their needs. A simplistic
interpretation considers that water demand equals water consumption. However, conceptually, the
two terms cannot be equated because, in some cases, especially in rural parts of Africa, the
theoretical water demand considerably exceeds actual consumptive water use.

1.1.2 Types of catchment surfaces

A catchment surface is the part of a RWH system that receives rainfall and drains the water into a
storage facility through a conveyance system. The size of a catchment surface varies from simple
roof tops to bigger systems where large catchments drain water to dammed reservoirs from which
water is either gravitated or pumped to treatment plants.

Generally, the desirable characteristics of a good catchment includes impermeability in order to be

able to generate adequate runoff and some slope to direct flow to the storage structure. Another
important requirement of catchments is that they should not contaminate water seriously with
dangerous chemicals or micro organisms.

There are many types of catchment surfaces, such as roofs, rocky areas, hillsides, roads, home
compounds, built up areas, open grasslands and valleys. Generally, water harvesting at household
level makes use of roof catchments, with the storage being a tank located within the home
compound.

Ground catchment system is a general term describing all systems, which use the ground surface
as a catchment area. These include natural, treated and covered surfaces. Cement or tarmac
covered surfaces such as roads, runways, pavements, car parks and courtyards. Ground catchment
systems are cheaper than roof catchments and are normally employed where suitable roof surfaces
are not available. The main advantage of the ground catchment surface is that water can be
collected from a larger area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall. The main
disadvantage is that the water supply can easily become contaminated and since it can only be
stored below the surface it is generally less convenient to withdraw.

Roads, paths, railway lines and other paved surfaces provide catchments which can also be used
for RWH. The runoff coefficient for such surfaces is quite high and the water can be diverted
and stored using simple diversion structures directing surface water into underground tanks,
pans, ponds, check-dams and other storages. The water so stored can be used for livestock
watering or supplemental irrigation of crops. There is huge potential for RWH from road
surfaces since the catchments can be relatively large. Catchments for water harvesting can also
be created artificially, such as paved areas, concrete surfaces, plastic sheet coverings or treated
ground surfaces. The material used for paving should not contaminate the water.

Figure 1.1 (a) A rock catchment (b) Paved artificial catchment

with earth dam (Source: Seifu, 2011) with underground tank

Dew, snow and fog collection systems: Rainwater probably accounts for more than 99% of all
precipitation harvested directly for domestic use. Nevertheless, dew fog and snow are also
harvested and in certain arid localities provide essential sources of water.

1.2 Determining water storage volume

The volume of rainwater that can be harvested over a given period depends upon the amount of
rainfall in that period, the catchment area and the runoff coefficient (Figure 1.2). The
characteristics of the catchment area determine the storage conditions. Rainwater yield varies with
the size and texture of the catchment area. All calculations relating to the performance of rainwater
catchment systems involve the use of a runoff coefficient to account for losses due to spillage,
leakage, infiltration, catchment surface wetting and evaporation, which will all, contribute to
reducing the amount of runoff. This is determined as follows:

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Runoff coefficient

or
Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Collection efficiency
The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot be
effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. Factors like runoff coefficient.
 Figure 1.2 Illustration of water requirement in rainwater harvesting (Source: MoANR-2011)

Runoff Coefficient
Runoff coefficient is the factor which accounts for the fact that all the rainfall falling on a
catchment cannot be collected. Some rainfall will be lost from the catchment by evaporation and
retention on the surface itself. The Runoff coefficient (Cr), for any catchment is the ratio of the volume
of water that runs off a surface to the volume of rainfall that falls on the surface. It is calculated as
follows:
Runoff coefficient (Cr) = Volume of runoff/volume of rainfall
The Runoff coefficient accounts for losses associated with leakage, evaporation and overflow for
a roof catchment system. It is normally taken to be 0.8 for metal roofs, but can have higher values
if the roofs and gutters are well constructed. It has lower values for most other types of roofing
material. For natural ground catchments, it is less than 0.3 and actual figures depend on various
characteristics of the catchment. Some typical values are given in table 1.1

