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WEATHER
AND CLIMATE
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Weather
and Climate
Contents PHOTOGRAPH ON PAGE 1
Tornado during an electrical
storm, in Oklahoma, 1973
Climatology
Page 6
Surface Factors
Page 18
Meteorological
Phenomena
Page 36
Meteorology
Page 62
Climate Change
Page 74
he flutter of a butterfly's wings in different: when there should have been sunshine,
A Sum “T Brazil can unleash a tornado in
Florida.” That was the conclusion
there is rain; people who planned to go to the
beach find they have to shut themselves up in the
arrived at in 1972 by Edward Lorenz after basement until the hurricane passes. All this
of Factors dedicating himself to the study of
meteorology and trying to find a way of
uncertainty causes many people who live in areas
that are besieged by hurricanes or tropical
predicting meteorological phenomena that storms to live in fear of what might happen,
might put the lives of people at because they feel very vulnerable to changes in
STRONG WINDS AND
TORRENTIAL RAINS risk. In effect, the atmosphere weather. It is also true that natural phenomena,
Between September 20 and is a system so complicated such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and cyclones, do
September 25, 1998,
Hurricane Georges lashed the that many scientists define not in themselves cause catastrophes. For
Caribbean, leaving thousands it as chaotic. Any forecast example, a hurricane becomes a disaster and
of people homeless.
can rapidly deteriorate causes considerable damage, deaths, and
because of the wind, the economic losses only because it strikes a
appearance of a warm populated area or travels over farmland. Yet in
front, or an unexpected society, the idea persists that natural phenomena
storm. Thus, the equate to death and destruction. In fact,
difference continues experience shows that we have to learn to live
to grow with these phenomena and plan ahead for what
geometrically, and might happen when they occur. In this book,
the reality of the along with spectacular images, you will find
next day is not the useful information about the factors that
one that was determine weather and climate, and you will be
expected but able to understand why long-term forecasts are
entirely so complicated. What changes are expected if
global warming continues to increase? Could the
polar ice caps melt and raise sea levels? Could
agricultural regions slowly become deserts? All
this and much more are found in the pages of the
book. We intend to arouse your curiosity about
weather and climate, forces that affect everyone.
Climatology SATELLITE IMAGE
In this image of the Earth,
one clearly sees the movement
of water and air, which causes,
among other things,
GLOBAL EQUILIBRIUM 8-9
PURE AIR 10-11
ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS 12-13
COLLISION 14-15
temperature variations.
COLORS IN THE SKY 16-17
Within this complex system, one of the moisture into the atmosphere. Water,
T
he constantly moving environment. All these constitute what is
atmosphere, the oceans, the called the climatic system; they fundamental variables is temperature, with all its processes (evaporation,
continents, and the great permanently interact with one another which experiences the most change and condensation, convection), also plays a
masses of ice are the principal and transport water (as liquid or vapor), is the most noticeable. The wind is fundamental role in Earth's climatic
components of the electromagnetic radiation, and heat. important because it carries heat and system.
8 CLIMATOLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 9
Global Equilibrium SOLAR RADIATION

About 50 percent of the solar
energy reaches the surface of the
Earth, and some of this energy is
Sun
Essential for climatic activity.
The subsystems absorb,
exchange, and reflect energy
Cryosphere
Represents regions of the Earth
covered by ice. Permafrost exists
where the temperature of the soil
he Sun's radiation delivers a large amount of energy, transferred directly to different
T
that reaches the Earth's surface. or rocks is below zero. These
which propels the Earth's extraordinary mechanism called layers of the atmosphere. Much of
the available solar radiation leaves
For example, the biosphere regions reflect almost all the light
they receive and play a role in the
incorporates solar energy via
the climatic system. The components of this complex the air and circulates within the photosynthesis and intensifies circulation of the ocean, regulating
system are the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, other subsystems. Some of this
energy escapes to outer space.
the activity of the hydrosphere. its temperature and salinity.
cryosphere, and biosphere. All these components are constantly ALBEDO OF RECENTLY
interacting with one another via an interchange of materials and 80% FALLEN SNOW
energy. Weather and climatic phenomena of the past—as well ALBEDO
WINDS
as of the present and the future—are the combined expression The atmosphere is always in The percentage of solar 50% SUN
of Earth's climatic system. motion. Heat displaces masses radiation reflected by the THE ALBEDO OF
of air, and this leads to the climatic subsystems. LIGHT CLOUDS Lithosphere
general circulation of the This is the uppermost solid layer of
atmosphere. the Earth's surface. Its continual
formation and destruction change the
surface of the Earth and can have a
Atmosphere Biosphere large impact on weather and climate.
Part of the energy received Living beings (such as plants) For example, a mountain range can
PRECIPITATION
from the Sun is captured by the influence weather and climate. They act as a geographic barrier
Water condensing in the
atmosphere. The other part is form the foundations of ecosystems, to wind and moisture.
atmosphere forms droplets, and
absorbed by the Earth or which use minerals, water, and other
gravitational action causes them
reflected in the form of heat. chemical compounds. They contribute
to fall on different parts of the
Greenhouse gases heat up the materials to other subsystems.
Earth's surface.
atmosphere by slowing the
release of heat to space.
EVAPORATION about 10% HEAT

The surfaces of water ALBEDO OF THE TROPICAL FORESTS
bodies maintain the HEAT
quantity of water vapor
in the atmosphere
within normal limits.
SMOKE
Particles that escape
into the atmosphere
Night and day, coastal can retain their heat
breezes exchange energy and act as
between the hydrosphere condensation nuclei
HUMAN
and the lithosphere. for precipitation.
ACTIVITY
RETURN TO THE SEA
UNDERGROUND CIRCULATION
The circulation of water is
produced by gravity. Water from
the hydrosphere infiltrates the
lithosphere and circulates therein
until it reaches the large water ASHES
reservoirs of lakes, rivers, Volcanic eruptions bring nutrients to
MAR and oceans. the climatic system where the ashes
INE C fertilize the soil. Eruptions also block
URRE
NTS
the rays of the Sun and thus reduce the
amount of solar radiation received by
the Earth's surface. This causes cooling
of the atmosphere.
Hydrosphere SOLAR
ENERGY
The hydrosphere is the name for all
water in liquid form that is part of the GREENHOUSE EFFECT
ATMOSPHERE
climatic system. Most of the lithosphere
is covered by liquid water, and some of
3%
ALBEDO OF THE
Some gases in the atmosphere are very
OZONE effective at retaining heat. The layer of
the water even circulates through it. BODIES OF WATER LAYER
air near the Earth's surface acts as a
shield that establishes a range of
temperatures on it, within which life
can exist.
Pure Airhe atmosphere is the mass of air that

GASES IN THE AIR
Carbon
dioxide
0.04%
T Argon Other gases

envelops the surface of the Earth. Its 0.93% 0.03%
composition allows it to regulate the quantity Oxygen

and type of solar energy that reaches the surface of 21%
the Earth. The atmosphere, in turn, absorbs energy Nitrogen

radiated by the crust of the Earth, the polar ice 78%
caps and the oceans, and other surfaces on the
planet. Although nitrogen is its principal
component, it also contains other gases, such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone, and water vapor.
These less abundant gases, along with
microscopic particles in the air, have a great GREENHOUSE
influence on the Earth's weather and climate. EFFECT
Produced by the
absorption of
infrared emissions
EXOSPHERE
This layer, which begins at an
altitude of about 310 miles
by the greenhouse
gases in the
atmosphere. This
59° F DISTANT ORBITS
Polar meteorological
satellites orbit in the
(500 km), is the upper limit of
the atmosphere. Here material
in plasma form escapes from
natural
phenomenon helps
to keep the Earth's
(15° C) exosphere.
the Earth, because the magnetic surface AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

forces acting on them are temperature stable. OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE
greater than those of gravity.
THERMOSPHERE
Found between an altitude
of 55 and 300 miles (90-
500 km). The O2 and the N2
absorb ultraviolet rays and
reach temperatures greater Military satellites
than 1,800° F (1,000° C). Air friction shortens
These temperatures keep their useful life.
the density of gases in this
layer very low. Auroras
Created in the upper layers 6%
of solar radiation
of the atmosphere when the
solar wind generates is reflected by
electrically charged particles the atmosphere.
Meteors
Rocket probes become superheated by
Used for scientific friction with the
studies of the molecules of the gas in
higher regions of the atmosphere.
the atmosphere Particles that skip
19% across the atmosphere
of solar radiation are called shooting stars.
is absorbed by
the gases in the
atmosphere.
Cosmic rays
Come from the Sun and
other radiation sources in
outer space. When they
MESOSPHERE collide with the molecules
Located between an altitude of gas in the atmosphere,
of 30 to 55 miles (50-90 they produce a rain of
km), it absorbs very little particles.
energy yet emits a large
amount of it. This absorption
deficit causes the
temperatures to decrease
from 60° F to -130° F (20° C
to -90° C) in the upper
boundary of the mesopause.
SOLAR RADIATION
Noctilucent clouds
The only clouds that 20%
of solar radiation
exist above the
troposphere. They are is reflected by
the objects of intense the clouds. Forecasts
STRATOSPHERE study. Weather balloons are
Extends from an altitude of 6 used to make weather
miles to 30 miles (10-50 km). forecasts. They record
The band from 12 to 19 miles the conditions of the
(20-30 km) has a high stratosphere.
concentration of ozone, which
absorbs ultraviolet radiation. A
thermal inversion is produced The Ozone Layer
in this layer that is expressed Safe flights stops most of the
as an abrupt temperature The absence of Sun's ultraviolet rays.
increase beginning at an meteorological
altitude of 12 miles (20 km). Tropical storm changes in this region
clouds makes it safer for
commercial flights.
TROPOSPHERE
Starts at sea level and goes to an
altitude of six miles (10 km). It provides
51% 4%
of solar A small amount of
conditions suitable for life to exist. It radiation is solar radiation is High mountains
contains 75 percent of the gases in the absorbed by the reflected by the oceans Any mountains higher than 5
Earth's surface. and the ground. miles (8 km) above sea level.
atmosphere. Meteorological conditions, The decrease of oxygen with
such as the formation of clouds and Cirrus
altitude makes it difficult to
precipitation, depend on its dynamics. It breathe above 2.5 miles (4 km).
is also the layer that contains pollution
generated by human activities.
Atmospheric Dynamics --
+
--
POLAR CELL
At the poles, cold air descends
and moves toward the Equator.
JET STREAM
Velocity 55 to 250 miles per
hour (90-400 km/h)
Length 1,000 to 3,000 miles
10 miles
(16 km)
STRATOSPHERE
he atmosphere is a dynamic system. Temperature changes and the Earth's (1,610-4,850 km)
T motion are responsible for horizontal and vertical air displacement. Here
the air of the atmosphere circulates between the poles and the Equator
in horizontal bands within different latitudes. Moreover, the characteristics
--
Polar jet
stream
Width 1 to 3 miles
(1.6-4.8 km)
Discovered in the 19th

century through the use of
6 miles
(10 km)
Jet stream
TROPOSPHERE
of the Earth's surface alter the path of the moving air, causing zones of kites. Airplanes can shorten
differing air densities. The relations that arise among these processes their flying time by hitching
a ride on them. Their paths
EARTH'S
influence the climatic conditions of our planet.

SURFACE
are observed to help predict
the weather.
Subtropical jet
stream
+ +
Rotation of CORIOLIS FORCE
the Earth The Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection FERREL CELL
of the path of an object that moves within a A part of the air in the HADLEY CELL
rotating coordinate system. The Coriolis Hadley cells follows its Warm air ascends in the equatorial region
effect appears to deflect the trajectory of course toward the poles and moves toward the middle latitudes, in
the winds that move over the surface of the to a latitude of 60° N which the Sun's average angle of incidence is
Equator Earth, because the Earth moves beneath the and 60° S. lower than in the tropics.
winds. This apparent deflection is to the Intertropical Equator
right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the Convergence
-- --
left in the Southern Hemisphere. The effect Zone (ITCZ)
is only noticeable on a large scale because of WEATHER SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
the rotational velocity of the Earth. The continuous lines are isobars (in this case, in the
Southern Hemisphere), imaginary lines that connect
points of equal pressure. They show depressions—
centers of low pressure relative to the surroundings—
TRADE WINDS
and an anticyclone, a center of high pressure.
High and Low Pressure These winds blow
+ +
toward the Equator.
Warm air rises and causes a low-pressure
area (cyclone) to form beneath it. As the air
cools and descends, it forms a high-pressure area
(anticyclone). Here the air moves from an -- Low-pressure
anticyclonic toward a cyclonic area as wind. The
warm air, as it is displaced and forced upward,
6 area
leads to the formation of clouds. The masses of High-pressure

cold air lose + area
their mobility. -- --
1 Jet-stream
Masses of cold currents
air descend and Westerlies
prevent clouds
from forming.
-- --
5 The rising air
leads to the + Polar
Isobars Wind
formation of easterlies
clouds. direction
Minimum wind velocity Maximum wind velocity Jet stream

Changes in Circulation High-altitude Convergence Divergence Convergence Divergence (convergence) (divergence)
Irregularities in the topography of the air flow
surface, abrupt changes in temperature, (jet stream)
The wind blows and the influence of ocean currents can alter
3 from a high- toward
a low-pressure area.
the general circulation of the atmosphere.
These circumstances can generate waves in the
air currents that are, in general, linked to the Anticyclone Anticyclone
B cyclonic zones. It is in these zones that storms
originate, and they are therefore studied with
Surface Cyclone Cyclone
A 4 great interest. However, the anticyclone and

the cyclone systems must be studied together
air flow
Forces in the upper-air currents, along with The waves in the upper layers The velocity creates a The jet stream
The descending air Warm air rises and
2 forms an area of high
pressure (anticyclone).
forms an area of low
pressure (cyclone).
because cyclones are fed by currents of air
coming from anticyclones.
surface conditions, may cause air currents to
flow together or may split them apart.
are translated into cyclones and
anticyclones at ground level.
difference in air concentration
between different systems.
generates air rotation,
or vorticity.
Collision Entire Continents

Fronts stretch over large geographic areas.
In this case, a cold front causes storm
GERMANY
POLAND
BELARUS
Kiev
hen two air masses with different temperatures and moisture content collide, they
W
STATIONARY FRONTS perturbations in western Europe. But to the
Bonn Kraków UKR AINE
These fronts occur when there is no
cause atmospheric disturbances. When the warm air rises, its cooling causes water forward motion of warm or cold air—that
east, a warm front, extending over a wide
area of Poland, brings light rain. These fronts
FR ANCE
Prague
vapor to condense and the formation of clouds and precipitation. A mass of warm is, both masses of air are stationary. This can gain or lose force as they move over the
type of condition can last many days and
and light air is always forced upward, while the colder and heavier air acts like a wedge. This produces only altocumulus clouds. The
Earth's surface depending on the global
pressure system.
cold-air wedge undercuts the warmer air mass and forces it to rise more rapidly. temperature also remains stable, and there
is no wind except for some flow of air
This effect can cause variable, sometimes stormy, weather. parallel to the line of the front. There
could be some light precipitation.
125 miles KEY

Cold Fronts Very dense clouds Cold air Warm air (200 km) Surface cold front Surface warm front
These fronts occur when cold air is moved by the that rise to a
wind and collides with warmer air. Warm air is considerable altitude A warm front can be 125 miles (200 km)
Cold front Warm front long. A cold front usually covers about
driven upward. The water vapor contained in the air forms
cumulus clouds, which are rising, dense white clouds. Cold 60 miles (100 km). In both cases, the Warm Fronts
Cool air altitude is roughly 0.6 mile (1 km).
fronts can cause the temperature to drop by 10° to 30° F These are formed by the action of winds. A
(about 5°-15° C) and are characterized by violent and mass of warm air occupies a place formerly
irregular winds. Their collision with the mass of ascending occupied by a mass of cold air. The speed of the cold
water vapor will generate rain, snow flurries, and snow. If air mass, which is heavier, decreases at ground level
the condensation is rapid, heavy downpours, snowstorms Cold front Warm air by friction, through contact with the ground. The
(during the cold months), and hail may result. In weather warm front ascends and slides above the cold mass.
maps, the symbol for a cold front is a blue line of This typically causes precipitation at ground level.
triangles indicating the direction of motion. OCCLUDED FRONTS Light rain, snow, or sleet are typically produced, with
Cold air Warm air Cool air When the cold air replaces the cool air relatively light winds. The first indications of warm
at the surface, with a warm air mass Cold air
fronts are cirrus clouds, some 600 miles (1,000 km) in
above, a cold occlusion is formed. A front of the advancing low pressure center. Next,
warm occlusion occurs when the cool air layers of stratified clouds, such as the cirrostratus,
rises above the cold air. These fronts are altostratus, and nimbostratus, are formed while the
associated with rain or snow, cumulus Cool air
pressure is decreasing.
clouds, slight temperature fluctuations,
and light winds.
Severe imbalance
in the cold front
A barely noticeable
Thick rain
The cold front forces the warm imbalance of a warm front
clouds Rain below
air upward, causing storms.
the front
Behind the cold front,

the sky clears and the
temperature drops. There could be
precipitation in the area
with warm weather.
Rossby Waves 1
A long Rossby wave develops
in the jet stream of the high 2
The Coriolis effect
accentuates the wave action 3
The formation of a meander of warm
and cold air can provide the conditions
Large horizontal atmospheric waves that are troposphere. in the polar air current. needed to generate cyclones.
associated with the polar-front jet stream. If the
They may appear as large undulations in the warm front
path of the jet stream. The dynamics of the moves faster than
climatic system are affected by these waves As the clouds extend The mass of cold air takes the form the retreating wedge of
because they promote the exchange of over a region, they of a retreating wedge, which has cold air, the height of the
energy between the low and high latitudes produce light rain the effect of lifting the warm air as advancing warm front
and can even cause cyclones to form. or snow. it moves over the mass of cold air. continues to increase.
Colors in the Sky How They Are Produced

The auroras are the result of depending on the altitude at which
620 miles
natural spectacle of incomparable beauty, the auroras are the shock produced as ions they are produced. Moreover, they (1,000 km)
A produced around the magnetic poles of the Earth by the activity
of the Sun. Solar wind acts on the magnetosphere, which is a
part of the exosphere. In general, the greater the solar wind, the more
NORTH POLE
coming from the Sun make contact
with the magnetic field of the Earth.
They appear in different colors
demonstrate the function of the
magnetosphere, which protects the
planet against solar winds.
is how long an aurora can be.
From space it will look like a
circle around one of the
magnetic poles of the Earth.
prominent the aurora. Auroras consist of luminous patches and columns
of various colors. Depending on whether they appear in the north or
south, they are called aurora borealis or aurora australis. The aurora
Sodium atoms
and molecules Nitrogen atoms
borealis can be seen in Alaska, Canada, and the Scandinavian countries. emit a yellowish
orange light.
and molecules
emit violet light.
A satellite image of
the aurora borealis
310-370 MILES
(500-600 KM) Oxygen atoms
MAGNETOSPHERE
(EXOSPHERE)
and molecules
0-6 MILES emit green light.
(0-10 KM)
TROPOSPHERE
55-300 MILES
(90-500 KM)
MESOSPHERE
ELECTRONS COLLIDE WITH THEY BECOME THEY GENERATE LIGHT

1 MOLECULES
2 EXCITED
3 Depending on the altitude and the
The oxygen and nitrogen molecules After the shock, the atoms velocity where the shock is produced,
receive the impact of the particles receive a significant the aurora displays different colors.
from the Sun. This occurs in the additional energetic charge Among the possibilities are violet,
magnetosphere (exosphere). that will be released in the green, orange, and yellow.
form of photons (light).
10-20
Solar Winds
The Sun emits radiation, continuously and BOW SHOCK WAVE THE SUN THE EARTH THE POLES
minutes
in all directions. This radiation occurs as a emits solar The Earth's The auroras are more duration of the
flow of charged particles or plasma, which winds, which magnetosphere is noticeable near the poles; phenomenon
consists mainly of electrons and protons. The SOLAR WIND cause serious responsible for they are called aurora
plasma particles are guided by the magnetic damage and an protecting the borealis in the Northern The amount of light emitted
field of the Sun and form the solar wind, which increase in planet from the Hemisphere and aurora oscillates between 1 and 10 million
travels through space at some 275 miles per temperature. deadly and harmful australis in the Southern megawatts, equivalent to the
second (450 km/s). Particles from the solar solar winds. Hemisphere. energy produced by 1,000 to
wind arrive at the Earth within four or five days. MAGNETOTAIL OVAL AURORA 10,000 large electric power plants.
Surface Factors VIETNAM, DECEMBER 1991
The intense monsoon rains
caused severe flooding in vast
regions of Cambodia, Vietnam,
LIVING WATER 20-21
OCEAN CURRENTS 22-23
AN OBSTACLE COURSE 24-25
MONSOONS 28-29
GOOD FORTUNE AND CATASTROPHE 30-31
THE ARRIVAL OF EL NIÑO 32-33
Laos, and Thailand.
THE LAND AND THE OCEAN 26-27 THE EFFECTS OF EL NIÑO 34-35
Southwest Asia, there are frequent risk of catching contagious diseases such
A
mong meteorological droughts, lack of food, and an increase in
phenomena, rain plays a very infant mortality. It is clear that an excess typhoons and torrential rains during as malaria. The warm current of El Niño
important role in the life of of water, caused by overabundant rain or which millions of people lose their also affects the lives and the economy of
humans. Its scarcity causes the effects of gigantic waves, is also houses and must be relocated to more millions of people.
serious problems, such as cause for alarm and concern. In secure areas; however, they still run the
20 SURFACE FACTORS WEATHER AND CLIMATE 21
Living Water WATER AVAILABILITY

