 Chemical bonds – occur when outermost
electrons (valence shell electrons) are
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
REVIEWER
(CABUG, RICARDO JR. A. BSMT 133)
CHAPTER 2: The Chemical Basis of Life
2.1 BASIC CHEMISTRY
1. Chemistry – is the scientific discipline
concerned with the atomic composition and
structure of substances and the reactions they
undergo.
Matter, Mass, and Weight:
1. Matter – is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
2. Mass – is the amount of matter in an object.
3. Weight – is the gravitational force acting on an
object of a given mass.
4. Kilogram (kg) – the international unit for
mass.
Elements and Atoms:
1. Element – is the simplest type of matter
having unique chemical properties. It also
composed of atoms of only one kind.
Example: Carbon – Carbon atoms
Oxygen – oxygen atoms
(Note: About 96% of the body’s weight results
from the elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen.)
2. Atom – is the smallest particle of an element
that has the chemical characteristics of that
element. It also contains protons, electrons,
and neutrons.
(The nucleus accounts for 99.97% of an atom’s
mass, but only 1-tentrillionth of its volume.)
3. Proton – positively charged particle located
inside the nucleus.
4. Neutron - neutral charged particle located in
the nucleus.
5. Electron – negative charged particle located
outside the nucleus.
6. Electron cloud – is an informal term in
physics. It is used to describe where electrons
are when they go around the nucleus of an
atom.
7. Atomic number – is the unique number of
protons in each atom of an element.
8. Mass number – is the number of protons and
neutrons.
Electrons and Chemical Bonding:
transferred or shared between atoms.
Three types of chemical bonds:
1. Ionic bond – occurs when electrons are
transferred between atoms, creating
oppositely charge ions. (Example: NaCl)
- Ion – a charged atom formed because of a
donation or gain of an electron(s).
 Electron shells - is the outside part of
an atom around the atomic nucleus. It is a group
of atomic orbitals with the same value of the
principal quantum number n.
 Valence shells – it is the outermost shell
that can hold up to 8 electrons.
 Octet rule – is a chemical rule of thumb that
reflects observation that atoms of main-group
elements tend to combine in such a way that
each atom has eight electrons in its valence
shell, giving it the same electron configuration
as a noble gas.
 Electronegativity – is the ability of the atoms
nucleus to pull electrons towards it.
Covalent Bonding:
2. Covalent bond – forms when atoms share one
or more pairs of electrons. (Example:
Hydrogen molecule)
 Molecule – 2 or more atoms chemically combine
or the resulting combination of atoms.
 Single covalent bond – is when only one pair of
electrons is shared between atoms.
 Double covalent bond – is where two pairs of
electrons are shared between the atoms rather
than just one pair. Some simple molecules
containing double bonds.
 Polar covalent bond – form when there is an
unequal sharing of electrons. (Example: Water
H2O)
 Polar molecules – have an asymmetrical
electrical charge.
 Has a positive “end” and a negative “end.”
Nonpolar covalent bond - are a type of
chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of
electrons with each other.
 Nonpolar molecules – have a symmetrical
electrical charge.
3. Hydrogen bond - is a partially electrostatic
attraction between a hydrogen which is
bound to a more electronegative atom such
as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine, and another
adjacent atom bearing a lone pair of
electrons.
Molecules and Compounds:
1. Molecule – is formed when two or more
atoms chemically combined to form a
structure that behaves as an independent
unit.
2. Compound – is a substance resulting from
the chemical combination of two or more
different types of atoms.
Dissociation:
1. Dissociate – Sometimes this addition causes both
(with reference to a molecule) to split into
separate smaller atoms, ions, or molecules,
especially reversibly.
2. Electrolytes – is a substance that produces
an electrically conducting solution when
dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water.
The dissolved electrolyte separates into
cations and anions, which disperse
uniformly through the solvent.
2.2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Chemical reaction – is the formation or
breaking of chemical bonds between atoms,
ions, molecule, or compounds.
2. Reactants – the substances that enter into a
chemical reaction.
3. Products – the substances that result from
the chemical reaction.
A+B  C+D
Reactants Product
Classification of Chemical Reactions:
1. Synthesis reaction – when two or more
reactants combine to form a larger, more
complex product. (Build a new molecule)
(Represented symbolically as: A + B  AB.)
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – is a
complex organic chemical that provides
energy to drive many processes in living
cells, e.g. muscle contraction, nerve
impulse propagation, chemical synthesis.
 Anabolism - the synthesis of complex
molecules in living organisms from simpler
ones together with the storage of energy;
constructive metabolism.
 Dehydration reaction - also known as
Zimmer's hydrogenesis, is a chemical
reaction that involves the loss of a water
molecule from the reacting molecule.
2. Decomposition Reaction - is a type of
chemical reaction in which a single
compound breaks down into two or more
elements or new compounds. (Represented
symbolically as: AB  A+B.)
 Catabolism - is the set of metabolic pathways
that breaks down molecules into smaller units
that are either oxidized to release energy or
used in other anabolic reactions. Catabolism
breaks down large molecules into smaller
units.
 Hydrolysis - is a chemical process in which a
molecule of water is added to a substance.
substance and water molecule to split into two
parts.
 Metabolism – the chemical processes that
occur within a living organism in order to
maintain life. all of the anabolic and catabolic
reactions in the body.
3. Exchange reaction – is a combination of a
decomposition reaction and a synthesis
reaction. It occurs between compounds that,
when written as a molecular equation, appear
to involve the exchange of parts between the
two reactants. (Represented symbolically as:
AB + CD  AC + BD.)
Energy and Chemical Reactions:
1. Reversible reaction - are reactions in which
reactants form products and the products can
also react with each other to re-form the
reactants.
 Equilibrium – when the ate of product
formation equals the rate of reactant
formation.
2. Energy – is the capacity to do work.
3. Work – is the moving of matter.
4. Kinetic energy – is energy caused by the
movement of an object and is the form of
energy that actually does work.
5. Potential energy – is stored energy.
6. Chemical energy – is a form of potential energy
that are stored in chemical bonds. (Example:
ATP  ADP + P.)
7. Mechanical energy – is energy resulting from
the position or movement of an object.
Rate of Chemical Reactions:
1. Rate – at which a chemical reaction proceeds is
influenced by several factors:
 Concentration of the reactants
Reactants - differ from one another in their
ability to undergo chemical reactions.
Concentration - Within limits, the greater
the concentration of the reactants, the
greater the rate at which a chemical
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