Table-1.1 Runoff Coefficients for Various Catchment Surfaces

Type of Catchment Runoff Coefficient (Cr)
Roof Catchments
Corrugated metal sheets 0.7-0.9
Tiles 0.8-0.9
Ground Surface Covering
Concrete 0.6-0.8
Brick pavement 0.5-0.6
Untreated (Natural) Ground Catchments
Soil on slope less than 10% 0.0-0.3
Rocky natural catchments 0.2-0.5
Green area 0.05-0.1
Source: Source: (Pacey and Cullis 1989)
1.3 Techniques for determining storage size
Water storage capacity is required to balance out the differences between rainwater supply and
household demand. If rainwater supply exceeds demand in any given month, storage is needed to
allow this water to be carried over and use in a future month when demand exceeds supply.

Dry-season demand versus supply

This is the simplest approach to system design but is relevant only in areas where distinct dry
seasons exist. In this approach the tank is designed to accommodate the necessary water demand
throughout the dry season. The dry season is taken as the period during which there is no rainfall.
Thus if the daily household water demand is 100 litres and the dry season lasts for 120 days a
storage structure with a capacity of at least 12,000 litres would be required. This method is easy to
calculate and provides a rough estimate of storage volume requirements. However, it does not take
into account:
(i) Variations between different years,
(ii) Rainfall input, or
(iii) Capacity of the catchment to deliver the runoff necessary to fill the storage structure.

This technique has some advantages. It can be used in the absence of any rainfall data and is easily
understandable by the layperson. These points are especially relevant when designing systems in
remote areas where obtaining reliable rainfall data may be unavailable.

Graphical method
In this approach, the basic steps that have to be followed are:
 Plot a bar graph of mean monthly roof runoff
 Plot a cumulative roof-runoff graph by summing the monthly runoff totals
 Add a dotted line showing cumulative water use.
The storage volume needed is equivalent to the greatest differences between the available rainfall
supply and consumption/water demand.

Statistical methods
A number of statistical methods have been developed which can be used in combination with
other methods such as mass curve analysis to determine the reliability of supply or in other words
the probability of system failure. By applying standard statistical techniques the minimum rainfall
with a given probability can be determined for the various time periods. If the cumulative
minimum rainfall values are plotted against time a mass curve can be derived and mass curve
analysis conducted

Computer based methods

The use of computer-based models allows great flexibility when producing output for system
design since the model can be tailored to any particular system under given rainfall conditions.
The format of the output can also be customized to requirements and the performance of specific
designs simulated under various demand scenarios.
Rainwater Conveyance Systems
Rain water conveyance systems are components of a RWH system that collect water from
catchment surfaces and transport it to the inlets of storage facilities. Each type of rainwater
catchment has a conveyance system that is appropriate to the specific type of RWH system.

1.4 Prevention/ control of common problems in storage structures

Water-borne diseases
Rainwater storages usually hold stagnant water which can attract various pathogen, disease vectors
and pollution. For instance, mosquitoes breed in rainwater storages and they are vectors of serious
diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever and filariasis. Careful use of the water is also
necessary. For instance, reservoirs constructed for storing domestic water should not be used by
livestock unless off-take facilities are provided. The livestock can contaminate the water with
zoonotic diseases and dip chemicals. In addition, if high levels of nitrates e.g. as fertilizer effluents
should not be allowed into reservoirs as the cause pollution.

Several approaches to mosquito control have been tried with some success. These include the
addition of small amounts (5ml per 1000 litres) of domestic kerosene, and various forms of
biological control such as using fish and dragonfly larvae to consume mosquito larvae. Although
insecticides are sometimes sprayed on open water breeding sites, these should not be applied to
rainwater stored for consumption.

Cracking
The development of cracks in any form of water retaining structure can have serious repercussions.
This happens in concrete structures and may be caused by poor concrete mixes, bad workmanship
and incompatibilities between the phases of cement paste, sand and reinforcement, during
construction. It may also be due to fatigue caused by repeated loading, or induced stress caused by
shrinkage.