(cubic feet [cu m]
Arctic
Ocean
WHERE IT IS FOUND FRESHWATER SALT WATER
he water in the oceans, rivers, clouds, and rain is in constant motion. Surface water evaporates, per capita/year)
A small percentage is
freshwater; most of it
3 % 97 %
T water in the clouds precipitates, and this precipitation runs along and seeps into the Earth.
Nonetheless, the total amount of water on the planet does not change. The circulation and
conservation of water is driven by the hydrologic, or water, cycle. This cycle begins with evaporation of
Less than 60,000 cu ft
(1,700 cu m)
60,000-175,000 cu ft
(1,700-5,000 cu m)
North
America
Europe
Atlantic
Ocean
Asia
Pacific
Ocean
is salt water.
FRESHWATER
Underground
Lakes
0.029%
water from the Earth's surface. The water vapor humidifies as the air rises. The water vapor in the air cools More than 175,000 cu ft
(5,000 cu m) Pacific
water
1%
0.03%
water on
Atmosphere
0.001%
Ocean
and condenses onto solid particles as microdroplets. The microdroplets combine to form clouds. When the Access to potable water
Africa Indian
Ocean Ice
the surface
Rivers
and in the
droplets become large enough, they begin to fall back to Earth, and, depending on the temperature of the Less than 50% of the South Oceania
2% atmosphere 0.00015%
population
atmosphere, they return to the ground as rain, snow, or hail. America
1. 2. 3.
EVAPORATION TRANSPIRATION CONDENSATION PRECIPITATION
Thanks to the effects of the Perspiration is a natural process In order for water vapor to condense The wind carries the clouds toward the LIQUID STATE SOLID STATE
Sun, ocean water is warmed that regulates body temperature. and form clouds, the air must contain continent. When the humid air cools, it A rise in temperature increases the The molecules have very little
kinetic energy of the molecules, mobility because of the great
and fills the air with water When the body temperature condensation nuclei, which allow the condenses and falls as rain, snow, or hail. which breaks the hydrogen bonds. number of bonds they establish
vapor. Evaporation from rises, the sweat glands are molecules of water to form with hydrogen atoms. They
humid soil and vegetation stimulated, causing perspiration. microdroplets. For condensation to Some of the molecules form snow crystals.
cubic are set free.
increases humidity. The result
is the formation of clouds. CONTRIBUTION OF LIVING
BEINGS, ESPECIALLY PLANTS, TO
occur, the water must be cooled.
FORMATION OF DROPLETS
The molecules of water
72 miles The majority of
them remain
SNOW
10%
THE WATER THE HUMAN OF WATER FALL EACH DAY IN bonded.
vapor decrease their
IN THE BODY IS mobility and begin THE FORM OF PRECIPITATION.
ATMOSPHERE 65% WATER. to collect on
solid particles
suspended Nucleus
GASEOUS STATE in the air.
The rays of the Sun RAIN
increase the motion
The water vapor
of atmospheric gases. 3 escapes via
The combination of
micropores in the
heat and wind
leaves' surface.
transforms liquid water
into water vapor.
The water ascends
2 via the stem.
WIND
1 The root
absorbs water. CLOUDS
All the Root cells LAKE PERMEABLE

molecules LAYERS
of water are
freed.
INFILTRATION
Underground
aquifers
IMPERMEABLE
LAYERS
AQUIFERS
RIVER
5.
UNDERGROUND CIRCULATION
There are two kinds, both of
which are gravity driven. The
300 4.
RUNOFF
Water in liquid form runs off
the surface of the terrain via
OCEAN first occurs in a shallow zone, in
karstic rock such as limestone,
years rivers and valleys. In climates
that are not especially dry, this
cubic
6.
RETURN TO THE OCEAN
The waters return to the ocean, completing
the cycle, which can take days for surface
and consists of a downward flow.
The second occurs in aquifers,
where interstitial water fills up
THE AVERAGE LENGTH OF
TIME THAT A WATER
MOLECULE REMAINS IN THE
phenomenon is the principal
geologic agent of erosion and
transport. Runoff is reduced
340 miles
OF WATER CIRCULATE IN THE
DISCHARGE AREA waters and years for underground waters. the pores of a rock. UNDERGROUND AQUIFERS during times of drought. TERRESTRIAL HYDROSPHERE.
22 SURFACE FACTORS A l a s k a C u r r ea C u r r e n
t WEATHER AND CLIMATE 23
acific Current
North P
O ya
Curren
t
Ocean Currents
at i n g s y s t e m
nt
SUBPOLAR ARCTIC THE FOUR SEASONS
re
nt
nt
ur
Pacific C CIRCULATING SYSTEM OF A LAKE
rre
ia
rre
Ocean rn For the last five decades,
ifo
Cu
Because of the physical
Cu
these currents have been
l
A rc
ul
Ca
t ic circ
or
or
d properties of water, lakes
cean water moves as waves, tides, and currents. There are
d
ra ra shown to be undergoing
O
and lagoons have a special
b
dramatic changes.
La
two types of currents: surface and deep. The surface seasonal circulation that
Kuroshio
t
en
u rr ensures the survival of living
currents, caused by the wind, are great rivers in the ocean. At lan
ti cC
creatures.
th
They can be some 50 miles (80 km) wide. They have a profound Nor
SUMMER
effect on the world climate because the water warms up near Gu l
f St
ream Stable summer temperatures
prevent vertical circulation in the
the Equator, and currents transfer this heat to higher latitudes. body of water of the lagoon.
Deep currents are caused by differences in water density. Pacific

Summer
t
c u rren
Ocean
stratification
Fahrenheit
nt
t
er
en
t Atlantic
North Equatorial Coun
rr
Ocean 77 °
Cu
nt
curre
y
ter 75 °
ar
Equatorial Counterc o un
Can
ur
lC 64 °
ria Epilimnion
re n t
to
THE INFLUENCE OF THE WINDS North Equa
unte
rc u r re n t 55 °
l Co Thermocline
to ria 46 °
ua
TIDES AND THE CORIOLIS EFFECT GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE Eq 43 °
Hypolimnion
The Coriolis effect, which influences The deflection caused by the Coriolis effect on No r 41 °
th Eq u
the direction of the winds, drives the the currents is compensated for by pressure atorial Countercurrent t Nort
h Eq
uatorial Counterc
displacement of marine currents. gradients between cyclonic and anticyclonic South Equ
at o Equatorial Co un t c u r re n t
urr
en ia
l Cu
rrent
e rc u r re n t
systems. This effect is called geostrophic balance. ria t
r
AUTUMN
quato
lC Equatorial Co un te rc urre nt
u rr
e South Equatorial Cuuatorial Current
Temperature decrease and
High pressure temperature variations generate
th E
Low pressure
nt
Coriolis Subtropical high- a mixing of the surface and deep
Subpolar low pressure
ou
force pressure center S o ut
S
waters.
Pe
h Eq
ru
uat
Pressure oria Autumn mixture
vi
nt
l C u r re n t
gradient
an
rre
Atlantic antic
Cu
ean Indian
Cu
ent
Ocean
rre
Winds Ocean
as
41 °
nt
urr
lh
Current
gu
B ra z il C
A
46 °
46 °
guela
nt
re
Pacific r
Cu 41 °
Ben
Ocean a
ali
u st r
nA
Fa lkl a
Currents in the In the Southern We st e r
Northern Hemisphere, the
nt
nd
Hemisphere travel currents travel in a
rre
WINTER
Cu
Anta
in a clockwise counterclockwise When the water reaches 39° F
rr
Cu
rcti
cC
en
n
direction. direction. i rc ia (4° C), its density increases. That
t
um al
An An po tr is how strata of solid water on
tar
c t i c c i r c u l at i n g s y s te m lar us
the surface and liquid water
A
Cu
rr
t
We s
en
t Warm current underneath are created.
Cold current
r ent Winter mixture
lar Cur
HOW CURRENTS ARE FORMED tic C
ircu mpo
Ant
arc 32 °
Wind and solar In the Southern This slow ascent of deep
energy produce
surface currents
in the water.
1. Hemisphere, coastal winds
push away the surface
water so that cold water
can ascend.
2. water is called a surge. This
motion is modified by the
Ekman spiral effect.
DEEP CURRENTS
have a vital function of carrying
oxygen to deep water. This permits Gulf
35 °
37 °
EKMAN SPIRAL life to exist in deep water. Stream

Warm surface
waters explains why the
surface currents and
Subsurface
waters deep currents are Near Greenland, Warm surface water
occupy the space opposite in direction.
1 the North Atlantic 2 from the Gulf Stream SPRING
left by the water sinks, and replaces the cold water The characteristics of water once
COAST motion of the Wind energy is the colder and that is sinking. again initiate vertical circulation in
surface waters. transferred to the water more saline water the lake. Spring temperatures lead
in friction layers. Thus, is pushed to this circulation.
64° F (18 °C) the velocity of the southward.
surface water increases Spring mix
61° F (16 °C) more than that of the
deep water.
57° F (14 °C) 39 °
The Coriolis effect 37 °
54° F (12 °C) causes the direction of
the currents to deviate.
The surface currents Ocean conveyor belt
travel in the opposite
Deep cold direction of the deep Deep Warm Cold
39 °
water currents. layers
Tundra. Its rate of growth
An Obstacle Course MAJOR

MOUNTAIN RANGES
Mountain Elevation
Rocky
Mountains
Alps
Urals
VEGETATION
13,000
(4,000)
is slow and only during the
summer.
Taiga. The vegetation is

conifer forest.
he mountains are geographical features with a great influence on climate. Winds laden with 10,000
T
Everest 29,035 feet (8,850 m) Himalayas
Appalachians
moisture collide with these vertical obstacles and have to rise up their slopes to pass over
(3,000) Mixed forest. Made up of
Aconcagua 22,834 feet (6,960 m)
Dhaulagiri 26,795 feet (8,167 m) deciduous trees and conifers.
them. During the ascent, the air discharges water in the form of precipitation on the Makalu 27,766 feet (8,463 m)
6,500
Chaparral. Brush with
windward sides, which are humid and have dense vegetation. The air that reaches the leeward
(2,000)
Nanga Parbat 26,660 feet (8,126 m)
thick and dry leaves.
Kanchenjunga 28,169 feet (8,586 m)
slopes is dry, and the vegetation usually consists of sparse grazing land. Ojos del Salado 22,614 feet (6,893 m) Andes 3,000
Grazing. Thickets
(1,000)
Kilimanjaro 19,340 feet (5,895 m) predominate: low, perennial
0 feet (0 m) grazing plants with an
herbaceous appearance.
The Effect of the Andes Mountains Western slopes Eastern slopes
4. receive most of the moisture, which The rays of the Sun fall directly upon
SNOW RAIN DESCENDING
Drops of super- The microdroplets WIND leads to the growth of pine and other these areas, making them more arid.
1.
HUMID WINDS
2. 3.
ASCENT AND CONDENSATION PRECIPITATION
cooled water increase in size and A natural trees of coastal mountain ranges. There is little or no vegetation.
In the mountains, the predominant Condensation occurs when a mass of air cools A natural barrier forces the
combine to fall because of barrier forces
winds are moisture-laden and blow in until it reaches the saturation point (relative air to ascend and cool. The form ice crystals. gravity.
the direction of the coastal mountains. humidity 100 percent). The dew point rises when result is cloud formation the air to
the air becomes saturated as it cools and the and precipitation. When they fall, descend and
pressure is held constant. The crystals these drops collide warm up.
IN THE CLOUD grow in size. with smaller ones.
Temperature (in °F [°C]) Composition Successive
Height in Moist adiabatic While they are collisions increase
feet (m) gradient -40 to -4 (-40 to -20) Ice crystals falling, they combine the size of the
18° F
(-8° C) The temperature with other crystals. drops.
16,400 decreases 1° F
(5,000) -4 to 14 (-20 to -10) Supercooled
27° F (0.6° C) for every HOW OBSTACLES WORK
water
HIGH LEVEL OF (-3° C) 300 feet (100 m).
POLLUTION IN 13,000
14 to 32 (-10 to 0) Microdroplets Obstacles, such as buildings, FRONT VIEW Rotational flow
SANTIAGO (4,000) Dew point, or
36° F of water trees, and rock formations,
Partly because it is (2° C) condensation point decrease the velocity of the
the most urbanized 10,000
Greater than 32 (0) Drops of wind significantly and often
and industrialized city (3,000) Dry adiabatic
54° F water create turbulence around them.
of Chile, the capital, (12° C) gradient
Santiago, faces 6,500 The temperature
serious pollution (2,000) declines 1.8° F
72° F
problems. In addition, (22° C) (1° C) every 300
it is located in a 3,000 feet (100 m).
valley with (1,000)
90° F PLAN VIEW Flow and counterflow
characteristics that
do not help disperse Surface (32° C)
the pollution
produced by vehicles
and factories.
ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGE

has altitudes greater than ARGENTINA
Santiago,
Chile
Viña del
19,700 feet
Mar
(6,000 m).
It runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean,
from Panama to southern Argentina. TYPES OF
It is 4,500 miles (7,240 km) long
Valparaíso and 150 miles (241 km) wide.
OROGRAPHICAL EFFECTS
DRY HUMIDS Area affected by

Winds Winds precipitation
CHILE
VERY HIGH The most humid area is UNEVEN
INTERMEDIATE This is produced on halfway up the slope, MOUNTAINSIDE
COASTAL mountains above on the windward side. The most humid
DEPRESSION
16,400 feet (5,000 m) area is at the top of
MOUNTAIN RANGE
This drawing shows in height. the leeward slope.
CLASSIC SCHEME
the coast and the PACIFIC The more humid zone
Andes near Santiago, OCEAN is at the top.
Chile, at Uspallata
Pass.
The Land and WINDS OF THE MOUNTAINS

AND VALLEYS
The Sun heats the soil The air is cooled as it ascends,
HEAT ISLANDS
Cities are complex surfaces. Concrete
and asphalt absorb a large quantity of
Isotherms in a typical city
81° F
82° F
81° F
82° F
CONTINENTALITY
In the interior of a landmass,
there is a wide variation of
Daily variation of temperatures
in the United States
the Ocean 1 of the valley and the

surrounding air, which
ascends by convection.
2 becomes more dense, and
descends. Then it heats up
again and repeats the cycle.
heat during sunny days and release it
during the night.
84° F
84° F
82° F
84°F 86°F 88° F

82°F 90°F
84° F
84° F
82° F
90°F 86°F 82° F

88°F 84°F
daily temperatures, while on
the coasts, the influence of
the ocean reduces this
variation. This continentality
effect is quite noticeable in
emperature distribution and, 80%
T
VALLEY the United States, Russia,
above all, temperature RECENT SNOW India, and Australia.
differences very much depend Continentality index

on the distribution of land and water 75%
surface. Differences in specific heat SLOPE THICK CLOUDS
+ ALBEDO
- -ENERGY
ABSORBED 25% 3-5% Less More
moderate the temperatures of regions WET SAND WATER (WHEN

THE SUN IS HIGH)
close to great masses of water. Water They absorb a significant
COASTAL BREEZES
absorbs heat and releases it more 50% 7-14% amount of heat but remain cool
because much energy is used
slowly than the land does, which is LIGHT CLOUDS FORESTS to evaporate the moisture.
why a body of water can heat or cool 1. ON THE LAND

During the day, the land heats up
more rapidly than the ocean. The
warm air rises and is replaced by
the environment. Its influence is
unmistakable. Moreover, these 15%
ALBEDO OF
Factories and vehicles emit
large amounts of heat into
cooler air coming from the sea.
differences between the land and the MEADOWS the atmosphere.

LAND
Because it is
sea are the cause of the coastal winds. WARM AIR opaque, the heat
stays in the
Cold air currents descend from the
In clear weather, the land heats up 1 mountainside toward the floor of
surface layers,
which are
during the day, which causes the air to the valley, which is still hot. heated and
cooled rapidly.
rise rapidly and form a low-pressure 2
The air currents
are heated and ascend by
zone. This zone draws marine breezes. convection. When they rise, they IN THE OCEAN
cool and once again descend along the From the coast, the ocean receives
mountainside. air that loses its heat near the
water. As a result, the colder air
MOUNTAINSIDE descends toward the sea.
MOUNTAIN WINDS The heat

penetrates into
COLD AIR deeper layers
Chinook WINDS
thanks to the
These winds are dry and warm, sometimes quite hot, transparency of
occurring in various places of the world. In the western the water. A
United States, they are called chinooks and are capable VALLEY
part of the heat
WATER is lost in
of making snow disappear within minutes.
evaporation of
The air tends to the water.
Humid winds are lifted over The dry and cool wind
the slopes, creating clouds descends down the descend in forested
and precipitation on the mountain slope on the and rural areas.
windward side. These are leeward side. It is
called anabatic winds. called katabatic.
During the night, the city
slowly releases heat that was
absorbed during the day.
2. ON THE LAND
During the evening, the land radiates
away its heat more rapidly than the
water. The difference in pressure
generated replaces the cold air of
the coast with warm air.
LEEWARD The flows tend
toward equilibrium.
When night COLD AIR
falls, the land,
WINDWARD which was hot,
WARM AIR WHIRLWINDS cools rapidly. LAND
Intense heat on the plains can generate a hot, spiral-
formed column of air sometimes more than 300 feet
(100 m) high.
Winds Characteristics Location
Autan wind Dry and mild Southwestern France 1 Strong, high-speed winds move on A powerful air IN THE OCEAN
Berg Dry and warm South Africa 1 top of weaker winds and cause the 2 current lifts the The loss of heat from the water is
Bora Dry and cold Northeastern Italy intermediate air to be displaced like spiral. slower.
Brickfielder Dry and hot Australia a pencil on a table.
Buran Dry and cold Mongolia
Harmattan Dry and cool North Africa WARM AIR
Levant Humid and mild Mediterranean region When night
Mistral Dry and cold Rhône valley falls, the water
Santa Ana Dry and hot Southern California STRONG WIND KEY is lukewarm
Sirocco Dry and hot Southern Europe and North Africa (barely a
Tramontana Dry and cold Northeast Spain WATER degree more
Zonda Dry and mild Western Argentina MILD WIND WARM-AIR COLD-AIR than the land).
FLOW FLOW
Monsoons How monsoons are

created in India
THERMAL
DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN THE LAND
The land is cold, so near
the ground the breeze
blows toward the ocean.
The sea is a little warmer
than the land; therefore,
the humid air rises. The
cool air colliding with it
causes clouds and rain.
The Earth is hot, and
therefore the air rises and
is replaced in the lower
layers by cool breezes that
blow in from the sea. The
The sea is cold because
the rays of the Sun heat
up the water more
slowly than the land.
The cool air from the
he strong humid winds that usually affect AND THE OCEAN meeting of the two breezes ocean blows toward the
T the tropical zone are called monsoons, an

Arabic word meaning “seasonal winds.”
During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, they
End of the
monsoon
Beginning of
the monsoon
Cold and
dry winds
Cold and
humid
winds
Cyclone
(low
pressure)
Anticyclone
(high
pressure)
Angle of
incidence of
causes clouds and rain on
the continent.
coast, toward areas
that are warmer.
blow across Southeast Asia, especially the Indian THE CONTINENT COOLS the Sun's
peninsula. Conditions change in the winter, and the 1 After the summer monsoon, the rains stop and
temperatures in Central and South Asia begin to drop.
rays
winds reverse and shift toward the northern Winter begins in the Northern Hemisphere.
regions of Australia. This phenomenon, which is Northern Hemisphere

It is winter. The rays of the
also frequent in continental areas of the United Sun are oblique, traveling a
Rays of
the Sun
States, is part of an annual cycle that, as a result longer distance through
the atmosphere to reach N
of its intensity and its consequences, affects the the Earth's surface. Thus
they are spread over a
lives of many people. larger surface, so the
average temperature is
lower than in the Southern Cold land
Hemisphere.
Southern Hemisphere
AREAS AFFECTED BY MONSOONS It is summer. The rays of
This phenomenon affects the climates in low latitudes, from Predominant the Sun strike the surface
direction of the at a right angle; they are
West Africa to the western Pacific. In the summer, the concentrated in a smaller S
monsoon causes the rains in the Amazon region and in winds during the
month of July area, so the temperature
northern Argentina. There in the winter rain is usually scarce. on average is higher than in
the Northern Hemisphere.
FROM THE CONTINENT

