Appendix A

Derivation of Euler Parameters

We begin the derivation of Euler parameters with a discussion of further

properties of the direction cosine matrix, its eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
For now we drop the subscripts and take a generic matrix T that transforms
representations of vectors in one orthogonal system to their representations
in another. The thought of actually expanding the determinant |λI − T |
using the direction cosine or Euler angle representations, and then solving
|λI − T | = 0 for λi , i = 1 . . . 3, is daunting. Instead we will take an indirect
approach. First, a few facts from linear algebra:

1. The determinant of the product of two matrices is the product of their

determinants, or |AB| = |A| |B|.

2. The determinant of the transpose

 T of a matrix is the same as the deter-
 
minant of the matrix, or A = |A|.

3. The determinant of the negative of a matrix is either the same as the

determinant of the matrix if it is of even order, or the negative of the
determinant of the matrix if it is of odd order, or |−A| = (−1)n |A|
where A is nxn.

4. The sum of the transpose of two matrices is the transpose of their sum,
or AT + B T = [A + B]T .

5. The determinant of a matrix is equal to the product of its eigenval-

ues. For a 3x3 matrix A, |A| = λ1 λ2 λ3 , where λi , i = 1 . . . 3 satisfy
|λi I3 − A| = 0.

41
42 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF EULER PARAMETERS

6. The trace of a matrix (sum of the terms on its principal diagonal) is

equal to the sum of its eigenvalues. For the 3x3 matrix A, trace (A) =
a11 + a22 + a33 = λ1 + λ2 + λ3 .

7. Complex eigenvalues of real matrices occur only in complex conjugate

pairs.

Consider now the expression [T − I3 ] T T . Expanding,

   
[T − I3 ] T T = T T T − T T = I3 − T T

Taking determinants of the left and right sides,

   
|T − I3 | T T  = I3 − T T 
 
We use the fact that T T  = |T | = 1 to arrive at

   
|T − I3 | = I3 − T T  = I3T − T T  = |I3 − T |T = |I3 − T |

With |T − I3 | = |I3 − T | we proceed as

|T − I3 | = |I3 − T |
= |− (T − I3 )|
= (−1)n |T − I3 |
= (−1)3 |T − I3 |
= − |T − I3 |

The conclusion is that |T − I3 | = − |T − I3 |. The only number equal

to its negative is zero, so we must have |T − I3 | = |I3 − T | = 0. With
|I3 − T | = 0 we conclude that one of the eigenvalues of T is 1. Therefore let
λ3 = 1.
While we’re at it let’s learn about λ1 and λ2 . We know that λ3 = 1 and
|T | = λ1 λ2 λ3 , so λ1 λ2 = 1. First, if λ1 is complex then λ2 is its complex
conjugate, or λ2 = λ∗1 and λ1 λ∗1 = 1. For complex numbers the product
λ1 λ∗1 is the length of λ1 , so λ1 λ∗1 = |λ1 | = |λ2 | = 1. We may therefore write
 43

λ1 = cos η + j sin η, λ2 = cos η − j sin η, or in polar form, λ1 = ejη and

λ2 = e−jη .
If λ1 is real, then λ2 is real as well. Using trace (T ) = λ1 + λ2 + λ3 ,
we first note that none of the entries in T are greater than 1 or less than
-1 (they are cosines of angles). We must have −2 ≤ λ1 + λ2 ≤ 2. Also
λ1 λ2 = 1 so λ2 = 1/λ1 . Therefore −2 ≤ λ1 + 1/λ1 ≤ 2. If λ1 is positive then
−2λ1 ≤ λ21 +1 ≤ 2λ1 , and we must simultaneously satisfy 0 ≤ λ21 +2λ1 +1 and
λ21 − 2λ1 + 1 ≥ 0. It is easily shown that 0 ≤ λ21 + 2λ1 + 1 and λ21 − 2λ1 + 1 ≥ 0
for any real λ1 , and that λ21 − 2λ1 + 1 = 0 only at λ1 = 1 (and λ2 = 1). If
λ1 is negative then it may be shown using similar arguments that λ1 = −1
(and λ2 = −1). These two cases are, of course, special instances of λ1 =
cos η − j sin η with η = 0 and η = 180 deg. In summary, we have shown that
the eigenvalues of a direction cosine matrix are:

λ1 = cos η + j sin η
λ2 = cos η − j sin η
λ3 = 1

Getting back to Euler parameters, we recall that the definition of an

eigenvector v of T requires that λi vλi = T vλi , vλi = 0. Therefore, for λ3 = 1
we have vλ3 = T vλ3 . This means there is a vector vλ3 that is invariant under
the transformation T . If the transformation T is T2,1 from F1 to F2 then vλ3
has exactly the same components in both F1 and F2 . This is possible only if
F1 and F2 differ by a rotation about a common axis in the same (or opposite)
direction as vλ3 . Figure A.1 shows this rotation. The invariant vector defines
the eigenaxis and a unit vector in the direction of vλ3 is denoted eη . By now
one is probably not surprised to learn that the angle through which one must
rotate F1 about eη to align the axes with F2 is the same angle η that define
the other two eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 .
We now proceed to find the matrix T2,1 based on the axis eη and angle η.
The overall plan is to find out how an arbitrary vector which is fixed relative
to eη (and rotates through η) survives the rotation, and apply that result to
each of i1 , j1 , and k1 to see how they become i2 , j2 , and k2 . The picture we
have in mind is of a rotation of F1 about eη so that the final orientation is
F2 .
In F1 we may represent eη by its direction cosines ξ, ζ, and χ as
44 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF EULER PARAMETERS

eη
y1

y2

Positive η

x1
z2
x2

z1

Figure A.1: Single Rotation from F1 to F2

eη1 = ξi1 + ζj1 + χk1

In F2 the direction cosines of eη are the same, so

eη2 = ξi2 + ζj2 + χk2

Because they are direction cosines, ξ 2 + ζ 2 + χ2 = 1.