Evaporation
Large quantities of water are lost from storage structures through evaporation. However, there are
methods for controlling evaporation. They include a good design or site selection for surface
reservoirs, whereby the ratio of storage volume to surface area is optimized. An alternative is to
divide the reservoir into two or more compartments. If the storage is small, it can be covered with
a roofing material or shaded to protect the water surface from wind and direct sun thus reducing
evaporation. It is possible to reduce the rate of evaporation by 50% through a combination of
wind breaking and shading. Bush rafts built using logs, tree branches and twigs are good covers.
They are easy to make and will cost appreciably less as compared to other means such as netting
or plastic films.
Seepage
Water stored in either surface or sub-surface structures may leak or be subject to seepage. Seepage
through the wall increases the risk of breaking and failure of the wall. The main factors contributing
to this problem are the soil type and the amount of compaction of the embankment. This can be
prevented by careful selection of the site for the structure. Sites with sand or gravel should be
avoided. Seepage can be reduced by compacting the ground prior to filling with heavy equipment.
This is achieved by covering the reservoir bed with a 10 to 20 cm thick clay layer, then compacting
it either manually, with machinery or using animals. Seepage can also be reduced by including an
impervious core in the structure. The reservoir can be lined with concrete, thick plastic film, clay
grouting or other impervious material to reduce seepage.

Siltation
Siltation is caused by various factors including cultivation and poor land use in the catchment. The
design of the structure can also contribute to siltation. It is important to make a good estimate of
the sediment load in the water to be harvested. A factor called sediment trap efficiency of the
reservoir can then be used to predict siltation rate. This data is necessary for designing dead storage
and for estimating the life span of the reservoir. Silt accumulation in a reservoir can be reduced by
careful site selection to avoid highly erodible areas. Also, sediment traps should be constructed at
the entry point of runoff into the structure.

1.5 Hygiene in Rainwater storages and uses

1.5.1 Rainwater- quality standards

It is normally recommended that international standards e.g. WHO standards, should be
achievable for harvested rain water, but the rules are usually made less stringent in tropical regions
and developing countries. Faecal coliform counts are the most appropriate indicator of cistern
water quality and the following three-tier classification is suggested as a useful guide to cistern
water quality originating from rooftop runoff:

Class I 0: faecal coliforms/100ml

Class II 1-10: faecal coliforms/100ml
Class III > 10: faecal coliforms/100ml
In this classification, Class I represents the highest and ideal water quality, Class II represents water
unacceptable for drinking purposes

It has been postulated that another possible cause of adverse health conditions associated with the
exclusive use of rainwater may result from its low mineral content. Although there is some debate
over whether or not all mineral requirements can be met from dietary sources alone. Minerals in
drinking water may make a significant contribution. Russian studies have shown that drinking
distilled or weakly mineralized, desalinated water may result in adverse health conditions. Such as
increased urinary excretion. The possibility of similar effects from prolonged exclusive
consumption of rainwater deserve further investigation.
1.5.2 Treatment of stored rainwater
While rainwater quality will not always match WHO or national drinking water standards when
compared with most unprotected, traditional water sources rainwater from well-maintained roof
catchments usually represents a considerable improvement and is generally safe to drink without
treatment.
 Rainwater from ground catchment systems is not recommended for drinking unless first boiled
or treated.
 Except in heavily urbanized and industrialized areas or regions adjacent to active volcanoes,
atmospheric rainwater is very pure and any contamination of the water usually occurs after
contact with the catchment.
 The chemical and physical quality of stored rainwater is normally high. Care should be taken
to avoid any possible sources of lead or other heavy metals e.g. from lead-based roof paints.
 A degree of chemical and microbiological contamination of roof rainwater runoff is inevitable,
but this will not generally cause a problem if the roof gutters and storage tank are properly
maintained and regularly cleaned and inspected.
 Reports of disease outbreaks linked to roof water sources are rare. A few cases of
gastrointestinal illness linked to large quantities of bird or animal droppings on the roof have
been reported and appropriate measures should be taken to reduce any risks.
 Rainwater tanks can provide breeding sites for mosquitoes, which in some areas act as vectors
for diseases such as dengue fever, yellow fever and malaria. It is therefore essential that any
openings to the tank are fully screened.
 To protect water quality good system design operation and maintenance are essential. Water
quality will generally improve during storage provided light and living organisms are excluded
from the tank, and fresh inflows do not stir up any sediment.
 The use of filters and foul flush diverts can further improve the rainwater quality. Further
treatment through boiling exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet radiation and chlorination can be
undertaken if there are concerns over the water quality.