2 TO THE OCEAN
The masses of cold and dry
air that predominate on the Warm
continent are displaced land
toward the ocean,
whose waters are
relatively warmer. Arabian
Sea Bay of
Bengal
Limit of the
intertropical
THE MONSOON OF NORTH AMERICA convergence
Arabian
Pre-monsoon. Month of May. Monsoon. Month of July. Sea
OCEAN STORMS STORMS ON THE

3 A cyclone located in the ocean draws
the cold winds from the continent and
CONTINENT
The climate in India
3
lifts the somewhat warmer and more and Bangladesh is very
humid air, which returns toward the hot and dry. When humid
continent via the upper layers of the and cool winds come in from
atmosphere. the ocean, they cause torrential
rains in these regions.
Cross section (enlarged area)
Rays of the Sun
Limit of the
INTERTROPICAL INFLUENCE Intertropical BARRIERS
Descent of the air
from high altitudes
Descent of the air
from high altitudes
The circulation of the atmosphere between the
tropics influences the formation of monsoon
winds. The trade winds that blow toward the
Convergence
Zone (ITCZ)
Bay of
Bengal
The humid winds are
deflected toward
2
Equator from the subtropical zones are pushed by FROM THE the northeast by
the Hadley cells and deflected in their course by
the Coriolis effect. Winds in the tropics occur
1 OCEAN TO THE
CONTINENT
two mountain chains:
the Himalayas and the
Transport of Western Sierra Transport of within a band of low pressure around the Earth The cool and humid air Ghat mountains. This zone
water vapor Madre water vapor called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
When this zone is seasonally displaced in the from the ocean blows enclosed by the mountains
warm months of the Northern Hemisphere toward toward the continent, is the main one affected
Pacific Ocean Gulf of California Gulf of Mexico the north, a summer monsoon occurs. which is quite hot and dry. by the monsoons.
Good Fortune and Catastrophe In June 2006

The tragic outcome of the
monsoon in South Asia
Uttaranchal
INDIA AND
BANGLADESH
Total population
1.25 billion
he monsoons are a climatic phenomenon governing the life and the economy of one of the most
T densely populated regions of the planet, especially India. The arrival of the intense rains is
celebrated as the end of a season that might have been extremely dry, but it is also feared. The
flooding at times devastates agriculture and housing. The damage is even greater because of the
~49
DEATHS
on June 16, 2006
Nueva Delhi
large population of the region. Therefore, anticipating disaster and taking precautions, such as
evacuating areas prone to flooding, are part of the organization of agricultural activity, Precipitation
(in inches [mm])
BANGLADESH
I N D I A
which thrives in periods of heavy rains, even in fields that are flooded.
16 (400) Extreme
humidity
8 (200) Dhaka
4 (100) Very humid
2 (50) Humid ~1 million

PEOPLE STRANDED BY STORMS
1 (25) Normal IN BANGLADESH
0.4 (10) Very dry
0.04 (1) Extremely

21
DEATHS
Kerala
~212 DEATHS IN
INDIA
During the month of June 2006.
dry On June 16, Most of them were electrocuted by
0 (0) 2006 lightning during electrical storms.
OVERFLOWING RIVERS
The valley that connects the
Ganges with the Brahmaputra
in Bangladesh is the most
UNDERWATER HARVEST afflicted by floods caused by
The mud increases the fertility these rains. The rains destroy
of the soil, which compensates harvests and property.
for the losses. The accumulation
of humid sand is later used in
the dry season. Rice is a grain
that grows in fields that are
underwater.
The Arrival of El Niño SURFACE TEMPERATURE

OF THE OCEAN
The graphic shows the
EL NIÑO
Warmer
than normal
Intense
Average intensity 5.4° F (3° C)

temperature variations
he hydrosphere and the atmosphere interact and establish a dynamic thermal equilibrium 2° C
T between the water and the air. If this balance is altered, unusual climatic phenomena occur
between the coasts of Peru and Southeast Asia. For example, the phenomenon El Niño or, less
frequently, another phenomenon called La Niña are responsible for atypical droughts and floods that
caused by the Southern
Oscillation in the water
along the coast of Peru.
This graphic illustrates the
alternation of the El Niño
and La Niña phenomena
NORMAL
LA NIÑA
Colder than
1° C
0
-1° C
-2° C
every two to seven years affect the routine life of people living on these Pacific Ocean coasts. over the last 50 years.
normal
Normal Conditions KEY El Niño (the warm phase of El La Niña (cold ENSO)
Anticyclone (high- Niño/Southern Oscillation [ENSO]) DURATION: 9 to 18 months
pressure center) DURATION 9 to 18 months FREQUENCY: Every 2 to 7 years
Intertropical
Intertropical Convergence A cold current Severe drought
Peru
Current
Convergence
Zone
Cold Mild Warm Peru Current
3 Peru
Current
Zone
2 The total disruption of
the masses of warm
water off the west coast
3 The effects of La Niña are less
severe than those of El Niño.
Also, the shorter its duration,
Intertropical TRADE of South America also the more intense it is. It
El Niño makes itself felt. WINDS
TRADE Convergence generates colder surface typically begins about halfway
WINDS Zone Southeast Asia suffers a great (strong)
TRADE WINDS temperatures than through the year and
Trade winds (weak) drought, an increase of pressure,
normal along with high intensifies at the end of the
South
Pacific
3 These relatively constant
winds push the waters of the
Pacific Ocean from east to The anticyclone
Anticyclone of
the South
Atlantic
and a decrease in temperature.
On the South American coast,
strong winds and storms occur in
Anticyclone
of the South
Pacific
Anticyclone
of the South
pressure and decreased
humidity.
year before weakening around
the beginning of the new year.
In the Caribbean, La Niña
anticyclone of the South Pacific zones that are usually dry; there Atlantic
South Atlantic west. Between the coasts of causes an increase in humidity.
anticyclone Indonesia and those of is displaced toward is flooding and changes in the
western South America, there the south. flora and fauna.
is on average a 2 foot (0.5 m) Climate inversion
Warm coasts
difference in sea level.
2 For six months, the
normal climatic Overcompensation
2 Because great masses of warm
water permanently flow
toward the coasts of Indonesia 1
Without trade winds
In periods that can vary
from two to seven years, the
conditions are reversed.
The temperature of the
water and air increases
1 The return of normal conditions after El
Niño can be (although not necessarily) the
preamble to an inverse phenomenon called
and New Guinea, they are trade winds that push the along the coasts of Peru La Niña. As a consequence of Southern
about 14° F (8° C) warmer
1 than the South American
coast, where there is also an
warm water toward the west
can be sharply reduced or even
fail to occur. As a result, the
and Ecuador, and the
humidity causes
heavy rains.
Oscillation pressure levels, the trade
winds become stronger than normal.
upwelling of cold water from entire mass moves toward the
Climatic equilibrium the ocean floor.
Normally the coasts of South American coast.
Southeast Asia lie in an area
of low pressure and high
humidity, which causes heavy Cold surface
precipitation. On the water and deep
American coast of the South water
Pacific, the climate is very
dry by comparison. Warm
surface
waters Warm
surface
waters
The mass of relatively warm

water is displaced completely
toward the western Pacific.
Cold deep Warm The ascent of the cold water
waters surface blocks any warm current
water that might go east.
Relatively warm waters replace

Upwelling
cold water the upwelling cold water, which
typically brings a large amount of ON A WORLD SCALE
varied fish and other marine life to the The temperature of the surface of the ocean
surface off the South American coast. during the El Niño phase of 1997
Without this upwelling, fishing output
drops off rapidly. Very Cold Normal Cold Warm Hot
VIA SATELLITE
How the height of sea
level changed because of the
ENSO phenomenon.
A large 5.5 (140)

mass of warm 0 (0)
water accumulates on the
Inches (mm) -7 (-180)
western coasts of the South
Pacific and is sustained by the Images
persistence of the trade winds created by the
at the ocean surface. -7 -5.5 -4 -2 -0.08 0.08 2.4 4 5.5 7 TOPEX/Poseidon
(-180) (-140) (-100) (-50) (-20) (20) (60) (100) (140) (180) EL NIÑO. April 25, 1997 May 25, 1997 satellite. June 25, 1997 September 5, 1997 LA NIÑA. July 11, 1998
KEY
The Effects of El Niño Areas Affected

EL NIÑO from December to February LA NIÑA from June to August
Humid
Cold
he natural warm phenomenon known as El Niño alters the temperature of the water within the Cold
T
Humid
east central zone of the Pacific Ocean along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru. Farmers and fishermen ASIA ASIA
Warm
are negatively affected by these changes in temperature and the modification of marine currents. A M E R ICA A M E R ICA Humid
The nutrients normally present in the ocean decrease or disappear from along the coast because of the Warm
Humid
increase in temperature. As the entire food chain deteriorates, other species also suffer the effects and A F R ICA A F R ICA
disappear from the ocean. In contrast, tropical marine species that live in warmer waters can flourish. Dry
The phenomenon affects the weather and climate of the entire world. It tends to cause flooding, food Dry and
shortages, droughts, and fires in various locations. OCEANIA OCEANIA
cold
Dry and
warm
Normal conditions The phytoplankton promote During El Niño, Various marine species die
Cold waters, rich in nutrients, the normal development of the scarcity of cold water off for lack of food or must
ascend from the bottom of microorganisms, fish, and debilitates the phytoplankton migrate to other zones.
the sea and provide favorable other creatures. population and alters the
FLOODING conditions for the growth of marine food chain.
Abnormal flooding caused by phytoplankton, the basis of
El Niño in the desert regions the marine food chain.
of Chile and the later
evaporation of water leave
behind hexagonal deposits of
potassium nitrate.
ATACAMA,
Surface area 1,200 square miles (3,000 sq km)
CHILE
Laguna Blanca Cause Floods caused by El Niño
Salt Marsh anomalies
Latitude 22° 54´ S 1999
Year
Longitude 68° 12´ W
Meteorological HURRICANE ALERT
This image of Hurricane Elena, captured
by the Space Shuttle on September 1,
1985, allowed meteorologists to
CAPRICIOUS FORMS 38-39
THE RAIN ANNOUNCES ITS COMING 40-43
LOST IN THE FOG 44-45
WHEN WATER ACCUMULATES 48-49
WATER SCARCITY 50-51
LETHAL FORCE 52-53
ANATOMY OF A HURRICANE 56-57
WHAT KATRINA TOOK AWAY 58-59
FORESIGHT TO PREVENT TRAGEDIES 60-61
Phenomena evaluate its scope before it reached the

Gulf of Mexico.
BRIEF FLASH 46-47 DEATH AND DESTRUCTION 54-55
T
ropical cyclones (called They uproot trees, damage buildings, the government authorities organize require detailed information from the heart
hurricanes, typhoons, or cyclones devastate land under cultivation, and preparedness exercises so that the of the storm. The use of artificial satellites
in different parts of the world) cause deaths. The Gulf of Mexico is one population knows what to do. To that send clear pictures has contributed
cause serious problems and often of the areas of the planet continually understand how hurricanes function greatly to detecting and tracking strong
destroy everything in their path. affected by hurricanes. For this reason, and improve forecasts, investigators winds, preventing many disasters.
38 METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA WEATHER AND CLIMATE 39
Capricious Forms T R O P O S P H E R E The Inside

The altitude at which clouds are
formed depends on the stability of
1.2 to 5
miles (2-8 km)
louds are masses of large drops of water and ice the air and the humidity. The highest and Thickness of a storm cloud
C crystals. They form because the water vapor

contained in the air condenses or freezes as it rises
through the troposphere. How the clouds develop depends
(10 k
es
6 mil )
m
-67° F
(-55° C)
Temperature in
CIRRUS
A high, thin cloud with white,
delicate filaments composed
of ice crystals
coldest clouds have ice crystals. The lowest
and warmest clouds have drops of water.
There are also mixed clouds. There are 10
classes of clouds depending on their height
above sea level. The highest clouds begin at
150,000
HIGH
the upper part of
on the altitude and the velocity of the rising air. Cloud the troposphere a height of 2.5 miles (4 km). The mid-level tons of water
begins at a height of 1.2 to 2.5 miles (2-4 can be contained in a
shapes are divided into three basic types: cirrus, cumulus, CIRROSTRATUS
CIRROCUMULUS km) and the lowest at 1.2 miles (2 km) high. storm cloud.
A very extensive cloud that
and stratus. They are also classified as high, medium, and A cloud formation
C LO U
eventually covers the whole sky
composed of very small,
low depending on the altitude they reach above sea level. and has the form of a
granulated elements spaced
transparent, fibrous-looking veil
They are of meteorological interest because they more or less regularly Anvil-shaped top
DS
indicate the behavior of the atmosphere.
ASCENDING
2.5 m
iles
)
14° F CURRENT
(4 km (-10° C)
Exosphere
TYPES OF CLOUDS The temperature of
300 miles the middle part of
NAME MEANING (500 km)
MED
the troposphere The
CIRRUS FILAMENT
ALTOCUMULUS altitude
A formation of rounded at which
CUMULUS AGGLOMERATION clouds in groups that can it freezes Direction of
IUM
STRATUS BLANKET form straight or wavy rows the storm
Mesosphere
NIMBUS RAIN CUMULONIMBUS
50 miles A storm cloud. It portends
C LO
(90 km) intense precipitation in the
Stratosphere
Troposphere 30 miles
form of rain, hail, or snow. Its Turbulent
UDS
color is white. winds

Troposphere (50 km)
ALTOSTRATUS
The layer closest to the Earth and in which 6 miles Large, nebulous, compact, uniform,
meteorological phenomena occur, including (10 km) slightly layered masses. Altostratus
the formation of clouds 0 does not entirely block out the Sun.
It is bluish or gray. DESCENDING
CURRENT
HOW THEY ARE FORMED
Clouds are formed when the rising air cools to water vapor condenses. Cumulonimbus clouds CUMULUS
the point where it cannot hold the water are storm clouds that can reach a height of A cloud that is generally
vapor it contains. In such a circumstance, the 43,000 feet (13,000 m) and contain more dense with well-defined
air is said to be saturated, and the excess than 150,000 tons of water. outlines. Cumulus clouds
50° F can resemble a mountain STRATOCUMULUS
A cloud that is horizontal and
of cotton.
1.2 m
m
iles
)
(10° C) very long. It does not blot out the
(2 k Temperature of the Sun and is white or gray in color.
lower part of the
troposphere Wind
Waves
NIMBOSTRATUS
LO
Nimbostratus portends more

W
or less continuous
Convection Convergence Lines of
The heat of the Sun warms the air near the When the air coming from one direction precipitation in the form of cumulus
C LO
ground, and because it is less dense than the meets air from another direction, it is rain or snow that, in most clouds
surrounding air, it rises. pushed upward. cases, reaches the ground.
STRATUS
UD
59° F A low cloud that extends over

Lenticular Rotating cloud
a large area. It can cause Mild winds
(15° C)
S
cloud
drizzle or light snow. Stratus
Temperature at the clouds can appear as a gray
Earth's surface band along the horizon.
SPECIAL FORMATIONS
CLOUD STREETS LENTICULAR CLOUDS
km) The form of the clouds depends on the Mountains usually create waves in the
es (0
0 mil winds and the topography of the terrain atmosphere on their lee side, and on the
The year that British
1802
beneath them. Light winds usually produce crest of each wave lenticular clouds are
Geographic elevation Presence of a front
When the air encounters mountains, it is forced When two masses of air with different meteorologist Luke Howard lines of cumulus clouds positioned as if formed that are held in place by the
to rise. This phenomenon explains why there are temperatures meet at a front, the warm air carried out the first along streets. Such waves can be created waves. Rotating clouds are formed by
often clouds and rain over mountain peaks. rises and clouds are formed. scientific study of clouds by differences in surface heating. turbulence near the surface.
The Rain Announces Its Coming MATURATION

4
RAIN
The upper part of the cloud spreads
out like an anvil, and the rain falls
from the lower cloud, producing
5
DISSIPATION
The descending currents are
stronger than the ascending ones
and interrupt the feeding air,
he air inside a cloud is in continuous motion. This process causes the drops of water or the crystals 3 descending currents. causing the cloud to disintegrate..
T
Mature clouds have very strong
of ice that constitute the cloud to collide and join together. In the process, the drops and crystals ascending currents, leading to
protuberances and rounded
become too big to be supported by air currents and they fall to the ground as different formations. Convection occurs.
kinds of precipitation. A drop of rain has a diameter 100 times greater than a droplet in a 6 miles
(10 km)
4 miles Low, thin clouds
cloud. The type of precipitation depends on whether the cloud contains drops of water, ice (7 km) contain tiny
crystals, or both. Depending on the type of cloud and the temperature, the precipitation droplets of water
Anvil-shaped and therefore
can be liquid water (rain) or solid (snow or hail). -22° F produce rain.
(-30° C)
When the air cools, it
descends and is then heated
GROWTH again, repeating the cycle.
2 The smallest clouds adhere to one
another to form larger clouds,
increasing their size and height. STORM
Coalescence
The microdroplets
CONDENSATION NUCLEI continue to
CLOUD
1 Salt, dust, smoke, and pollen, among other
particulates, serve as a surface on which
collide and form
bigger drops.
water molecules, ascending by convection,
can combine and form water droplets.
The air cools. The water
vapor condenses and Heavier drops
0.02 inch
(0.5 mm) forms microdroplets fall onto a
Dilatation Condensation Collision-Coalescence
A The molecules B The molecules group
C Via this process,
of water. lower cloud
of water are themselves around molecules collide as fine rain.
freeΩwater vapor. a condensation and join together to
nucleus. form drops.
Water
molecules
Hydrogen
When they begin to fall,
the drops have a size of
0.02 inch (0.5 mm), which
Oxygen 0.6-1.2 miles 0.2 inch is reduced as they fall
(1-2 km) 0.04 inch (5 mm) since they break apart.
(1 mm)
A T I O N
C O N D E N S
L E V E L O F 0.04 inch
(1 mm)
Sandstorm 68° F 0.07 inch
particulates
(20° C) (2 mm)
Particulates from Volcanic The hot air

Forest fire combustion in particulates rises.
particulates factories and
vehicles
0 miles
(0 km)
Rock erosion
particulates
26,875
Sea-salt
particulates
trillion
molecules occupy 1 cubic
millimeter under normal
atmospheric conditions.
SNOW
6 Tiny ice crystals combine to
form a hexagonal star, or
snowflake. They form at
ICE
CRYSTAL 3 miles
(5 km)
VARIED FORMS
Snow crystals can have a variety of shapes; most of
them have six points, although some have three or 12,
B
The droplets freeze, and 7
HAIL
Precipitation in the form of solid
lumps of ice. Hail is produced inside
each time they are carried
and they have hexagonal symmetry in a plane. They storm clouds in which frozen
-4° F (-20° C). -39° F upward in the cloud, they
can also be cubic crystals, but these form under acquire a new layer of ice. droplets grow in size as they rise
(-39° C) This process, called and fall within the cloud.
conditions of extremely low temperature in the
accretion, increases the
highest regions of the troposphere.
size of the hailstone.
HOW CRYSTALS
A ARE FORMED
TYPES OF CRYSTALS
Very small hail (0.2 CROSS SECTION OF A HAILSTONE
The drop attaches itself to a inch [5 mm] or less
nucleus or solid particle. Plate in diameter) is
A called snow pellets.
Drop SNOWFLAKE Vertical air currents
2 miles Most have Layers
Condensation cause the
(3 km) of ice
nucleus
six points. microdroplets to
ascend and descend
-9° F Column
within the cloud.
Then the surface of (-23° C)
the drop freezes.
B
The ice
Nucleus crystals
combine and Dendrite The flakes
form C
measure
Periphery snowflakes.
between 0.04
Needle clusters and 0.8 inch When the hailstones
are too heavy to be
C 0.6 mile (1 and 20 mm). supported by the
(1 km) No two snowflakes are ascending air 0.2 to 2 inches
If the drops
crystallize near
identical to each other. currents, they fall to
19° F
the ground.
(5 to 50 mm)
the freezing (-7° C) The typical range of
level, they fall
hailstone sizes
in the form of
sleet.
A cloud with a greenish

WARM
ASCENDING
CURRENT
tinge or rain with a
whitish color can
portend a
2 pounds The heaviest
ASCENDING
WARM hailstorm. (1 kg) hailstones
CURRENT SLEET that fell on April 14, 1986, in
SNOWFALL Gopalganj, Bangladesh.
Most snowflakes disintegrate before

they reach the ground. They fall as
snowflakes only when the air near
the ground is very cold.
10 feet
(3.11 m)
The record of annual snowfall
Mount Rainier, Washington.
From February 19, 1971, to
February 18, 1972.
27° F (-3° C)
Temperature of the air FROST HOAR FROST
Frost forms when the Similar to frost but
thicker. It usually
DEW 32° F (0° C) dew point of the air is
less than 32° F (0° C), forms when there
HYDROMETEORS Water vapor that condenses DEW POINT and the water vapor is fog.
during the night into very small transforms directly into
Drops of condensed or frozen water
in the atmosphere are called
drops. The condensation forms
on surfaces that radiate heat
41° F (5° C) ice when it is deposited
on surfaces.
hydrometeors. These include rain, Temperature of the ground
during the night, such as plants,
fog, hail, mist, snow, and frost. animals, and buildings.
Lost in the Fog Types of Fog