Now consider the effect of the rotation on an arbitrary vector fixed with
respect to eη at an angle φ (figure A.2). We will denote this vector u before
the rotation, and afterward, v. The angle φ is of course unchanged as the tip
of the aribitrary vector rotates in a circular arc through angle η about eη .
We now establish a local coordinate system that rotates with the vector
(figure A.3). In this coordinate system unit vector ex is in the radial direction
outwards, and ey is tangential in the direction of positive rotation. The
orthogonal coordinate system is completed by eη .
The coordinate system Fo is rotated into the coordinate system Ff in a
manner completely analogous to our θz rotation in the discussion of Euler
angles. Without further ado we may write
 45

eη

φ
φ

Figure A.2: Vector Fixed Relative to eη

 
cos η sin η 0
 
{w}f =  − sin η cos η 0  {w}o
0 0 1

or

 
cos η − sin η 0
 
{w}o =  sin η cos η 0  {w}f
0 0 1

Here we have used w to denote any vector, recalling that u and v are
different vectors and that each may be represented in either Fo or Ff . For
our purposes w may be either u or v. We wish to formulate vf in terms
of its length v and the angle φ, and then use the transformation to find vo .
Examining the geometry of v in Ff (figure A.4), we may write down vf :
46 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF EULER PARAMETERS

eη

ex f
eη
ey f
eη
v ey o

u ex o

φ
φ

Figure A.3: Coordinate Systems Fo and Ff

 47

eη

v
v cos φ

φ
v

ex
f

v sin φ

Figure A.4: Geometry of v in Ff

48 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF EULER PARAMETERS

 

 v sin φ 

{v}f = 0

 

v cos φ

Therefore,

 
cos η − sin η 0
 
{v}o =  sin η cos η 0  {v}f
0 0 1
  
cos η − sin η 0 
 v sin φ 

 
=  sin η cos η 0  0

 

0 0 1 v cos φ
 

 v sin φ cos η 
= v sin φ sin η

 

v cos φ

In component form this is:

{v}o = v sin φ cos ηexo + v sin φ sin ηeyo + v cos φeη

Since this vector we are rotating around is to be arbitrary, the result

should not depend on the angle φ or the orientation of Fo . We can eliminate
these dependencies by applying some vector algebra. First note that, with
respect to the vector u, the vector cross product

eη × u = v sin φeyo

So the second term in the expression for {v}o becomes

v sin φ sin ηeyo = (eη × u) sin η

Also, exo = eyo × eη and we can solve eη × u = v sin φeyo for eyo and
substitute:
 49

(eη × u) × eη
e xo =
v sin φ
Expanding the vector triple product yields

u (eη · eη ) − (eη · u) eη u − (eη · u) eη

e xo = =
v sin φ v sin φ
Using this relationship the first term in the expression for {v}o becomes

 
u−(eη ·u)eη
v sin φ cos ηexo = v sin φ cos η v sin φ
= cos ηu − cos η (eη · u) eη

Collecting terms we may write the final result,

v = cos ηu + (eη · u) (1 − cos η) eη + (eη × u) sin η

Now, given the eigenaxis eη , angle η, and any arbitrary vector u fixed
with respect to eη , we may use this equation to find out what happens to
the vector after the rotation. Let us apply this in turn to the vectors i1 , j1 ,
and k1 . After these vectors are rotated they will be aligned with i2 , j2 , and
k2 . So first we take u = i1 and v = i2 :

i2 = cos ηi1 + (eη · i1 ) (1 − cos η) eη + (eη × i1 ) sin η

Into this we insert eη = ξi1 + ζj1 + χk1 so that (eη × i1 ) = χj1 + ζk1 and
(eη · i1 ) = ξ. After collecting and arranging terms we arrive at

i2 = [cos η + ξ 2 (1 − cos η)] i1

+ [ξζ (1 − cos η) + χ sin η] j1
+ [ξχ (1 − cos η) + ζ sin η] k1

This is the first row of our direction cosine matrix T2,1 . The second
and third rows may be obtained in a similar fashion. A few trigonometric
50 APPENDIX A. DERIVATION OF EULER PARAMETERS

identities and definitions will clean up the expressions. We may express the
trigonometric functions in terms of half angles by using

cos η = 2 cos2 (η/2) − 1

1 − cos η = 2 sin2 (η/2)
sin η = 2 sin (η/2) cos (η/2)

We also define the four Euler parameters

.
q0 =cos (η/2)
.
q1 =ξ sin (η/2)
.
q2 =ζ sin (η/2)
.
q3 =χ sin (η/2)

Note that q02 + q12 + q22 + q32 = 1. This permits us to tidy up the expressions
in T2,1 considerably. For instance, the first term in the equation for i2 above
(same as t11 ) becomes:

 
cos η + ξ 2 (1 − cos η) = [2 cos2 (η/2) − 1] + ξ 2 2 sin2 (η/2) − 1
= 2q02 − 1 + 2q12
= 2q02 − (q02 + q12 + q22 + q32 ) + 2q12
= q02 + q12 − q22 − q32

The finished result is

 
(q02 + q12 − q22 − q32 ) 2 (q1 q2 + q0 q3 ) 2 (q1 q3 − q0 q2 )
 
T2,1 =  2 (q1 q2 − q0 q3 ) (q02 − q12 + q22 − q32 ) 2 (q2 q3 + q0 q1 ) 
2 (q1 q3 + q0 q2 ) 2 (q2 q3 − q0 q1 ) (q02 − q12 − q22 + q32 )