1.6 Operation and maintenance of RWH systems

Proper operation and maintenance of RWH infrastructure is an important part for the success of
the system. It affects the efficiency, effectiveness and durability of the structures and ensures
water is available and utilized as planned. Proper maintenance is an important aspect in the
management of RWH systems and needs to include, among others, the following activities.
 Inspection, regular cleaning and minor repair of the whole RWH system: the catchment,
the conveyance, the tank and the various tank components such as tap.
 Removal of branches of trees over hanging on roofs. Not only leaves and debris, but also
the droppings of birds and small animals contaminate rainwater. Dust and other such dirt
also need to be cleaned regularly from the catchment/roof.
 Cleaning and minor repair of the conveyance system (gutters and downpipes/gutters) at
least once a year;
 Inspection of water quality in the tank, testing from time to time and
treating/disinfecting regularly.
  There should be no opening that allows small animals to enter into the storage structure;
it is therefore necessary to inspect, clean and repair/replace screens and filters. Screens
and filters unless cleaned regularly can themselves be a source of water contamination.
 Clean/wash-out accumulated sediment and sludge when necessary; take the opportunity
to clean the tank when it is empty.
 There should be no tree growing within 10 m from the tank to protect the foundation
from damage/crack by roots searching for moisture underneath.
 Dispose of safely runoff and/or ponding water around the tank as this may damage the
tank or bring health risks.
 Inspect regularly the amount of water in the tank, and compare with demand and
abstraction rates.
 Inspect and maintain/repair/replace water taps.

1.7 Management of rainwater harvesting systems

Once a rainwater harvesting system is planned and designed properly, and built with good
construction material and workmanship, it is ready to provide the services expected and aimed at
meeting the objectives set for it in a sustainable manner. This however requires certain
arrangement in terms of putting in place a management system/mechanism that is capable of
ensuring the proper operation, maintenance and repair of the RWH system. This is necessary not
only for RWH systems, but for any development work and infrastructure.

Whenever possible, the management of RWH systems is done by the users themselves, unlike
design and construction which in many cases are initiated and implemented by qualified
professionals. The users of RWH systems could be individual households, institutions such as
schools, or communities for whom the RWH systems are built for communal use. In case where
a household individually owns and uses a RWH system, the management is straight forward; the
household itself assumes the direct individual responsibility. In cases where a system is owned by
an institution, usually a work unit that provides general services or a person/committee is entrusted
with the task. In RWH systems that are built for communal use by a community, a water users
committee is elected for the management with a trained technician/tap attendant assigned for the
day to day work.

The communal management of RWH systems is generally more difficult and complicated owing
to the communal nature of ownership. It is therefore important that bylaws are developed for such
systems with clear guidelines for their management. It would also be useful if the management
have links with organizations that are capable and willing to extend support in situations where
external assistance needed. The guidelines/bylaws to be prepared for the management of RWH
systems need to lay out clear duties and responsibilities in respect of the following items.
 The management arrangement/system and responsibilities,
 Physical safety and protection of the RWH system,
 Maintenance and control of water quality,
 Regulation of water abstraction rates, time and appropriate use,
 Operation, maintenance and repair of the system; and
  Allocation/collection of water fees/budget for operation maintenance and repair; and the
management of finance and other properties.

Water storage systems operate at a larger scale than runoff farming systems, often on a watershed
scale, and thereby necessitate addressing issues like ownership, local institutions and land tenure.
They require relatively high capital and labor investments (often too high for individual
households) and are relatively complicated systems to design. Service-giving institutions, generally,
have very little capacity to disseminate and assist in design of storage water harvesting systems.

As with any other technology, it is vital when planning and implementation of rainwater harvesting
systems is viewed holistically beyond the technical issues. It is necessary to consider the broader
aspects in terms of economic environmental, health and social factors. A key factor in project
success is community involvement at every stage from inception to long-term maintenance and
operation. Involvement in planning and construction phases will not only help to build skills and
a sense of self reliance within communities but also prepare the community better for any future
maintenance or repair work.