Radiation fog forms during cold nights
when the land loses the heat that was
evaporate, and the air tends to become saturated.
These fogs are thick and persistent. Advection FRONTAL FOG
hen atmospheric water vapor condenses near the ground, it forms fog and mist. The absorbed during the day. Frontal fog forms when fog occurs when humid, warm air flows over a
2. Formed ahead of a
W
warm front
water that is falling has a higher temperature surface so cold that it causes the water vapor
fog consists of small droplets of water mixed with smoke and dust particles. Physically than the surrounding air; the drops of rain from the air to condense.
the fog is a cloud, but the difference between the two lies in their formation. A cloud
develops when the air rises and cools, whereas fog forms when the air is in contact with the
1.
RADIATION FOG
ground, which cools it and condenses the water vapor. The atmospheric phenomenon of This fog appears only on the ground
fog decreases visibility to distances of less than 1 mile (1.6 km) and can affect and is caused by radiation cooling
of the Earth's surface.
ground, maritime, and air traffic. When the fog is light, it is called mist. G
F O
In this case, visibility is reduced to 2 miles (3.2 km).
G
F O
Orographic barrier ADVECTION FOG

Fog develops on lee-side mountain
slopes at high altitudes and occurs
when the air becomes saturated
3. Formed when a mass of humid
and cool air moves over a surface
that is colder than the air
with moisture. G
F O
160 feet
(50 m)
The densest fog affects visibility
at this distance and has
repercussions on car, boat, and
4.
OROGRAPHIC
airplane traffic. In many cases, FOG
visibility can be zero.
The air becomes
saturated as it
ascends.
Dew
The condensation of water ASCENDING Warm air
vapor on objects that have AIR
Fog and Visibility radiated enough heat to E D
C K
decrease their temperature O G
Visibility is defined as a measure of an observer's B L F O
below the dew point
ability to recognize objects at a distance through the
atmosphere. It is expressed in miles and indicates the visual High Wind
limit imposed by the presence of fog, mist, dust, smoke, or landmasses
any type of artificial or natural precipitation in the
atmosphere. The different degrees of fog density have Mist
various effects on maritime, land, and air traffic. Mist consists of salt and other dry
particles imperceptible to the
naked eye. When the concentration
of these particles is very high, the
clarity, color, texture, and form of
objects we see are diminished. INVERSION FOG
When a current of warm, humid air
flows over the cold water of an ocean or
DENSE THICK FOG MIST lake, an inversion fog can form. The
FOG FOG warm air is cooled by the water, and its
Means of moisture condenses into droplets. The
transport warm air traps the cooled air below it,
are affected 6 miles near the surface. High coastal
by visibility. landmasses prevent this type of fog
(10 km) from penetrating very far inland.
0.6 mile 1.2 miles 1.9 miles
(1 km) (2 km) (3 km) Normal visibility
160 feet 660 feet

(50 m) (200 m)
Brief Flash
lectrical storms are produced in large cumulonimbus-type clouds, which typically
E bring heavy rains in addition to lightning and thunder. The storms form in areas
of low pressure, where the air is warm and less dense than the surrounding
atmosphere. Inside the cloud, an enormous electrical charge accumulates, which is
Cold air
Very hot
air
Very hot
air Cold air
THUNDER
This is the sound
produced by the air when
it expands very rapidly,
generating shock waves
then discharged with a zigzag flash between the cloud and the ground, between the as it is heated.
cloud and the air, or between one cloud and another. This is how the flash of lightning
is unleashed. Moreover, the heat that is released during the discharge generates an
expansion and contraction of the air that is called thunder.
Cold air Warm air
1. 2. 3. 4.
ORIGIN INSIDE THE CLOUD ELECTRICAL CHARGES DISCHARGE
Lightning originates within large Electrical charges are produced from the The cloud's negative charges are attracted The discharge takes place from the cloud
cumulonimbus storm clouds. collisions between ice or hail crystals. to the positive charges of the ground. The toward the ground after the stepped
Lightning bolts can have negative or Warm air currents rise, causing the difference in electrical potential between leader, a channel of ionized air, extends
positive electric charges. charges in the cloud to shift. the two regions produces the discharge. down to the ground.
SEPARATION INDUCED CHARGE

The charges become separated, with the The negative charge of the base of
positive charges accumulating at the top of the the cloud induces a positive charge in
TYPES OF LIGHTNING cloud and the negative charges at the base. the ground below it.
Lightning can be distinguished primarily by
the path taken by the electrical charges that
cause them.
Cloud-to-air Cloud-to-cloud Cloud-to-ground

The electricity A lightning flash Negative charges
moves from the can occur within a of the cloud are
cloud toward an air cloud or between attracted by the
mass of opposite two oppositely positive charges of
charge. charged areas. the ground.
For Evaluation Only.

Copyright (c) by Foxit Software Company, 2004
Edited by Foxit PDF Editor
8,700 miles
per second
(140,000 km/s) speed
LIGHTNING RODS Lightning bolt: 8,700 miles per second (140,000 km/s)
The primary function of lightning rods is to facilitate
the electrostatic discharge, which follows the path
of least electrical resistance. Airplane: 0.2 mile per second (0.3 km/s)
F1 car: 0.06 mile per second (0.1 km/s)
Tip of the
conductor
100 million volts
IS THE ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL OF A LIGHTNING BOLT.
Lightning
A windmill 110 volts is
generates 200 consumed by
rod volts. a lamp.
RETURN STROKE In the final phase, the discharge
5. rises from the Earth to the cloud.
DISCHARGE SEQUENCE
channel 1st phase 2nd phase 3rd phase
1st return 2nd return 3rd return
A lightning rod is an instrument whose purpose is to attract a

lightning bolt and channel the electrical discharge to the ground so A B C
that it does no harm to buildings or people. A famous experiment by POINT OF IMPACT
The lightning bolt If the cloud has additional This discharge, as in
Benjamin Franklin led to the invention of this apparatus. During a propagates through an electrical charges, they the second stroke,
lightning storm, he flew a kite into clouds, and it received a strong
discharge. That marked the birth of the lightning rod, which consists of
an iron rod placed on the highest point of the object to be protected and
65 feet (20 m) ionized channel that
branches out to reach
the ground. Electrical
charges run along the
are propagated to the
ground through the
channel of the first
stroke and generate a
does not have
branches. When the
return discharge
ceases, the lightning
connected to the ground by a metallic, insulated conductor. The principle This is the radius of a lightning bolt's effective same channel in the second return stroke flash sequence comes
of all lightning rods, which terminate in one or more points, is to attract range on the surface of the Earth. opposite direction. toward the cloud. to an end.
and conduct the lightning bolt to the ground.
When Water Accumulates Torrential

Rains
Caused by low pressure
Torrential
rains
raise the level of
the water in the
Snow
increases runoff
into the rivers.
ater is a vital element for life, but in excess it leads to serious consequences for people rivers and the
W
systems, instability of
riverbeds.
and their economic activity. Flooding occurs when certain areas that are normally dry the air mass, and high
humidity
are covered with water for a more or less prolonged period. The most important causes
are excessive rains, the overflow of rivers and lakes, and giant waves that wash over the coast.
Such waves can be the result of unusually high tides caused by strong surface winds or by
submarine earthquakes. Walls, dikes, dams, and embankments are used to help prevent flooding. Little or no rain
penetrates into the
valley slopes
covered with pines.
Principal
Tributary
river
Flooded Land Plants with thick,
Floodplains river
Floodplains are areas adjacent
When land is flooded for days or droopy stems
to rivers or streams that are
months, the air in the soil is replaced
subject to recurrent flooding.
by water, which prevents the buildup of
oxygen, thus affecting the biological activity
of plants and the soil itself. In the latter Low-lying terrain
case, if the water does not have sufficient The main river cannot
salt, the incomplete decomposition of organic contain the increased
matter and the significant washing away of There is so much flow of the tributary
nutrients make the soil more acidic. If the water on the rivers.
surface that the soil
water contains a great deal of salt, the salt cannot absorb it.
will remain in the soil, causing a different
problem: salinization. The soil cannot
carry oxygen to
the roots.
Solid
particulates
250,000
Victims of flooding in the Bay
Houses and
Reduction The water
causes a decline
Large rivers cross the
plains, which suffer
trees covered
with water
of Bengal, Bangladesh, in 1970
The components of the soil that in oxygen in the

are oxidized can be reduced and aerated spaces of from regular flooding
thus change their properties. the soil.
Dam Filtering grates

Hydroelectric Natural Transformers stores water to prevent the passage of
Flood Control dam course of
the river
Their job is to
transform the voltage
divert it or to
regulate its flow
unwanted objects in the
water used to produce
With the construction of dikes and
of the electric current. outside the riverbed. hydroelectric power.
embankments, the flow of rivers prone
to flooding is largely contained.
Agriculture is
more productive
when water can
be controlled.
Channeling water
via turbines also
generates Electrical
electricity. energy can be
made available
to houses.
Hydroelectric
Plants Elevation
of the
EMBANKMENT use the force and velocity of running reservoir
Earthen embankments help water to turn turbines. There are two
contain rivers that tend to STORM types: run-off-river (which uses the Electrical generator
overflow and temporarily DIKES natural kinetic energy of the river's Equipment that
change course. In areas where the coast running waters) and reservoir (where the produces electricity by
is low and exposed to flooding, water accumulates behind dams and is Electrical converting the
protective dikes have been constructed then released under increased pressure to power lines mechanical energy of
against high tides and powerful waves. the power plant). the rotating turbine
into electrical energy
Water Scarcity 3
FIELD CAPACITY
The amount of moisture in
the soil remaining after
water has run off the
4
n deserts, drought from lack of rain is customary, surface. Field capacity
I but in arid, semiarid, and subhumid regions,

desertification occurs when for weeks, months, or
years the land is degraded because of climatic variations.
determines whether, even
with a meteorological
drought, the land can
continue to absorb
WILTING
This results when less
water is available in the
C
upper layers of the soil.
existing water between
Y
A high-pressure center that stays in a certain location longer than
C
soil particles.
LO
usual can be the cause of this phenomenon. Soils are able to put up
N
IC
with a certain dry period, but when the water table decreases Solid
C
drastically, the drought can turn into a natural catastrophe. particles
U
R
R
E
Capillary
N
water
T
RAIN (osmosis)
A Caused by cyclonic
(low pressure) air Capillary
currents. HIGH PRESSURE water
B
1 A high-pressure center,
or anticyclone, is more
stationary than usual and Gravitational
SATURATED SOIL creates an abnormal water
The water that falls as situation in the region.
precipitation may be
more than the soil can DROUGHT
absorb, and it descends C The jet-stream
toward aquifers. currents are thrown
off course by the high- Solid
pressure center, which particles
A
impedes rainfall. A dry
E
period begins. Air
R
A
Solid E
particulates U R
H I G H - P R E S S
Remaining
water
2
METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT
The condition that results when
precipitation is much lower than normal
levels for that location. It is generally
THE DRIEST ZONES determined based on comparison with
coincide with deserts. For example, in the average rainfall.
Atacama Desert in northern Chile, not a single
drop of water fell between 1903 and 1917.
Hygroscopic
water
1975-76
100 years
The region of the Sahel has
Less than 50% of
the average rainfall
Solid
particles
ENGLAND
endured periods of devastating Space
droughts lasting this long. between
1965-67 the pores
1933-37 UNITED 1.5 million deaths
KEY
The Dust Bowl
was created.
1962-66
STATES
SAHEL
INDIA
caused by
drought
Solid
particles 5
Affected the states
of the Northeast THE PROPORTION Excess Saturation Level of Hygroscopic AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT
Areas of insufficient rain
for normal vegetation 1977 1967-69 water threshold wilting coefficient When soil moisture exists only at the hygroscopic
OF WATER IN THE
and harvests Water is rationed in Numerous (saturation) (field (minimum of level (surface moisture on soil particles), there is
AUSTRALIA SOIL
California. forest fires capacity) water) no water available for vegetation.
Lethal Force TOP

The top of the
6 miles
ornadoes are the most violent storms of nature. They are
tornado remains
(10 km)
T
inside the cloud.
generated by electrical storms (or sometimes as the result of a Maximum height that it can attain
hurricane), and they take the form of powerful funnel-shaped
whirlwinds that extend from the sky to the ground. In these storms, 0.6 m
Maximum
moving air is mixed with soil and other matter rotating at velocities as diameter
(1 kmile
)
high as 300 miles per hour (480 km/h). They can uproot trees, destroy
buildings, and turn harmless objects into deadly airborne projectiles. A
tornado can devastate a whole neighborhood within seconds.
How They Form

Tornadoes begin to form when a current of warm rotates faster as it approaches the center of the column.
air ascends inside a cumulonimbus cloud and This increases the force of the ascending current, and
begins to rotate under the influence of winds in the
upper part of the cloud. From the base of the column, air
is sucked toward the inside of the turning spiral. The air
the column continues to grow until it stretches from high
in the clouds to the ground. Because of their short
duration, they are difficult to study and predict. 300 miles
per hour
(480 km/h)
Strong wind
1.
BEGINNING OF A TORNADO
When the winds meet, they
Maximum velocity the tornado
winds can attain
cause the air to rotate in a

Mild Spinning clockwise direction in the
Wind funnel of air Southern Hemisphere and in
the reverse direction in the
Northern Hemisphere.
VORTEX
2.
Column of air that forms
the lower part of a
tornado; a funnel that
generates violent winds
ROTATION and draws in air. It MULTIPLE
The circulation of the air usually acquires the dark VORTICES
causes a decrease in
pressure at the center of
color of the dust it sucks Some tornadoes
the storm, creating a up from the ground, but have a number
Convection central column of air. it can be invisible. of vortices.
Warm and
humid wind
Where and When
Cumulonimbus
Most tornadoes occur in agricultural areas. The
Cold and
dry wind 3.
DESCENT
The central whirling column
humidity and heat of the spring and summer are
required to feed the storms that produce them. In order to
grow, crops require both the humidity and temperature
variations associated with the seasons.
Tornadoes
Agricultural areas
continues to descend within

the cloud, perforating it in
the direction of the ground.
Storm
Humid
wind
4.
THE OUTCOME
The tornado reaches the 1,000 3:00 P.M.-9:00 P.M.
Earth and depending on its tornadoes are generated The period of the day with
SPIRALING
intensity can send the roofs on average annually in the highest probability of
of buildings flying. WINDS
the United States. tornado formation
First a cloud funnel
appears that can then
extend to touch the
ground.
125 miles
PATH
Normally the tornado path
The tornado
generally moves
from the
Some tornadoes are (200 km)
so powerful that
is no more than 160 to southwest to the they can rip the The length of the path along the ground
330 feet (50-100 m) wide. northeast. roofs off houses. over which a tornado can move
WIND VELOCITY MILES 40-72 73-112 113-157 158-206 207-260 261-320

FUJITA SCALE PER HOUR (KM/H) (64-116) (117-180) (181-253) (254-332) (333-418) (420-512)
The Fujita-Pearson scale was
created by Theodore Fujita CATEGORY F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
to classify tornadoes
according to the damage EFFECTS Damage to Mobile homes Mobile homes Roofs and walls Solidly built Houses uprooted from
caused by the wind, from the chimneys, tree ripped from their destroyed, trees demolished, cars and walls blown their foundations and
lightest to the most severe. branches broken foundations felled trains overturned down dragged great distances
Death and Destruction OWENSVILLE

Serious damage
to houses
4:30 P.M.
Final contact with the ground
f the 1,000 tornadoes that annually strike the United States, there is one that has the unfortunate
O distinction of being one of the worst: the Tri-State tornado, which occurred on March 18, 1925, and
caused extreme devastation. It moved across Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, destroying homes and
causing the confirmed deaths of 695 people, although it is believed that the number may have been much m
71 (1
e
sp /
ile 5 km
1
ou
rh )
h
r
I N D I A N A
higher. The tornado traveled 230 miles (368 km) at an average velocity of 66 miles an hour (105 km/h),
and its duration set a record at three hours and 30 minutes. It has been rated on the Fujita scale as an PRINCETON
Half of the town
F5 tornado—one of the most damaging—and caused losses to the United States of $17 million. destroyed
e a 65 deaths 50
PARRISH a r percent
Almost total l GRIFFIN
destruction u r a 150 houses
destroyed
90 R
30 DE SOTO
22 dead our destroyed, and
percent percent p er h ) many children
Partial es /h
destroyed destruction but
destroyed mil km 100 killed.
60 (96 percent
MISSOURI a large number
of victims destroyed
(U.S.) 69 dead our
Latitude 37° N per h)
100 es /h
Longitude 93° W mil km
percent 55 (90
GORHAM In 40 minutes,
destroyed
Value on the Fujita scale F5 Town in ruins 541 people died.
34 dead
Duration 3 hours
30 minutes Tornadoes in the United States
Average velocity 66 miles per hour WEST FRANKFORT 20 Unlike hurricanes, which are tropical storms primarily affecting the
(105 km/h) Partial destruction percent Gulf of Mexico, tornadoes are phenomena that occur between the
450 wounded destroyed Great Plains of the United States, the Rocky Mountains, and the Gulf of
M I S S O U R I hou
r and 127 dead Mexico and usually appear in the spring and summer.
er )
1:01 P.M. 60 (96
p
es /h
mil km MURPHYSBORO
Town with the
3:00 P.M.
-9:00 P.M.
First contact with the ground greatest number of
fatalities The period of the day
REDFORD with the highest
Town hit by ur 234 dead
40
tornado p e r ho probability of tornado
es m/h ) percent formation
ELLINGTON mil BIEHLE
66 (107 k A number of
destroyed
First town
affected houses destroyed 1,000
One dead I L L I N O I S The number of
tornadoes occurring
ur
p e r ho ANNAPOLIS per year in the
iles m/h ) United States
AND LEADANNA
71 m(115 k
Large number 90
of victims THE 10 MOST
percent
75 injured
destroyed
DEVASTATING TORNADOES
and 2 dead
Deaths
Injuries
THE TOWN OF
GRIFFIN, IN
THE STATE OF
INDIANA, WAS
LEFT IN RUINS.
15,000
houses destroyed
17 million
dollars in losses
Anatomy of a Hurricane DAY 1

HURRICANE
Equator
TYPHOON
DANGER ZONE
The areas that are vulnerable to hurricanes in the
United States include the Atlantic coast and the coast
along the Gulf of Mexico, from Texas to Maine. The
A jumble CYCLONE Caribbean and the tropical areas of the western
of clouds
hurricane, with its ferocious winds, banks of clouds, and torrential Pacific, including Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, and
DAY 2
A
is formed. The clouds Saipan, are also zones frequented by hurricanes.
rains, is the most spectacular meteorological phenomenon of the begin to rotate.
DAY 3
Earth's weather. It is characterized by an intense low-pressure The spiral
form becomes
center surrounded by cloud bands arranged in spiral form; these rotate more defined.
around the eye of the hurricane in a clockwise direction in the Southern

Hemisphere and in the opposite direction in the Northern Hemisphere. 1. BIRTH
Forms over warm seas, aided
by winds in opposing directions,
2.
DEVELOPMENT DAY 6 DAY 12
While tornadoes are brief and relatively limited, hurricanes are enormous high temperatures, humidity,
and the rotation of the Earth
Now mature, it The hurricane
Begins to ascend, displays a visible eye.
and slow-moving, and their passage usually takes many lives. twisting in a spiral around
begins to break
apart when it
a low-pressure zone
19 miles per hour makes landfall.
NH FRINGES OF STORM THE EYE

(30 km/h)
Hurricanes in the CLOUDS Central area, VELOCITY AT WHICH IT DEATH
Northern Hemisphere
rotate counterclockwise,
and those in the
Southern Hemisphere
SH rotate clockwise.
otate violently around
the central zone.
has very low
pressure
APPROACHES THE COAST
FRICTION
When the hurricane reaches
the mainland, it moves more
3. As they pass from the sea to
the land, they cause enormous
damage. Hurricanes gradually
dissipate over land from the
SH
slowly; it is very destructive in lack of water vapor.
Descending this stage, since it is here that
air currents populated cities are located.
The high-altitude
winds blow from
outside the storm.
PATH OF THE
HURRICANE
The air
wraps
around
the eye.
92 feet/high
(28 m)
Cloud bands in MAXIMUM HEIGHT
EYE WALL VAPOR
the form of a REACHED BY THE WAVES
spiral
The strongest Rises warm from the sea,
forming a column of
1
winds are formed.
clouds. It rises 3,900 feet
(1,200 m) in the center of
the storm.
2
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGE DONE
Saffir-Simpson category
3
Strong ascendant Damage Speed miles High Tide
currents per hour (km/h) feet (m)
WIND ACTIVITY
CLASS 1 minimum 74 to 95 (119 to 153) 4 to 5 (1.2 to 1.5) 4
CLASS 2 moderate 96 to 110 (154 to 177) 6 to 8 (1.8 to 2.4)
CLASS 3 extensive 111 to 130 (178 to 209) 9 to 12 (2.7 to 3.6)
is the minimum temperature The trade winds 131 to 155 (210 to 250) 13 to 18 (3.9 to 5.4) 5
80º F that water on the surface of
the ocean will evaporate at.
are pulled toward
the storm.
Light winds give
it direction and
permit it to grow.
The
winds flow
outward.
CLASS 4 extreme
CLASS 5 catastrophic more than 155 (250) more than 18 (5.4)
(27º C)
What Katrina Took Away

THE WINDS
urricane Katrina lashed the south and the center of the United States
H
At 155 miles per hour (250 NEW ORLEANS
in August 2005. The force of the wind razed thousands of houses, km/h), they force the water
against the protective walls..
Latitude 30° N
buildings, oil installations, highways, and bridges, leaving a vast area Longitude 90° W
of the country without communication and some heavily populated areas

without provisions. It resulted in extensive material damage and thousands THE WATER Area 360 square miles (933 square kilometers)
of deaths in Florida, the Bahamas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Satellite images advances toward the city,
Number of inhabitants 500,000
invading the central regions.
reveal the scope of the disaster, considered one of the most devastating in Altitude (above sea level) 10 feet (3 m)
the history of the country.

LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN
DIKES 6:00 A.M.

were breached by the The time when
water and the wind, the hurricane
causing a great flood. made landfall
LONDON AUGUST 23
AVENUE CANAL A tropical depression forms in the
Bahamas. It intensifies and becomes
17TH STREET
CANAL
ORLEANS
tropical storm Katrina. On August
25, it makes landfall in Florida as a
14 Huracanes fueron
registrados en 2005.
AVENUE CANAL category 1 hurricane.

El total de tormentas
80% 26 tropicales registradas

en el año 2005.
Area of New Orleans

AUGUST 27
Leaves the Gulf of Mexico and
affected by flooding
reaches category 3. On August 28,
CATEGORY 5 CATEGORY 3 it is transformed from category 3
to category 5 and increases in size.
Area most affected Areas most affected
by the flood by the flood
AUGUST 29
In the early hours, it makes landfall in
OVER Louisiana as a category 4 hurricane.
75%
of the inhabitants
1,500
Deaths confirmed after Katrina
A little later, it makes landfall for the
third time, in Mississippi.
CATEGORY 4
of this zone were
evacuated.
155 miles
per hour
(250 km/h)
OVER MAXIMUM WIND SPEED
75 billion
dollars was the cost of the repairs.
SEPTEMBER 1
What remains of the hurricane
is weakened as it moves north
to Canada, where it dissipates.
The hurricane winds pushed the

water 14 feet (4.3 m) above the
normal sea level.
Direction of
Along with the storm, the the hurricane
backed-up water reaches the
dikes of the Mississippi River.
Foresight to Prevent Tragedies 3

AFTER THE HURRICANE
First verify that everyone in the family is well
and that there are no injuries. Do not touch
loose cables or fallen poles. Call the fire
urricanes usually lash specific regions of the planet, and the population must become DURING THE HURRICANE
H
department or the police in case you need
aware of the disasters that can strike the community. Each family must know which
area of the house is the most secure in case the roof, a door, or a window collapses.
2 The important thing is to remain calm
and to stay informed via radio or
television about the path of the hurricane.
food, clothing, or immediate medication.
They must also know when it is time to go to a shelter or if it is better to remain at home. Move away from doors and windows. Do
not leave until the authorities announce
Another important precaution is to organize and store all family documents and real-estate the danger from the hurricane has ended.
Help people
who are
Keep documents
confirming your
records in a water- and fireproof strongbox. injured or ownership of
trapped. property close at
hand.
Return home Do not drink

only when the water unless
BEFORE THE HURRICANE authorities say you are sure it
1 If you live in a hurricane-prone
area, it is recommended that you
know the emergency plans of the
that it is safe. is potable.
community and that you have a Use the

plan of action for your family. telephone only
for emergency
calls.
Secure all the

Reinforce roof tiles
doors and to keep them from
being loosened. Verify that there are
windows to keep
no natural-gas leaks
them from Store
opening. or damage to the
nonperishable
electrical system.
food and
potable water. Keep valuable
objects and Follow news reports with
documents in a battery-powered radio.
a waterproof
container. Disconnect all
electrical
devices and shut
off the house
circuit breaker.
Use a battery-
Keep the
powered radio to
car supplied
tune into local
with a full
stations to get
tank of fuel
information.
just in case.
Check the most
fire-prone areas.
Administer first aid

when necessary. Do not touch
wires or damaged
electrical
equipment.
HOW TO PREPARE
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT HOW TO PREPARE
A complete first-aid kit must be DOCUMENTATION Turn off the main
prepared and available. Consult a To be prepared for water valve and
pharmacist or your family physician. evacuation, keep family the main gas valve.
documents in good order.
First-aid kit Inventory

Check the first-aid Make a complete
kit and replace any list of belongings
expired items. of each person.
When you are on
First-aid course the move, use
You should be prepared Personal ID caution whether
It is important on foot or driving.
for dealing with the
most common for everyone to
symptoms and injuries. have an ID card.
Meteorology RITA, SEPTEMBER 2003
The image from the GOES-12
satellite shows the configuration
of Hurricane Rita in the eastern
WEATHER FOLKLORE 64-65
COMPILATION OF INFORMATION 66-67
INSTANTANEOUS MAPS 68-69
portion of the Gulf of Mexico. RAIN, COLD, OR HEAT 70-71
MOBILE SATELLITES 72-73
T
he use of satellites orbiting the severe storm is heading toward a certain officials to coordinate the evacuation of other. These collect information from and
Earth, recording the coming of point on the planet. Counting on this people from the affected zones. The send information to all areas of the world
rain, air currents, and clouds, type of precise information about when surface of the planet is also monitored so that meteorologists can prepare maps,
allows us to know with some and where tropical cyclones will occur, by a system of meteorological stations graphics, and predictions to inform the
hours of advance warning if a for example, has allowed government placed hundreds of miles from each public.
64 METEOROLOGY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 65
Weather Folklore Moon

When the Moon has a halo,
tomorrow will have wet or bad weather.
efore the development of meteorology as we know it today, Halos occur as a consequence of the
B people observed in nature signs that allowed them to

predict rains, floods, or strong winds. All this knowledge
has been transmitted over the centuries in the form of proverbs
refraction of light by ice crystals in
cirrostratus clouds covering the Sun or Moon.
They portend a warm front, which will be
followed by rain.
or rhymes. Most of these fragments of meteorological knowledge

lack a scientific foundation, but some of them reflect certain
Almanac Forecasts
In the 16th century, almanacs with weather forecasts were
Clouds
Clouds with a fringe or lining—
principles. Plants and animals play a major role in these sold throughout Europe. Each month of the year has its own secure your sails well.
refrain, although this depends on the hemisphere a person lives in.
observations. The monthly and annual calendars offered agricultural and medical
This relates to clouds that are carried
by winds at high altitudes; these clouds
advice. From the most remote times, there was a general belief that are often a sign that a low-pressure
the Moon determined the behavior of the atmosphere and that system, or cyclone, is approaching.
variations in the weather were caused by changes in the phase of
Signs from Plants and Animals the Moon. Some examples of these popular sayings are: “Sweet
WEATHER PREDICTION
In every rural community, concern for the harvest and April showers do spring May flowers;” “After a dark winter's night,
There are thousands of refrains that
dependency on weather resulted in a series of beliefs, the next day will be bright.”
refer to changes in weather
with varying degrees of accuracy, taken as prophesies of conditions. Here are some examples.
later events. In any case, even though it is certain that
people as well as plants and animals react to the current
weather, there is nothing to indicate that this might reveal
anything about the weather in the future except to the
Swallow WIND
Wind from the east, rain like a beast.
degree that an incipient change is related to the current When swallows fly low, get
weather. For example, some signs accompany the increase in your rain gear in tow.
humidity that occurs prior to the passage of a cold front. Swallows usually appear before
a heavy rain.
MORNING DEW
Dew and cool in May, bring wine
to the vine and hay to the cow.
OPEN AND CLOSED

PINECONES
Open pinecones mean dry
CLEAR SUNSET
weather; closed pinecones
Rainbow at sundown, good
mean humid weather. weather at dawn.
DRY SEAWEED
The lower the humidity, the
Donkey more probable it is that the

next day will be dry.
Snails
I hear donkeys braying; I am
sure it will rain today.
The animals react to the existing
weather. It is a sign associated
with the increased humidity
in the environment. Toad
When you see a toad walking, it
OAK
If the leaves of the
oak fall before those
of the ash, the
When you see a black slug in
your way, rain is not far away.
Snails are usually hidden in the
garden. You see them only on
will be a wet spring. summer will be dry. humid days, just prior to the rain.
When a toad is swimming in the
water, this means it will soon rain.
If it stays in the water without
moving, the rain will last
for some time. ASH
If the leaves of the ash fall
before those of the oak,
the summer will be wet.
Compilation of Information WEATHER VANE

shows which way the
wind is blowing. It is a
MAXIMUM THERMOMETER
shows the highest temperature of the day. The
capillary with mercury is calibrated in the bulb.
PSYCHROMETER
measures the
Radar relative humidity of
ost of the information available regarding climatic
M
perfectly balanced the air. It consists of
data comes from the record that mechanical system. two thermometers
and two bulbs (one
meteorologists everywhere in the world Bulb with
mercury dry and one covered
keep regarding cloud cover, temperature, the Indicates
the direction
with muslin that is
always kept damp).
force and direction of the wind, air pressure, of the wind
Bulb with
2°
visibility, and precipitation. Then from each alcohol HYGROTHERMOGRAPH
Dry-bulb
thermometer
meteorological station, the data is sent by Three equally
simultaneously records the
air temperature and Wet-bulb
radio or satellite, and this makes it possible to spaced cups
record the MINIMUM relative humidity. A thermometer
ANEMOMETER
make forecasts and maps. intensity of
measures the speed THERMOMETER thermograph and a
hygrograph independently
the wind. indicates the lowest
of the wind. This make records on paper of
instrument is temperature of the day. It Container of
has a fork-shaped bulb. the daily variations in distilled water
activated by the temperature and humidity.
wind, which turns
three hemispherical METEOROLOGICAL SHELTER
cups mounted on a It is built of wood or fiberglass on a base that insulates it from
ANEROID BAROMETER DATA
vertical rod firmly the soil and protects certain instruments (thermometers, Weather Anemometer
measures atmospheric Scale RECORDER vane
records the placed in the ground. psychrometers, and others) from solar radiation. Screens in the
pressure. Changes are Spring
data obtained. windows ensure good ventilation.
shown by the pointers.
Spiral
Atmospheric Vacuum Double circulation of the air to prevent the
pressure spring
heating of the instruments when the radiation
760 mm Metal is very intense
drum Data recorder Solar panel
Psychrometer
BAROGRAPH
Maximum and
measures the minimum
Mercury atmospheric pressure
Levers Chains thermometers
and records its Hygrothermograph
changes over time.
MERCURY BAROMETER
An instrument used to measure Slats allow the air
atmospheric pressure. It consists Workplace to flow through
freely without
of a glass tube full of mercury,
with the open end submerged in
A typical meteorological station checks the Weather Station creating currents.
temperature, humidity, wind velocity and In the Northern
a reservoir. direction, solar radiation, rain, and barometric Meteorologists collect data at Hemisphere, the
pressure. In some places, soil temperature and different heights. They use various doors should be
flow of nearby rivers are also monitored. The instruments at ground level: a oriented toward Control
thermometer for temperature, a the north to unit
compilation of this data makes it possible to prevent the Sun's
predict different meteorological phenomena. hygrometer for humidity, and a barometer rays from striking
for atmospheric pressure. the instruments
Mouth when observations
Thermometer are being made.
Drum
The light strikes and Recording

is concentrated as it pen
traverses the sphere.
Siphon
Collector Rain Meter
Wooden container
platform
HELIOPHANOGRAPH IMPRESSION
An instrument used to The concentrated rays of sunlight burn
measure the number cardboard placed behind the glass sphere. Automatic Weather Station
of hours of sunlight. It An automatic meteorological station uses electrical
consists of a glass EVAPORIMETER sensors to record temperature, humidity, wind velocity
sphere that acts as a As its name indicates, and direction, atmospheric pressure, and rainfall, among
lens to concentrate it measures the other parameters. The readings are processed by
sunlight. The light is effective evaporation microprocessors and transmitted via an automatic system.
projected onto a piece of water from a mass RAIN METER This station functions autonomously, 24 hours a day,
of cardboard behind of liquid in the open This is used to keep powered by solar energy (solar panels) or wind energy.
the sphere. The air, from its loss from a chronological RAIN GAUGE
cardboard is burned Record on a strip The intervals burned give
the surface through record of the The precipitation that falls on
according to the of cardboard a count of the hours of transformation to amount of water the ground in the form of rain is
intensity of the light. graduated in hours sunlight during the day. water vapor. falling as rain. collected by the rain gauge.
Instantaneous Maps
eather maps represent at any given moment the state of the atmosphere at different
W altitudes. These maps are made based on the information provided by meteorological
stations and are useful for specialists. The data collected by them include various values
for pressure and temperature that make it possible to forecast the probability of precipitation,
Upper-air Map
Another type of map, which is used to
analyze upper-air weather conditions, is an
WINDS
The direction and intensity of the
whether the weather will remain stable, or if it will change because a weather front is moving in. upper-level, or geopotential, map. On these maps,
contour lines connect points located at the same
winds are indicated by a segment
with a circle at its end, which
altitude for a certain pressure level (normally indicates the direction from which the
500 hectopascals [hPa]) and correlate with the wind is blowing. On this segment,
temperature of the air in the higher layers of the perpendicular lines are traced that
troposphere (at 16,400 feet [5,000 meters] indicate the velocity of the wind in
NOMENCLATURE LOW PRESSURE, altitude on the 500 hPa map). The temperature knots, where one knot equals 1.2 miles
OR DEPRESSION is represented in each region of the troposphere per hour (1.9 km/h).
Every meteorological
by lines called isotherms.
map carries a label that In this zone, atmospheric POSITION
SYMBOLS
indicates the date and stability will be low given The direction of The line indicates
time it was made. that the air is rising, and the wind is the direction of the
Isobar Maps there is a high probability represented by wind. It can be
12Z
of precipitation. these symbols: north, northeast,

12 indicates the hour One of the variables that provides the most information east, southeast,
and Z Greenwich south, southwest,
in real time for knowing meteorological conditions is BAD WEATHER LOW-PRESSURE TROUGH HIGH-PRESSURE
02SEP2003
Mean Time. west, or northwest.

atmospheric pressure, whose values over land (at sea level) Instability and RIDGE
high probability This phenomenon increases the
are represented on what are called isobar maps, or ground- of abundant
This map is prepared probability of bad weather. A Area of high geopotential
level weather maps. The isobars, or lines that connect points LOW PRESSURE rain
with the initial low-pressure trough has a low values in which the chances
of equal pressure, make it possible to estimate the velocity This is a low-
values of Tuesday,
and direction of the wind at ground level. This information pressure zone. The
1000 geopotential value. of rain are slight
September 2.
helps forecast the movement of cold or warm air masses. The pressure increases
from the internal 995
letter A indicates an anticyclonic area, which indicates isobars toward the
INIT: TUE,
GOOD WEATHER OVERCAST SKY WIND VELOCITY

atmospheric stability and that the probability of rain is very external isobars. A black circle A short line
Atmospheric
low. The letter B indicates a low-pressure area and presages 990 stability and low indicates an indicates five
major atmospheric instability with possible rain. expectation of overcast sky and knots, a longer line
It indicates the precipitation a white circle a indicates 10 knots,
initial values. clear sky. and a terminal
triangle indicates
more than 40
knots.
WINDS
ANTICYCLONE They circulate LOW-PRESSURE
and move away TROUGH AXIS
In this area, the from the area. WINDS
atmospheric stability is high, circulate around the
1686 since the downward motion
of the air prevents the
center of the area. HIGH-PRESSURE
RIDGE AXIS
is the year in which English
astronomer Edmond Halley formation of clouds. There is 1030
made the first low probability of rain.
meteorological map.
HIGH PRESSURE
This is a high-
pressure area. The 1025
pressure decreases ISOBARS
SYMBOLS from the internal are lines joining points
isobars toward the of equal pressure.
There are a number of different external isobars.
symbols to represent different
kinds of fronts.
1020 UPPER-LEVEL MAPS 250 hPa 36,100 FEET (11,000 METERS)
The contour lines traced in

WARM A warm air mass with
local storms is advancing.
these charts connect points
of equal geopotential height, 500 hPa 18,000 FEET (5,500 METERS)
1015 which define high-pressure
ridges and low-pressure 700 hPa 9,800 FEET (3,000 METERS)
COLD A cold air mass with rain is
advancing.
troughs. The wind direction is
parallel to these lines. These 850 hPa 4,900 FEET (1,500 METERS)
charts are used to prepare
SURFACE 0 FEET (0 METERS)
weather forecasts.
STATIONARY Moderately bad weather OCCLUDED FRONT
and little change of temperature indicates the line of
collision between a cold 500 HPA
front and a warm front. The first pressure value that
These are usually represents a geopotential of
OCCLUDED FRONT associated with severe 500 hectopascals (hPa)
It is mixed; it will act first as a warm storms.
front and then as a cold front.
70 METEOROLOGY
Rain, Cold, or Heat RADIOSONDE

carries out airborne measurements of
temperature, pressure, and relative
49,200 feet
(15,000 m)
is the altitude that a
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
provide images used for visualizing
clouds and water vapor in the
humidity at different altitudes or atmosphere and for measuring the
nowing ahead of time what the weather will be is sometimes a question of life or death. radiosonde can reach.
K The damage resulting from a torrential rain or a heavy snowfall can be avoided thanks to
the forecasts of meteorologists. The forecasts they make are based on information
gathered from many sources, including instruments on the ground, in the air, and at sea. Despite
atmospheric levels. It also indicates
the direction and speed of the wind.
32,800 feet
(10,000 m)
The height at which
temperature of land and ocean
surfaces.
49,200 feet
the use of sophisticated information systems, the weather can be forecast only for the next few METEOROLOGICAL AIRCRAFT
they fly, near the
(13,000 m)
obtain temperature and humidity data
hours or days. Nonetheless, it is very useful in helping to prevent major catastrophes. and photograph particles contained in upper limit of the is the altitude that can be
reached by the G-IV airplane.
the clouds. troposphere
JET
G-IV LAUNCHABLE SOUNDING PROBE
is launched from an airplane toward the
ground. Its trajectory is followed as it
DATA COLLECTION HURRICANE HUNTER P-3 relays information about wind velocity,
The World Meteorological Station
Satellite
In the Air AIRPLANE Doppler Parachutes temperature, humidity, and pressure.
Organization acts as a center for Its Doppler radar has a resolution four radar lengthen the
Launchable Data can be collected by
receiving and transmitting data times greater than the standard time in the
sounding probe airplanes, satellites, or air.
coming from various stations Doppler radar in conventional use.
sounding probes. One single
located in the air, on the ocean,
satellite can cover the entire Radiosonde
and on land. Radar
surface of the Earth. Precise
information helps prevent
14,000 feet sends information to
the base.
Better Forecasts
Radiosonde
meteorological catastrophes (4,270 m) New models that measure changes in such
such as hurricanes or flooding.
Meteorological center
is the altitude that can be
reached by the P-3 aircraft.
1,200 feet variables as humidity, temperature, wind
velocity, and cloud displacement may make it
Airplane (365 m) possible to improve forecasts by 25 percent over
is the altitude that can be reached current ones.
by a radio sounding probe.
CURRENT Scale of 7 miles
On Land Buoy
MODEL (12 km) per side
Boat Marine
The observations made at ground AEROSONDE
sounding
level are more numerous than those probe Pilotless weather aircraft
made at higher altitudes. They include capable of sending
measurements of atmospheric pressure, meteorological
temperature, humidity, wind direction and information at intervals of EXPERIMENTAL
velocity, the extent and altitude of cloud tenths of a second MODEL
cover, visibility, and precipitation.
METEOROLOGICAL CENTERS
They improve worldwide cooperation in
meteorological observations, normalize the
data obtained in different cities throughout Strongest winds. Scale of 1 mile
the world, and promote the application of They are not detected (1.3 km) per side
METEOROLOGICAL STATION OCEANOGRAPHIC SHIP by current models.
Measurements at ground level permit gathers data on the direction and forecasts to various human activities.
the collection of partial data. speed of the wind and the
Thermometers measure temperature, temperature of the air and water,
the hygrometer measures humidity, and among other things.
the barometer measures atmospheric
pressure. Navigation
lights
Anemometer
Data
transmitter
Solar panel
METEOROLOGICAL
BUOY
provides information
ACOUSTIC SIGNAL about conditions of the
An acoustic depth sea in areas that are
sounder sends out
sound waves to
6,600 feet not covered by ships.
The buoy floats freely
measure the depth (2,000 m)
of the water.
with the ocean currents
is the depth reached and transmits readings
RADAR STATION
AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLE by the vehicle. automatically via MARITIME is utilized to measure the intensity with
On the Sea Images related to the physical properties of the satellite. SOUNDING which rain, snow, or ice is falling. The
Boats, buoys, and autonomous underwater vehicles help measure ocean water, such as the temperature, salinity, and PROBES radar sends radio waves that bounce off
water temperature, salinity, density, and reflected sunlight. All density, are relayed to operators and its location and They are dropped raindrops, and the return signal is
the information gathered is sent to a meteorological center. depth tracked via the Global Positioning System (GPS). from airplanes and displayed on a receiving screen.
then sink.
Mobile Satellites GOES EAST

Orbital altitude 22,370 miles (36,000 km)
eteorological satellites, which have been orbiting the Earth for more than 30 years,
M
88 feet
Weight 4,850 pounds (2,200 kg)
Array
are an indispensable aid to scientists. Along with the images generated by these drive Launch date 2001
(26.9 m)
instruments, meteorologists receive data that can be used to prepare weather Orbit 75°
bulletins. These reports, circulated via the mass media, allow people all over the world 12 feet
to know the weather forecast. Moreover, the most advanced satellites are used to (3.6 m)
study the characteristics of phenomena such as tropical cyclones (hurricanes,

cyclones, and typhoons). Images, Yesterday
DARK ZONES
Low reflectivity
and Today
The TIROS satellites (Television and
Polar Orbit Geostationary Infra-Red Observation Satellite) of
the 1960s provided the first images of
They orbit from pole to pole with a They orbit the Earth above the Equator cloud systems. The modern GOES
synchronized period. As they move in their and are synchronized with the Earth's Solar
satellites (Geostationary Operational
panels
orbits, they scan swaths of the Earth's rotation—that is, as they orbit the Earth, Environmental Satellites), which take
surface. They pass over any given point they are always over the same geographic more precise time and space
twice a day. Their operational lifetime is point on the Earth's surface. measurements, provide higher-quality
approximately two years. images of clouds, continents, and
oceans. They also measure the humidity
TWO ORBITS
of the atmosphere and the temperature
PER DAY at ground level.
190 miles per
second (305 CLEAR ZONES
km/sec) High
is the velocity of a WHITE reflectivity
polar satellite at High clouds
an altitude of 560
miles (900 km).
GREEN
Vegetation
X-ray
EQUATOR EQUATOR sensors YELLOW
Low clouds VISIBLE IMAGE
POLAR ORBIT Oceans and continents have low
28,400 miles ACCOMPANYING Log periodic albedo and appear as darker
(45,700 km) THE EARTH antenna areas. Areas with high albedo, in
ORANGE
1,100 miles per second AREA OF GREATEST
Dry and contrast, are clear and bright.
GEOSTATIONARY (1,770 km/sec) Telemetry HEAT EMISSION
mountainous
ORBIT The velocity necessary antenna
22,245 miles to remain fixed over one
(35,800 km) point on the Earth
CHARACTERISTICS
ORBITAL ALTITUDE 22,300 miles (35,900 km) COMBINED IMAGES
ROTATIONAL VELOCITY 100 RPM Magnetometer
They are composed of infrared
ORBITAL PERIOD 24 hours images (which permit
differentiation of high and low
clouds) and visible-light images
UHF antenna AREA OF LEAST (which measure the reflectivity of
ACTIVE POLAR SATELLITES ACTIVE GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES each climatic subsystem).
HEAT EMISSION
Receiving
antenna
Image
reception
NOAA-12 NOAA-14 GOES 8 Sensors

GOES 9
Transmitting
antenna
INFRARED IMAGE
represents infrared emissions or heat from
Solar the clouds and from the Earth's surface.
sail Objects that are hotter appear darker.
NOAA-15 METEOR 3-5 METEOSAT-7 GMS
Climate Change GLACIERS IN ALASKA
Approximately 5 percent of the land is
covered by glaciers, which advance and
break up when they reach the ocean,
GODS AND RITUALS 76-77
CLIMATE ZONES 78-79
PALEOCLIMATOLOGY 80-81
ACCELERATED MELTING 84-85
TOXIC RAIN 86-87
WEAKER AND WEAKER 88-89
where they form impressive cliffs of ice.
THE PLANET WARMS UP 82-83 CHANGE; EVERYTHING CHANGES 90-91
M
ountain glaciers are melting, melts from the glaciers each year, which is European Alps and in the Caucasus glaciers will have disappeared completely,
and this is a threat to the the glaciers' major contribution to raising Mountains has been reduced by half, and in including those in Glacier National Park in
availability of freshwater. It the global sea level; it is thought that the Africa, only 8 percent of the largest glacier of the United States. That will have powerful
is calculated that 8 cubic continental ice sheet may play a significantly Mount Kenya still exists. If these tendencies repercussions on the water resources of
miles (35 cu km) of water larger role. The volume of the glaciers in the continue, by the end of the century, most many parts of the world.
76 CLIMATE CHANGE GRAN ATLAS DE LA CIENCIA ENFERMEDADES
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 77
Y MEDICINA
Gods and Rituals

THE SCEPTER
A symbol of command
consisting of ornamented
Pre-Columbians
short sticks, the symbol The pre-Columbian population
of authority
believed water was a gift from
the gods. For the Aztecs, Tlaloc was the
redicting the weather was a subject of interest to all the early
P
god of rain, whereas the Incas called
civilizations that populated the Earth. Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, him Viracocha. Among the Mayans, he
was known as Chac. He was the divinity
pre-Columbians, and Orientals venerated the gods of the Sun, the of the peasants because water was the
Moon, the heavens, the rain, storms, and the wind for centuries. In their essential factor for stability and
organization for these indigenous
own way, with rituals and praise, they tried to influence the weather to peoples. The calendar made it
improve the bounty of the harvest. possible to forecast certain
astrological events and
rainstorms.
ZEPHYRUS
The Greek god of the west
The Romans CHAC
Mayan god of agriculture. The
TLALOC
Venerated by the Aztecs, he was
wind had an important The Romans worshiped many gods THE LIGHTNING BOLT Mayans performed ceremonies known as the provider because he
presence. At times he was because they inherited them from the Jupiter reigned over the petitioning Chac for rain when had the power to bring rain,
beneficial, and at other earth and heaven, and drought threatened the harvest. which made the corn grow.
times catastrophic. Though Greek oracles. The gods of weather were
he had the attributes of
the ancient Greeks were not Jupiter (wise and just, who reigned over the an eagle, a lightning
sure whether the winds earth), Apollo (the god of the sun), Neptune bolt, and a scepter.
were male or female, they (the god of the sea and storms), and
did believe the winds had
wings.
Saturn (the god of agriculture). Each god VIRACOCHA
had a specific function. As a result, any For the Incas, he was
human activity could suffer or benefit all powerful. Creator
from the attitude of the god in charge of the universe and of
of that particular function. Thus, the all the earth, he was
linked with rays of
purpose of ritual worship and sacrifice light, thunder,
to the gods was to gain their favor. lightning, and snow.
Greeks
The powerful Zeus was the king of the Greek
gods and dispenser of divine justice. He was
the sovereign of heaven (his brothers Poseidon and
Hades governed the ocean and the underworld,
respectively). He carried a thunderbolt to represent
his power, associated with the weather. Zeus lived THE EAGLE FUJIN
Jupiter is the Roman Japanese god of wind.
on Mount Olympus, from where he could observe supreme god,
and often intervene in the affairs of humans. The Drawn as a dark
represented by the monster, covered with
Greeks believed that Poseidon, when annoyed, figure of the eagle. leopard skin, he carried
would break up the mountains and throw them into He is also first in a bag of wind on his
the sea to form islands. Uranus was a wisdom and power. shoulders.
personification of heaven for the Greeks, and Apollo
was the god of the sun, light, and creation.
Egyptians
As in all ancient civilizations,
the gods of weather were
very much a part of Egyptian life.
The Orient
Civilization extended along the SURYA Hinduism has various
banks of the Nile, where water Hindu god of the sun. In weather-related gods. The
was crucial for survival—that is, India the sun most popular is Surya (god of the
personified as Surya
where cities, temples, pyramids, was considered to be
sun). Next come Chandra (god of the
and the entire economic life of the RE SETH harmful by the moon), Indra (the god who governs
Egyptian sun Egyptian god
kingdom were concentrated. The Dravidians of the south heaven), and Parjanya (god of rain).
god, the of the storm,
weather influenced the rising of but benevolent by the Japanese mythology emphasizes the
primordial represented
the river and the harvests. peoples of central following: Fujin (god of wind),
creator. His by a jackal, a regions. These peoples
Therefore the Egyptians venerated center of dog, or a wolf. Amaterasu (goddess of the sun),
attributed great healing
Re (the god of the sun), Nut (the worship was The son of Re Tsukiyomi (god of the moon),
power to the god.
Heliopolis, or the and brother of
god of heaven), Seth (the god City of the Sun. Amatsu-kami (god of heaven),
Osiris.
of the storm), and Toth (the god Susanoo (god of storms), and Aji-
of the moon). Suki-Taka-Hi-Kone (god of thunder).
78 CLIMATE CHANGE WEATHER AND CLIMATE 79
Climate Zones FORESTS AND LAKES
Coniferous
forest
Deciduous
trees
mm
1,000
500
MOSCOW, RUSSIA
Annual precipitation
25 inches (624 mm)
0
40
20
C
COLD
Very cold winters, with
frequent freezing at night,
are typical of these regions.
In these zones, the climate
ifferent places in the world, even if far removed from each other,
D
changes more often than
0
can be grouped into climate zones—that is, into regions that are Juniper
250
anywhere else. In most cold
climate regions, the
homogeneous relative to climatic elements, such as temperature, Ice cap
brush
0
-20
landscape is covered by
natural vegetation.
pressure, rain, and humidity. There is some disagreement among Lakes
J FMAMJ J A S O N D
climatologists about the number and description of each of these regions,

but the illustrations given on this map are generally accepted.
PLAINS AND Fertile soil,

stable climate Siberia
URBANIZATION
Human
settlements Plains of
Siberia
Hudson POLAR
Bay MOUNTAINOUS
ASIA CLIMATE
Fruit trees Mountains create their own
East European climate that is somewhat
Plain independent of their location.
Near the poles, the polar climate
EUROPE is dominated by very low
Rocky M
Natural
brush Agriculture NORTH Alps temperatures, strong and
ns
AMERICA irregular winds, and almost
ai
Black Sea Caspian
Hi Eternal snow on perpetual snow. The mountain
nt
Sea the mountains
m peaks lack vegetation.
59º F
ou
ou
al
ta
M
n
ya
a
HOUSTON, U.S. n s
TEMPERATE
in
h i TUNDRA AND TAIGA

Annual precipitation of
mm C lac
0
s
Characterized by pleasant
temperatures and moderate
rains throughout the year.
1,000 46 inches (1,170 mm)
40 Ap
pa
(15º C) Sparse
conifers
Winters are mild, with long, 500 20 is the average annual Arabian
frost-free periods. temperature of the Earth.
Sahara
Peninsula Lichens
Temperate regions are ideal 0 CENTRAL
for most agricultural 250
AMERICA
products. -20
Atlantic
0 Ocean Congo Indian
J FMAMJ J A S O N D basin
Pacific Ocean
Ocean
LHASA, TIBET
12º F
AFRICA
TROPICAL Annual precipitation
C
Cor
mm 16 inches (408 mm)

0
High temperatures throughout RAINFOREST OR JUNGLE
1,000 40
the year, combined with heavy Amazon
Tropical fruits
di
rains, are typical for this basin DESERT

climate. About half of the
and flowers
le
(6.5º C) 20
l
Intermittent 500
ra water
world's population lives in
regions with a tropical climate. SOUTH 0
d e
AMERICA is the temperature decrease for 250

Vegetation is abundant, and OCEANIA
humidity is high because the every 3,300 feet (1,000 m) of -20
los
water vapor in the air is not increase in elevation. Gibson 0

Desert J FMAMJ J A S O N D
readily absorbed. Plentiful
water
An
Dry soil
sources
de
Sea of dunes
Green and
fertile soil
Köppen Climate Classification
s
MANAUS, BRAZIL Pampas

mm Layers of Sparse Latitudes
Annual precipitation 0
C vegetation
region
vegetation
1,000 75 inches (1,900 mm) In 1936 Russian-born 80°
40
Sand climatologist Wladimir
Patagonia 60°
500 20 Köppen presented a
climatological classification 40°
KEY
0 TIMBUKTU, MALI based on temperature and Tropical forests, without a dry season Glacial
250 Annual precipitation
DRY precipitation. The table provides 20° Tropical savanna, with a dry winter Mountain climate
0
-20
Temperature and Rains Lack of rain controls the arid mm
1,000
9 inches (232 mm) 0
C a broad overview of the Steppes (semiarid) Temperate cold continental
J FMAMJ J A S O N D climate in desert or 40 approximate distribution of 0° (hot summer)
Desert (arid)
The temperature of the Earth depends on the energy from the Sun, which is semidesert regions, the result climates on the terrestrial globe. Temperate cold continental
20 Temperate humid, without a dry season
not distributed equally at all latitudes. Only 5 percent of sunlight reaches the of the atmospheric 500 Köppen classification does not 20°
(cold summer)
discuss climatic regions but Temperate, with a dry winter
surface at the poles, whereas this figure rises to 75 percent at the Equator. Rain is circulation of air. In these
Temperate cold continental
0 40°
an atmospheric phenomenon. Clouds contain millions of drops of water, which collide regions, dry air descends, 250 rather the type of climate found Temperate, with a dry summer
(subarctic)
to form larger drops. The size of the drops increases until they are too heavy to be leaving the sky clear, with -20
in a given location according to Tundra
60°
supported by air currents, and they fall as rain. many hours of burning Sun. specific parameters.
0
J FMAMJ J A S O N D
Paleoclimatology CLOTHES
Human Activity
Climate can be divided into before and after the Industrial
Revolution. This graphic shows the progressive increase of
halocarbon gases, methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide
he climate of the planet is constantly changing. In approximately two million protect the scientists from between 1770 and 1990. It is clear that humans have contributed
T years, the Earth has gone through very cold periods, or glaciations, that lasted
thousands of years, alternating with warm periods. Today we live in an
interglacial period that began some 10,000 years ago with an increase in average
the weather and prevent the
contamination of samples.
to the contamination of the planet.
EVALUATION OF GREENHOUSE GASES
global temperature. These climatic changes can be analyzed over time periods 400 Parts per
million Year 1770
that exceed hundreds of thousands of years. Paleoclimatology uses records 350 Year 1990
derived from fossils, tree rings, corals, glaciers, and historical 300 280
documents to study the climates of the past. 350
280
200
Gas Measurement
VOSTOK
Vertical ice cores (or samples) allow
Latitude 77° S
scientists to study the climate of 100
Longitude 105° E the past. The nearly 12-foot-long (3.6-
m) ice sample taken at the Russian
Vostok station contains climatic 0.28 0.8 1.7 0.28 0.31
5,405 square miles data going back 420,000 years, 0
0
Surface area of the lake
(14,000 sq km) including the concentration of Halocarbons Methane Carbon Nitrous
carbon dioxide, methane, and dioxide oxide
Inhabitants Only scientists
other greenhouse gases in the
Year of founding 1957 atmosphere.
Temperature -67° F (-55° C)
Surface 95% ice
Composition
The lower graphic shows the change in concentration of
SAMPLES
methane in the atmosphere in the last 20,000 years until the
The zones marked on the
end of the preindustrial era. The information collected was estimated
map are places where
on the basis of ice probes in Greenland and Antarctica.
Dronning Maud Land scientists have gathered
samples of ice, which were
analyzed in the laboratories.
METHANE CONCENTRATION
VOSTOK
KEY Holocene Glaciation
0.8
South Pole Drillings Parts per
Siple Station 0.7
Ice sheets million 0.6 Greenland
0.5
Dominion Range 0.4
Antarctica
RIDS
0.3
Law Dome 0
Newall glacier
Little ICE CORES
America Talos Dome Samples are taken at different depths.
The surface snow becomes more
compact in the lower layers. In the
last layer, there are rocks and sand.
Chronology 0 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 12.000 14.000 16.000 18.000 20.000
During the history of the Earth's surface but also on animal Time in years before the present
Earth, climate has changed and plant life. This timeline shows the
greatly, which has had a large effect planet's major climate changes and Feet 174 177 6,024 6,027 10,007 10,010
not only on the appearance of the their consequences. (53 m) (54 m) (1,836 m) (1,837 m) (3,050 m) (3,051 m)
B.Y.A. = billions of years ago M.Y.A. = millions of years ago Y.A. = years ago
4.5 B.Y.A. 2.7-1.8 B.Y.A. 544 M.Y.A. 330 M.Y.A. 245 M.Y.A. 65 M.Y.A. 2 M.Y.A. 1.6 M.Y.A. 18,000 Y.A. 1,300-700 Y.A. 550-150 Y.A.
In the beginning, Ice covers very Glacial climate in a Beginning of a long Drought and heat at the Paleocene and The cold continues; Interglacial. The begins the last Medieval warm period; Little Ice Age. Alpine
there was heat. Life extensive areas. changing geography. period of glaciation. beginning. Abrupt beginning Eocene: very glaciation occurs beginning of a two- deglaciation. in some places warmer glaciers advance; more
produces oxygen and Extinction of 70 percent Ice covers different cooling at the end of the warm climate. Middle every 100,000 years. million-year period. Increase in temperature; than today. Vikings severe winters.
cools the climate. of marine species. geographic areas. period. Appearance of Eocene: cooling begins. melting of ice. arrive in Greenland..
the dinosaurs.
The Planet Warms Up

he increase in average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans is the result of GREAT
T
THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH THROUGH THE YEARS
The effects of global warming are already noticeable. It is estimated that the average global temperature BARRIER REEF
global warming. The main cause is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions by industrialized has increased more than 1.1° F (0.6° C) between the end of the 19th century and the year 2000.
Latitude 18°S
nations during the past 200 years. This phenomenon has increased the greenhouse effect. It Longitude 147°E
is estimated that the average global temperature has increased more than 1.1° F (0.6° C)
between the end of the 19th century and the year 2000. The consequences of this are Surface 1,430 miles (2,300 km)
already beginning to be noticed. Changes are observed in the global distribution of Types of reefs 3,000
precipitation: there are regions where there is an increase of rain, and there are other Age 300 million years
regions where rain is diminishing. This generates, among other things, a redistribution Discovery 1770, by James Cook
of fauna and flora, changes in ecosystems, and changes in human activities.
Product of Human Activity

Our planet is going through an accelerated and carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.
process of global warming because of the Other aggravating human activities, such as
accumulation in the atmosphere of a series of gases deforestation, have limited the regenerative capacity
generated by human activity. These gases not only of the atmosphere to eliminate carbon dioxide
absorb the energy emitted by the surface of the through photosynthesis. These changes have caused a
Earth when it is heated by radiation coming from the
Sun, but they also strengthen the naturally occurring
greenhouse effect, whose purpose is to trap heat. One
of the primary agents responsible for the growth of
slow increase in the average annual temperature of
the Earth. Global warming, in turn, causes numerous
environmental problems: desertification and droughts
(which cause famines), deforestation (which further
1.1º F
the greenhouse effect is CO2 (carbon dioxide), which
is artificially produced by burning fossil fuels (coal,
increases climate change), floods, and the destruction
of ecosystems. Because all these variables contribute
(0.6º C)
R GY
petroleum, and natural gas). Because of the intensive to global warming in complex ways, it is very difficult APPROXIMATE INCREASE
use of these fuels, there has been a notable increase to predict with precision everything that will happen Of the Earth's global average temperature from 1860
ENE
in the quantity of both carbon and nitrogen oxides in the future.
Increase of the
2 natural greenhouse
AR
effect of the The modified atmosphere
3 retains more heat emitted by
SOL
atmosphere
the Earth and thus upsets the
natural equilibrium.
A Different World
With the changing patterns of precipitation and
E
1 the shifting of air-pressure systems, some regions
HER
will become more humid, and others will suffer
droughts. One of the areas that will become drier will
OSP
OZONE be the western part of North America, where
Activities, such as the burning The ozone layer is in
the stratosphere, above desertification is already affecting agriculture.
AT M
of fuels and deforestation,
increase the concentration of the surface of the According to current forecasts, areas in high latitudes,
planet. It acts as a closer to the poles, will go through a rapid warming in
greenhouse gases. powerful solar filter
the next 40 years. Populations of animals will be forced
that prevents the
to emigrate from their habitat to avoid extinction, and
84º F O
passage of all but a
small amount of
ultraviolet radiation
(UV).
other animals, such as the polar bear and emperor
penguin, will have trouble subsisting as their habitats
disappear. Ocean levels are rising between 0.4 and 0.8
inch (1 and 2 cm) per decade. Some Pacific island
(29º C)
zo
nations such as Tuvalu have contingency plans for
ne
l ay
INCREASE OF evacuation. Another affected region is the Great Barrier
er
The discoloration of coral occurs PRIMARY Reef of Australia. The coral is very sensitive to changes
when the temperature exceeds GREENHOUSE in temperature. At temperatures above a normal 84° F
84° F (29° C). Algae are lost, the GASES [29 ° C], the coral begin to expel the algae on which
ERE
use
RE
coral weakens, and the color of they depend for food, and then they die.
topa
SPH
PHE
se
the coral fades.

pau
Stra
ATO
POS
o
Trop
ST R
TRO
LOW
2 km 10 km 50 km
Accelerated Melting Pa
cif
ic O
cea
n
PROJECTIONS
POSSIBLE
FLOOD ZONES
2010-30
he climate is changing at a disconcerting speed. Glaciers
T are retreating, and sea level is rising because of a

phenomenon known as thermal expansion. Scientists
evaluating the planet's health deduce that this is the
Summer sea ice,
currently in decline,
tends to diminish
more and more rapidly
-25 -15 -5 0 5 15
In the period between 1993 and

2003, some coastlines were
reduced by the rise in sea level.
25
consequence of the Earth warming too rapidly. Human in the future.

activity—in particular, the burning of fossil fuels and
the consequent accumulation of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere—has increased this trend. Bering 2040-60
Strait
Europe
As the century
progresses, sea ice
ARCTIC continues to melt
more and more along
Latitude 66° N
ADVANCE OF the coasts of the
Longitude 0° Arctic Ocean.
VEGETATION
The retreat of the ice
OCEAN leaves organic
CURRENTS material exposed,
Surface area 5,444,040 square miles (14,100,000 sq km)
The main cause of which, instead of
Depth 13,100 to 6,600 feet (4,000 to 2,000 m) changes in ocean reflecting solar 2070-90
Temperature -58° F (-50° C) in winter currents are changes radiation, absorbs it,
in the water's salinity. increasing global
LABRADOR
temperature. Some scientific models
CURRENT
project that summer
starts in the Arctic
sea ice will be virtually
Why It Happens and moves south,
eliminated during this
North carrying cold water
The thawing at the poles is, in part, caused by the century.
America and loose ice.
increase of greenhouse gases. They absorb the
radiation emitted by the Earth and heat up the
atmosphere, further increasing the Earth's temperature.
TEMPERATURE
The melting of glaciers puts more water in the oceans. Barents INCREASE ADVANCING WATERS
Sea It is believed that the
EFFECT increased emission of
The accelerated melting raises sea
The Arctic heats up more rapidly than the greenhouse gases will
level and floods coasts that have a
global average because of the darkness of Hudson cause an increase in
gentle slope. As the sea level
the soil and the water, which, once exposed, Bay average global
rises, the width of
trap more heat from the atmosphere. Melting of the ice temperature of
5. Once exposed to the
air, the is absorbed
CO2
will be detrimental between 3.2° and 7.2° F 50 m coastal areas
diminishes.
by the atmosphere.
to people and (1.8° and 4.0° C) over
animals living in the the next 100 years. 50
Greenland Arctic. cm
1. Sunlight Where the ice is

reflects 2. the thinnest, or
from cracked, radiation
layers penetrates to the
of ice. ocean. 164 feet
Ice absorbs the heat from These particles rise to
(50 m) 70%
3. sunlight and releases a
4. the surface, converted The amount of coastal of the freshwater
great quantity of trapped into CO2. area lost when sea level in the world is in
GULF STREAM
carbon particles. rises 20 inches (50 cm) Antarctica.
originates in the Gulf of Mexico
and carries warm water to
higher latitudes.
Antarctica
Via cracks in the ice, new marine routes
can develop. When ships pass, the cracks
rarely close, increasing the process of
80% At
lan
tic
Oc
ean
The Antarctic loses 36 cubic miles (152 cu
km) of ice per year, and the western ice sheet
of Greenland's is becoming thinner at an accelerating pace. This is
Particles of CO2 heat absorption and the release of CO2.
ice is losing 3 feet contributing to increases in sea level. Over the long
(1 m) per year. term, the effect on the climate could be disastrous
for many regions of the planet.
Toxic Rain AREAS AFFECTED BY ACID RAIN
urning fossil fuel releases into the air chemicals that mix with water vapor PHOTOCHEMICAL
B and produce acid rain. The excess of sulfur dioxides and nitrogen dioxides in
bodies of water makes the development of aquatic life more difficult,
substantially increasing the mortality rate of fish. Likewise, it affects vegetation on
3 REACTION
Sunlight increases the speed at
which chemical reactions occur. Thus,
sulfur dioxide and atmospheric gases
rapidly produce sulfur trioxide.
land, causing significant damage in forested areas by contaminating animals and
destroying substances vital for the soil. Moreover, acidic sedimentation can increase
the levels of toxic metals, such as aluminum, copper, and mercury, that are deposited Atmospheric circulation enhances
the dispersal of contaminants The regions most vulnerable to this phenomenon are
in untreated drinking-water reservoirs. over great distances. Mexico, Beijing, Cairo, Jakarta (Indonesia), and Los
Angeles.
ACID RAIN
GAS EMISSIONS GAS MIXTURES

4 falls in the form of water, fog, or
dew and leaves the acids formed in
the atmosphere on the ground.
pH
acid WHAT IS pH?
The degree of
1 Generated by burning fuels

and the eruption of volcanoes 2 The molecules of various
gases rise and mix with
water in the air.
pH:5 pH:6
acidity of an
aqueous solution.
It indicates the
concentration of
hydrogen ions.
Acid rain Normal rain
pH
neutral
CO2 SO2 CH4 H2S CO NO2
Petroleum Chemical Waste

refineries industry incinerator
SOIL
CONSEQUENCES
CONSEQUENCES Melting water carries SILICATE SOIL

FOR AGRICULTURE acidic particles that The effect of acidity
come from the rain. increases because of the lack
Areas under cultivation are of buffering minerals.
The leaves lose not as vulnerable because
their wax layer. they are generally improved
by fertilizers that restore CALCAREOUS SOIL
nutrients to the soil and The effect is neutralized by
neutralize acidity. the presence of bicarbonate.
TYPES OF GASES EMITTED CONSEQUENCES EFFECTS ON
Destruction
FOR PLANTS THE WATER
Petroleum CO2 (carbon dioxide)
refinery SO2 (sulfur dioxide) of chlorophyll Acid rain acts via certain
mechanisms that weaken The acidity of rainwater
CH4 (methane) changes the neutral pH of
plants, making them more
vulnerable to the effects of bodies of water.
Chemical CO2 , SO2 , wind, cold, drought,
industry H2S (hydrogen sulfide) disease, and parasites. pH 7 pH 4.3
Defoliation (neutral) (acid)
Waste CO2 , SO2 , CH4 , In mountainous areas, fog and
incinerator CO (carbon monoxide) snow contribute significant
NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) quantities of the gases in question.
The year when the
MOST-THREATENED SPECIES Root

Seriously affected
species are lettuce and
1972 phenomenon of acid rain was
recorded for the first time
damage tobacco, especially
because their leaves,
LEAVES destined for human MOST-AFFECTED SPECIES
This rain damages their consumption, must be
surface, causing small of high quality.
Fir Beech Oak

lesions that alter the
action of photosynthesis. pH 4.3 LEVEL AT WHICH FISH DO
NOT SURVIVE IN THE WATER Trout Perch Frogs
Weaker and Weaker UV RADIATION

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is a radiant form of energy that comes from the Sun.
The various forms of radiation are classified according to the average
wavelength measured in nanometers (nm), equivalent to one millionth of a
rtificial substances are destroying the ozone layer, which millimeter. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of the radiation.
A provides protection against ultraviolet rays. This phenomenon

is observed every year in polar regions (primarily in the
Antarctic) between August and October. Because of this, the Earth 2000
11,000,000 square miles
UV-A
These rays easily
penetrate the ozone
layer. They cause skin
UV-B
are almost all absorbed
by the ozone layer.
They are harmful and
UV-C
These are the most
damaging rays, but
they are totally filtered
wrinkling and aging. cause various types of by the upper part of
is receiving more harmful rays, which perhaps explains the (28,000,000 sq km) 2001
10,000,000 square miles skin cancer. the ozone layer.
appearance of certain illnesses: an increase in skin cancer cases, (26,000,000 sq km)
2004
damage to vision, and weakening of the immune system. 9,300,000 square miles 2005
(24,200,000 sq km) 10,400,000 square miles
(27,000,000 sq km)
THE SOUTHERN OZONE HOLE

The thinning of the ozone layer over
the Antarctic is the result of a series
Exosphere of phenomena, including the action of
OZONE LAYER chlorine radicals, which cause the
At an altitude of 12 to 19 miles (20 to 30 destruction of ozone.
km), the Earth is surrounded by a
Mesosphere
stratospheric ozone layer that is of vital
importance for life on the surface. The layer
Stratosphere
is formed from oxygen molecules through
the absorption of ultraviolet light from the 11,000,000
Sun. This reaction is reversible, that is, the
ozone can return to its natural state, oxygen.
It is popularly called
the ozone hole—a
square miles
Ozone layer
This oxygen is reconverted into ozone, decrease or abnormal (28,000,000 sq km)
beginning a continuous process of formation thinning that occurs
Troposphere
and destruction of these components. in the ozone layer.
is the size of the area of
attenuated ozone reached in 2000. The ozone layer
functions as a
natural filter,
absorbing UV rays.
HOW IT DETERIORATES 3 Chlorine atoms combine

with a molecule of ozone,
4 The chloromonoxide
combines with an
75%
destroy it, and form one atom of free OF SKIN CANCER
HOW OZONE IS FORMED 1 Ultraviolet radiation strikes chloromonoxide and one oxygen and releases
a molecule of CFC gas. IS ATTRIBUTED TO
oxygen atom. the chlorine atom.
UV-B RADIATION.
1 Ultraviolet rays 2 One of the released 3 One of the released
strike a molecule atoms combines with atoms combines with 5 This atom, once
of oxygen which a molecule of oxygen. a molecule of oxygen. again free,
2 An atom of combines with
breaks up and releases Together they form a Together they form a chlorine is
its two atoms. molecule of ozone. molecule of ozone. released. another molecule
of ozone.
CFC GASES
are a family of gases with
multiple applications. They
are used in refrigeration
systems, air-conditioning
equipment, and aerosols.
O2 O3
4 The process can

start again with
the new oxygen
molecule. 50 to 100 HUMAN BEINGS
Skin cancer. Damage to
THE NUMBER OF YEARS
vision. Weakening of the
THAT CFC GASES SURVIVE immune system. Severe
PLANTS
WHEN? WHO? HOW? Destruction of phytoplankton.
In 1974, it was discovered that industrial IN THE ATMOSPHERE burns. Skin aging.
Inhibition of the photosynthesis
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) affect the process. Changes in growth. ANIMALS
ozone layer. Chemists Mario Molina and F. Reduced harvest yields. Diseases among farm
Sherwood Rowland demonstrated that animals. Destruction of
industrial CFCs are the gases that links in the food chain.
weaken the ozone layer by destroying the Increase of skin cancer.
ozone molecules.
Change; Everything Changes Incident

rays
Energy is
integrated into the
climatic system.
Long-wave radiation
emitted by the Earth is
ATMOSPHERE trapped by the atmosphere.
More than 10.8° F

(6° C) SURFACE OF
THE EARTH
From 9° to 10.8° F ASIA

(5° to 6° C)
Atlantic
Ocean
The Most Responsible EUROPE
NORTH From 7.2° to 9° F
The climate of the planet is constantly
changing. At present, the average global
AMERICA (4° to 5° C)
temperature is approximately 59° F (15° C).
Geologic and other types of evidence suggest that ACCELERATION OF THE
in the past the average could have been as low as THE RISE IN GREENHOUSE EFFECT
45° F (7° C) and as high as 81° F (27° C). Climate TEMPERATURE Ice reflects solar radiation, whereas
change is, in large part, caused by human activities, In Alaska and western Canada the soil of jungles, forests, and
which cause an increase in the concentration of winter temperatures have steppes absorbs the energy and
greenhouse gases. These gases include carbon dioxide, increased between 5.4° and 7.2° F radiates it as sensible heat. This
methane, and nitrogen dioxide and are released by modern (3° and 4° C) in the past 50 artificially increases the greenhouse
industry, by agriculture, and by the burning of coal, petroleum, years. It has been projected that effect and contributes to global
and natural gas. Its atmospheric concentration is increasing: in the next 100 years the Earth's warming.
CENTRAL
atmospheric carbon-dioxide content alone has grown by more than average temperature will
AMERICA
20 percent since 1960. Investigators indicate that this warming can increase between 3.2° and 7.2° F
have grave implications for the stability of the climate, on which most of Indian
(1.8° and 4.0° C). From 5.4° to 7.2° F
the life on the planet depends. Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
(3° to 4° C)
Normal thickness
of the ozone layer
Hole in the
ozone
The ozone layer stops
ultraviolet rays. From 3.6° to 5.4° F Cause and Effect
AFRICA
(2° to 3° C) The burning of fossil fuels and the
SOUTH
indiscriminate cutting of deciduous forests
AMERICA
and rainforests cause an increase in the
concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and OCEANIA
other greenhouse gases. They trap heat and
increase the greenhouse effect. That is how
the Arctic is warming up; the density of
From 1.8° to 3.6° F the ice is decreased by melting, and
(1° to 2° C) freshwater flows into the ocean,
changing its salinity.
Solar rays
THE ICY 100 is the length of time it

takes for a deciduous
forest to return to its
Rays that pass through
the ozone layer SURFACE OF
THE EARTH
COASTLINE
CO2 is
released years natural state after it
has been laid to waste.
THE EFFECT OF
THINNING OF THE OZONE LAYER POLAR MELTING
The ozone layer protects us from ultraviolet rays, The snow-covered sea ice reflects
but, because of the release of artificial substances, it OCEAN
between 85 and 90 percent of the
is thinning out. This phenomenon is observed each year sunlight that strikes it, whereas sea
over Antarctica between August and October and over water reflects only 10 percent. For
the North Pole between October and May. Moreover, that reason, as the ice and snow melt,
there is evidence that greater amounts of UV rays at many of today's coastlines will
the Earth's surface are destroying or altering vegetable Warm
become submerged under water,
cells and decreasing the production of oxygen. marine current
which will cause yet more ice to melt.
92 GLOSSARY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 93
Glossary
good weather. exhaust of automobiles, trucks, and buses. It is through a reduction in precipitation.
Accretion also produced by the combustion of coal and Condensation Exosphere
other organic material. Too much carbon dioxide
Growth of an ice crystal in the atmosphere by Atmosphere in the atmosphere contributes to global
The process by which water vapor is Dew The outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere.
direct capture of water droplets when the transformed into liquid by the effect of cooling.
temperature is below 32° F (0° C). The gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. warming. Condensation in the form of small drops of
water formed on grass and other small objects Flash Flood
Atmospheric Pressure Conduction
Acid Rain Chlorofluorocarbons near the ground when the temperature has Sudden flooding caused by the passage of a
The transfer of heat through a substance by dropped to the dew point. This generally large quantity of water through a narrow space,
Rain resulting from the mixture of water vapor The pressure or weight exerted by the Artificial chemical substances often contained in molecular action or from one substance to happens during the night. such as a canyon or a valley.
in the air with chemical substances typically atmosphere at a specific point. Its measurement aerosols, refrigerants, and air conditioners. another it is in contact with.
released by the combustion of fossil fuels. can be expressed in various units: hectopascals, These chemicals are largely responsible for the
millibars, inches, or millimeters of mercury (Hg). damage to the ozone layer. Dike Fog
It is also called barometric pressure. Continentality
Aerosol An earthwork for containing or channeling a Visible manifestation of drops of water
Aerosols are very small (liquid or solid) particles
Cirrus The tendency of the interior regions of the river or for protection against the sea. suspended in the atmosphere at or near ground
suspended in the atmosphere, with varied
Aurora Wispy cloud formations at altitudes greater
continents to have more extreme temperature
level; this reduces the horizontal visibility to less
changes than coastal zones.
chemical composition. Aerosols play an essential A phenomenon that is produced in the higher than 16,400 feet (5,000 m). Drizzle than a mile. It originates when the temperature
role in the formation of clouds by acting as layers of the atmosphere at polar latitudes. An of the air is near the dew point, and sufficient
condensation nuclei. They are also important to aurora occurs when there is a collision between Convection A type of light liquid precipitation composed of numbers of condensation nuclei are present.
the Earth's radiation balance since they help to the electrically charged particles emitted by the
Climate small drops with diameters between 0.007 and
The process by which a heated surface 0.019 inch (0.2 and 0.5 mm). Usually drizzle
increase the reflection and dispersion of Sun and the magnetic field of the Earth. In the The average state of the meteorological transfers energy to the material (air, water, etc.) Forecast
radiation coming from the Sun. Northern Hemisphere, the phenomenon is called conditions of a location considered over a long falls from stratus-type clouds that are found at
above it. This material becomes less dense and low altitudes and can be accompanied by fog,
the aurora borealis, and in the Southern period of time. The climate of a location is rises. Cooler material descends to fill in the void. A statement about future events. The weather
Hemisphere, it is known as the aurora australis. determined by climatological factors: latitude, which significantly decreases visibility. forecast includes the use of objective models
Air Mass longitude, altitude, topography, and
Air rising as a result of the heating of the
based on a number of atmospheric parameters
ground by the Sun's rays.
Extensive volume in the atmosphere whose
physical properties, in particular the
Avalanche continentality. Drought combined with the ability and experience of
the meteorologist. It is also called weather
temperature and humidity in a horizontal plane, A large mass of snow that flows down the side Coriolis Force An abnormally dry climatic condition in a prediction.
show only small and gradual differences. An air of a mountain.
Cloud specific area where the lack of water is
A fictitious or apparent force that applies when
mass can cover an area of a few million square A visible mass of small particles, such as prolonged and which causes a serious
miles and can have a thickness of several miles. droplets of water and/or crystals of ice,
the Earth is used as a reference frame for
hydrological imbalance. Front
Barometer suspended in the air. A cloud is formed in the
motion. It depends upon the latitude and the
velocity of the object in motion. In the Northern The transition or contact zone between two
Albedo An instrument for measuring atmospheric atmosphere because of the condensation of Hemisphere, the air is deflected toward the El Niño masses of air with different meteorological
pressure. A decrease in pressure usually means water vapor onto solid particles of smoke, dust, right side of its path, and in the Southern characteristics, which almost always implies
A measure of the percentage of radiation that storms are on the way. Increasing pressure ashes, and other elements called condensation The anomalous appearance, every few years,
Hemisphere, the air is deflected toward the left different temperatures. For example, a front
reflected by a surface. indicates good weather. nuclei. of unusually warm ocean conditions along the
side of its path. This force is strongest at the occurs at the area of convergence between
poles and does not exist at the Equator. tropical west coast of South America. warm humid air and dry cold air.
Altitude Beaufort Scale Coalescence
Height relative to sea level. A scale invented at the beginning of the 19th The process of growth of drops of water in a Cyclone Erosion Frontogenesis
century by a British sailor, Francis Beaufort, for cloud. Two drops collide and remain joined after A climatic low-pressure system. Action in which the ground is worn down by The process of formation or intensification of a
Anemometer estimating and reporting wind velocity. It is the collision, constituting a bigger drop. This is moving water, glaciers, wind, or waves. front. This happens when wind forces two
based on the different shapes taken by water one of the mechanisms that explains the growth
Instrument for measuring wind velocity. waves at different wind velocities, and its of the size of drops in a cloud until precipitation Desert adjacent masses of air of different densities and
graduation goes from 0 to 12. There is also a (rain) is produced. A hot or cold zone where annual precipitation is
Evaporation temperatures together, creating a front. It can
occur when one of the masses of air, or both,
Anticyclone Beaufort scale for application on land based on
less than 1 inch (25 mm). Physical process by which a liquid (such as move over a surface that reinforces their
observations of the wind's effect on trees and
Region where the atmospheric pressure is other objects.
Cold Wave water) is transformed into its gaseous state original properties. This is common on the east
relatively high compared with neighboring (such as water vapor). The reverse process is
regions. Normally the air above an anticyclone
A rapid drop in temperature to the point Desertification called condensation.
coast of North America or Asia, when a mass of
requiring special protective measures in air moving toward the ocean has a weak or
descends, which prevents clouds from forming Carbon Dioxide agriculture, industry, commerce, or social
A process that converts fertile land to desert undefined boundary. It is the opposite of
at medium and high levels of the atmosphere. frontolysis.
An odorless, colorless gas emitted in the engine activities.
Hence an anticyclonic system is associated with
94 GLOSSARY WEATHER AND CLIMATE 95
mercury. The millibar (mb) was the technical north and south and the Equator at 0° latitude. pressure, precipitation (rain, snow, etc.), winds disturbance (light ground-level winds), tropical
Frost unit used to measure pressure until recently, (velocity and direction), storms, cloud cover, Snow depression (maximum ground-level winds of 38
when the hectopascal was adopted. The pascal percentage of relative humidity, and so on. miles per hour [61 km/h]), tropical storm
A covering of ice crystals on a cold object.
is the unit for pressure in the MKS system, Lightning Precipitation in the form of white or
(maximum winds in the range of 39 to 73 miles
transparent frozen ice crystals, often in the
corresponding to the pressure exerted by the A discharge of the atmosphere's static per hour [62 to 112 km/h]), or hurricane
Global Warming unit force (1 newton) on a unit surface (1 square electricity occurring between a cloud and the
Ocean Current form of complex hexagons. In general, snow
falls from stratiform clouds, but it can also fall (maximum ground-level winds exceeding 74
meter—11 square feet); 1,000 hPa = 1,000 mb ground. The movement of water in the ocean caused by from cumulus clouds, usually in the form of miles per hour [119 km/h]).
The heating of the atmosphere caused by = 1 bar = 14.5 pounds per square inch.
increased concentrations of greenhouse gases the system of planetary winds. Ocean currents snowflakes.
transport warm or cold water over long
due to human activities.
High Mesosphere distances around the planet.
Troposphere
The layer of the Earth's atmosphere that lies
Stratosphere The layer of the atmosphere closest to the
Greenhouse Effect A prefix describing cloud formations at an
above the stratosphere. The layer of the atmosphere situated above the ground, its name means “changing sphere,” and
altitude between 6,560 and 16,400 feet (2,000 Orographic Rain troposphere. this layer is where most changes in weather
A phenomenon explained by the presence of and 5,000 m).
Rain that results from the cooling of humid air take place. This is also where most of the
certain components in the atmosphere METAR as it crosses over a mountain range.
(primarily carbon dioxide [CO2], water vapor, Humidity Stratus phenomena of interest in meteorology occur.
and ozone) that absorb a portion of the infrared The name of the format airport meteorological
Low clouds that form layers. They often
radiation emitted by the surface of the Earth The amount of water vapor contained in the air. bulletins are reported in. This includes data on Ozone Layer produce drizzle. Turbulence
and simultaneously reflect radiative energy back wind, visibility, temperature, dew point, and
atmospheric pressure, among other variables. A layer of the atmosphere situated 20 to 30 Disorderly motion of air composed of small
to the surface. This process contributes to the Hurricane miles (30 to 50 km) above the Earth's surface
increase in the average temperature near the between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
Synoptic Map whirlwinds that move within air currents.
The name for a tropical cyclone with sustained Atmospheric turbulence is produced by air in a
surface.
winds of 64 knots (74 miles per hour [119 Meteorology It acts as a filtering mechanism for ultraviolet A map that shows weather conditions of the state of continuous change. It can be caused by
km/h]) or more, which develops in the North The science and study of atmospheric radiation. Earth's surface at a certain time and place. thermal or convective currents, by differences in
Gust Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and phenomena. Some of the subdivisions of terrain and in the velocity of the wind, by
A rapid and significant increase in wind velocity.
the Pacific Northeast. This storm is called a
typhoon in the western Pacific and a cyclone in
meteorology are agrometeorology, climatology, Polar Front Thermal Inversion conditions along a frontal zone, or by a change
The maximum velocity of the wind must reach hydrometeorology, and physical, dynamic, and in temperature and pressure.
the Indian Ocean. An almost permanent and very large front of An inversion of the normal reduction in
at least 16 knots (18 miles per hour [30 km/h]), synoptic meteorology.
the middle latitudes that separates the temperature with an increase in altitude.
and the difference between the peaks and calm
must be at least 10 knots (12 miles per hour [18 Hygrometer relatively cold polar air and the relatively warm Weather
Microbarometer subtropical air.
km/h]). It generally lasts less than 20 seconds.
An instrument used to measure humidity. Thermometer The state of the atmosphere at a given moment,
A very sensitive barometer that records as it relates to its effects on human activity.
Hail pressure variations using a magnified scale. Precipitation An instrument for measuring temperature. The This process involves short-term changes in the
Ice A liquid or solid, crystallized or amorphous
different scales used in meteorology are Celsius, atmosphere in contrast to the great climatic
Precipitation that originates in convective Fahrenheit, and Kelvin (or absolute). changes that imply more long-term changes.
clouds, such as the cumulonimbus, in the form of
The solid state of water. It is found in the Mist particle that falls from a cloud or system of
The terms used to define weather include
atmosphere in the form of ice crystals, snow, or clouds and reaches the ground.
masses or irregular pieces of ice. Typically hail
has a diameter of 0.2 to 2 inches (5 to 50 mm)
hail. Microscopic drops of water suspended in the air, Tornado cloudiness, humidity, precipitation, temperature,
or humid hygroscopic particles, which reduce visibility, and wind.
but may grow significantly larger. The smallest
visibility at ground level. Radiation A column of air that rotates with great violence,
ice fragments—whose diameter is 0.2 inch (5 Jet Streams stretching between a convective cloud and the
mm) or less—are called small hailstones, or
Air currents high in the troposphere (about 6
The process by which energy propagates
surface of the Earth. It is the most destructive Windward
graupel. Strong upward currents are required Monsoon through a specific medium (or a vacuum) via
miles [10 km] above sea level), where the wind wave phenomena or motion. Electromagnetic phenomenon in the atmosphere. Tornadoes can The direction from which the wind is blowing.
inside the clouds for hail to be produced.
velocity can be up to 90 meters per second A seasonal wind that causes heavy rains in radiation, which emits heat and light, is one occur, under the right conditions, anywhere on
(200 miles per hour). This type of structure is tropical and subtropical regions. form of radiation. Other forms are sound waves. Earth, but they appear most frequently in the
Heat Wave seen in subtropical latitudes in both central United States, between the Rocky
hemispheres, where the flow is toward the east, Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains.
A period of abnormally hot and uncomfortable Seaquake
weather. It can last from a few days to a
reaching its maximum intensity during the Normal
winter.
number of weeks. The standard value accepted for a An earthquake at the bottom of the ocean,
causing a violent agitation of ocean waves,
Tropical Cyclone
meteorological element as calculated for a
Hectopascal Latitude specific location over a specific number of years. which in some cases reach coastal areas and A cyclone without fronts, it develops over
The normal values refer to the distribution of cause flooding. tropical waters and has a surface circulation
A pressure unit equal to 100 pascals and A system of imaginary parallel lines that organized and defined in a counterclockwise
data within the limits of the common
equivalent to 1 millibar—a millibar being encircle the globe north and south of the direction. A cyclone is classified, according to
occurrence. The parameters can include
equivalent to 0.031 inch (0.8 mm) of ordinary Equator. The poles are located at 90° latitude the intensity of its winds, as a tropical
temperature (high, low, and divergences),
96 INDEX WEATHER AND CLIMATE 97
Index
A ozone layer thinning, 89

weather folklore, 64, 65
Antarctica, 80, 81, 85
emissions, 82, 83, 86
increases, 84, 90
See also greenhouse gas
coral, 82, 83
Coriolis effect, 12, 14, 22
cosmic ray, 11
water runoff, 21
dry-bulb thermometer, 67
dry climatic zone, 78
F
absorption, 11 anticyclone, 12, 13, 51, 68 CFC gas (chlorofluorocarbon gas), 88 cryosphere, 8, 9 Dust Bowl, droughts, 50 Ferrel cell, 12-13
acid rain, 86-87 Arctic, 84-85 chaparral, 25 crystal, water field capacity, soil, 50
gas emissions, 86 argon, 10 Chinook wind, 26 formation, 42 flood control, 48
gas mixtures, 86 ash (volcanic), 9 cirrocumulus cloud, 39 snow, 42-43 flood plain, 48
ozone layer, weakening, 88-89 ash tree, weather folklore, 65 cirrostratus cloud, 38 types, 42, 43 flooding, 48-49
pH, 87
photochemical reaction, 87
plant consequences, 86
Asia
El Niño, 33, 35
global warming, 91
cirrus cloud, 38, 39
city, heat islands, 27
climate
cumulonimbus cloud, 38, 52
cumulus cloud, 14, 38
current
E causes, 48
dikes, 48, 58
El Niño, 34-35
soil consequences, 87 monsoons, 28-29, 30-31 Köppen classification, 79 air flow, 13 Earth embankment, 48
vulnerable regions, 87 potable water, 21 temperature and rain, 78 cyclonic, 50 climate change, 90-91 global warming, 82, 85
water consequences, 87 atmosphere, 8 types, 78-79 formation, 22-23 climatic zones, 78-79 Hurricane Katrina, 58
advection fog, 45 climate change, 90 climate change, 74-75, 90-91 geostrophic balance, 22 equilibrium, 8-9 land, 48-49
aerosonde pilotless weather aircraft, 71 cooling, 9 causes and effects, 91 gulf stream, 85 global warming, 82-85 monsoons, 30-31
Africa disturbances, 14 human activity, 81, 82, 90 jet stream, 12, 13, 14 ocean currents, 22-23 zones, 85
global warming, 91 dynamics, 12-13 climate zone, 78-79 Labrador, 85 paleoclimatology, 80-81 fog, 44-45
potable water, 21 global warming, 83 desert, 78 lake, 23 rotation, 12 formation, 44
agriculture layers, 10-11 forest and lakes, 79 ocean: See ocean current satellite image, 6-7 radiation, 45
acid rain, 87 paleoclimatology, 80-81 polar mountainous climate, 79 subpolar arctic circulating system, 23 temperature, 82, 90-91 types, 45
drought, 51 See also ozone layer rainforest, 78 wind influence, 22 ecosystem visibility, 44
flooding, 48 atmospheric pressure, 66 tundra and taiga, 79 cyclone, 5, 12, 13, 28, 36, 57 destruction, 82 folklore, weather: See weather folklore
gods and rituals, 76, 77 aurora, 10, 16-17 climatic system, 6-7, 8-9 cyclonic current, 50 foundations, 8 forecast: See weather forecast
monsoons, 30 Australia cloud, 38-39 cyclonic zone, 12-13 Ekman spiral, ocean currents, 22 fossil fuel
tornadoes, 53 drought, 50 electrical storms, 46-47 El Niño, 32-33 global warming, 91
air potable water, 21 formation, 12, 14, 20, 38-39 conditions during, 32 greenhouse effect, 82
atmosphere, 10-11 autonomous underwater vehicle, 70 hurricanes, 56 drought, 32-33 freshwater, 21, 74
circulation changes, 12-13
collision, 14-15
currents, 13
interior, 39
lightning inside, 46
rain formation, 40-41
D effects, 19, 34-35
flooding, 34-35
electrical storm, 46-47
front, 38
cold, 14, 68
occluded, 15, 68
displacement, 12
weather forecast, 70
aircraft, weather, 71, 81
B types, 11, 38, 39
weather folklore, 65
cloud street, 39
data recorder (weather prediction), 67
deep ocean current, 22-23
deforestation, 82, 91
tornadoes, 52
embankment, 48
environment, components, 6
size, 15
stationary, 15
warm, 14, 15, 68
albedo, solar radiation, 8, 9 barograph, 66 coastal breeze, 26, 27 depression, 13, 58, 68 Equator, atmospheric dynamics, 12 weather map symbol, 14, 68
almanac, weather forecasting, 65 barometer, 66 cold climatic zone, 79 desert, 50, 78 erosion, 21 frontal fog, 45
altocumulus cloud, 39 biosphere, 8 cold front, 14, 68 desertification, 5, 50, 82, 83 Europe frost, 43
altostratus cloud, 39 collision (air), 14-15 dew, 42, 44, 65 global warming, 91 Fujita-Pearson scale, 53, 54
anabatic wind, 26 condensation, 7, 14, 20, 24 dew point, 24, 43 potable water, 21
Andes Mountains, 24-25 nuclei, 40 dike, 48, 58 evaporation, 7, 8, 20
anemometer, 67
aneroid barometer, 66
animal
C precipitation, 8
continentality effect, 27
convection, 7, 38
divergence, 13
donkey, weather folklore, 64
droplet, formation, 20
evaporimeter, 66
exosphere, 10, 16
acid rain, 86, 87 calcareous soil, 87 convergence, 13, 38 drought, 50-51

coral, 82, 83 carbon dioxide (CO2), 10 cooling (atmosphere), 9 global warming, 82
heliophanograph, 66 jet-stream current, 12, 13 meteorological station, 67, 70

G high pressure, 12
See also anticyclone
Rossby wave, 14
katabatic wind, 26
meteorology, 62-73
methane, concentration, 80-81, 90
El Niño, 35
global warming, 90
monsoons, 28
chronology, 80-81
gas measurement, 80
human activity, 81
high pressure ridge, 69 Köppen climate classification, 79 minimum thermometer, 67 potable water, 21 methane concentration, 81
gas
hoar frost, 43 mist, 44, 45 tornadoes, 53, 54-55 samples, 80, 81
CFC, 88
human activity monsoon, 19, 28-29, 30-31 Northern Hemisphere, 22, 28, 52, 56 permafrost, 9
density, 10
climate change, 81, 82, 90 areas affected, 28 perspiration, 20
greenhouse, 8, 9, 84, 90
measurement in paleoclimatology, 80
geopotential weather map, 69
GEOS (Geostationary Operational
pollution, 10, 24, 90
humidity, measuring instruments, 67
hurricane, 34-35, 56-57
L effects, 30-31
formation in India, 28-29, 31
intertropical influence, 28
O pH, acid rain, 87
photochemical reaction, 87
photosynthesis, 9, 82
damages, 5, 36, 58-59 La Niña North America, 28 oak tree, weather folklore, 64-65 pinecone, weather folklore, 64
Environmental Satellite), 72-73
danger zone, 57 conditions during, 33 Moon, weather folklore, 65 occluded front, 15, 68 plant
geostrophic balance, 22
eye and eye wall, 56 effects, 32, 35 mountain, 24-25 ocean acid rain, 86
glacier
formation, 56, 57 Labrador current, 85 Andes, 24-25 circulation, 9 flooding, 48
accelerated melting, 74-75, 84-85
hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 lake, seasonal water circulation, 23 barrier to wind and moisture, 9 current: See ocean current hydrologic cycle, 20
Alaska, 74-75
preparation, 37, 60-61 land climatic effects, 24-25 El Niño, 32-33, 34-35 ozone layer, 89
global equilibrium, 8-9
rotation, 56 temperature distribution, 26-27, 29 climatic zones, 79 hurricanes, 56 weather folklore, 64, 65
Global Positioning System (GPS), 70
safety measures, 60-61 weather data, 70 descending wind, 25 level changes, 5, 32, 83. 85 polar cell, 13
global warming, 82-83
Saffir-Simpson category, 57 lenticular cloud, 39 high, 11 temperature distribution, 26-27, 29 polar ice
accelerated melting, 84-85
tracking, 37 lightning, 46-47 major ranges, 25 water return, 20 cap, 10
advancing vegetation, 85
wave height, 57 electrical potential, 47 monsoons, 29 weather data, 70 melting, 5, 84-85, 90
Antarctica, 85
wind activity, 57 origin, 46 uneven mountainside, 25 ocean current, 22-23 polar mountainous climate, 79
cause, 82
Hurricane Elena, satellite image, 36-37 types, 46 vegetation, 25 changes, 84 pollution, 11, 24
climate changes, 5, 82
Hurricane Georges, 4 lightning rod, 47 winds, 26 deep, 22, 23 See also acid rain
effects, 82-83
hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 lithosphere, 8, 9 mythology and religion, 76-77 formation, 22-23 precipitation
human activity, 82, 84
Hurricane Katrina, 58-59 Lorenz, Edward, 5 Aztecs, 77 gulf stream, 85 condensation, 8
predictions, 83
Hurricane Rita, satellite image, 62-63 low pressure, 12, 13, 46, 56, 68 Egyptians, 76 Labrador, 85 droplet formation, 20
rising ocean levels, 5, 82-83, 85
hydroelectric plant, 49 See also cyclone Greeks, 76 surface, 22 formation, 14, 21, 24, 40-43
gravity, water circulation, 9
hydrologic cycle, 20-21 low pressure trough, 69 Hindus, 77 oceanographic ship, 70 rain: See rain
Great Barrier Reef, 83
hydrometeor, 42 Incas, 77 oxygen, 10, 17, 88 sleet, 42
greenhouse effect, 9, 10, 82-83, 91
hydrosphere, 8, 21 Japanese, 77 ozone, 10, 11, 83, 88, 89 snow, 14, 25, 40, 42-43
greenhouse gas, 8, 9, 81, 82, 84, 90
hygrothermograph, 67 Mayans, 77 ozone layer, 88-89 snowfall record, 42
Greenland, 81, 84
ground-level weather map, 68
gulf stream, 84-85 M Orient, 77
pre-Columbians, 77
Romans, 76-77
atmosphere, 11
CFC gas, 88
deterioration, 88
pressure
high, 12, 69
low, 12, 13, 68
I-K magnetosphere, 16, 17

map, weather: See weather map
maritime sounding probe, 71
global warming, 83
thinning, 90
psychrometer, 67
H ice, 9 maximum thermometer, 67

N
weakening, 88-89
Hadley cell, atmospheric dynamics, 12, 13

polar, 5, 10, 84-85, 90
ice core, paleoclimatology, 80, 81
mercury barometer, 66
mesosphere, 11
nimbostratus cloud, 39
Q-R
hail, 14, 40, 43
Halley, Edmund, 68
heat, greenhouse gas, 8
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 12, 28
inversion fog, 45
isobar, 13, 68
meteor, 11
meteorological aircraft, 71, 81
meteorological buoy, 71
nitrogen, 10, 17
noctilucent cloud, 11
P radar station, 71
radiation
isotherm, 69 meteorological shelter, 67 North America paleoclimatology, 80-81 solar, 8, 9, 11, 16
heat island, 27
ultraviolet, 7, 88, 89 sleet, 42 temperature ozone, 7, 90 Moon, 65 data recorder, 67

radiation fog, 45 snail, weather folklore, 65 atmospheric dynamics, 12 types, 89 morning dew, 65 evaporimeter, 66
radiosonde, 70, 71 snow, 14, 25, 40, 42-43 climate zones, 78 ultraviolet ray, 10-11 signs from plants and animals, 64, 65 heliophanograph, 66
rain, 18, 78 snowfall, record annual, 42 differences over land and ocean, 26-27, 29 valley, wind, 26 weather prediction, 65 hygrothermograph, 67
acid, 87 soil earth, over the years, 82, 90 velocity, wind wind, 65 information compilation, 66-67
causes, 14, 25 acid rain consequences, 87 global warming, 82-83 minimum/maximum, 13 weather forecast, 70-71 meteorological shelter, 67
climatic zones, 78 calcareous, 87 greenhouse effect, 10 tornado, 52 acoustic signal, 70 psychrometer, 67
flooding, 48 drought, 50 measuring instruments, 67 visibility, fog, 44 aerosonde pilotless weather aircraft, 71 rain gauge, 67
formation, 40-41 field capacity, 51 variation, 7 volcanic eruption, 9 air, 70 rain meter, 67
global warming, 82 flooding effects, 48 thermal expansion, 84 almanacs, 65 thermometers, 67
importance, 18-19 saturated, 50 thermal inversion, 11 artificial satellites, 71, 72-73 weather folklore, 64-65
measuring instruments, 67 silicate, 87 thermometer, types, 67 autonomous underwater vehicle, 70 weather maps, 68-69
monsoons, 19, 28-29
torrential, 19, 49
toxic, 86-87
water, proportion of, 51
wilting, 51
solar radiation, 8, 9, 16
thermosphere, 10
thunder, 46
tide, 22
W better forecasts, 71
data collection, 70
factors affecting, 5
weather stations, 67
weather vane, 67
workplace, 66-67
typhoons, 19 absorption, 11 toad, weather folklore, 64 warm front, 14, 15, 68 hurricane hunter P3 airplane, 71 weather station, 67
rain gauge, 67 reflection, 11 topography, irregularities, 12 water, 7, 20-21 land, 70 weather systems analysis, 13
rain meter, 67 solar wind, 16, 17 tornado, 52-53 accumulation, 48-49 launchable sounding probe, 71 weather vane, 67
rainforest, 78 sounding probe, launchable, 71 causes, 52 acid rain consequences, 87 maritime sounding probe, 71 wet-bulb thermometer, 67
religion: See mythology and religion South America damages, 5, 52, 54-55 availability, 21 meteorological aircraft, 71, 81 whirlwind, 26
rocket probe, 10 El Niño, 32-33, 35 formation, 52 circulation, 9 meteorological buoy, 71 wilting, water scarcity, 51
Rossby wave, 14 global warming, 90 Fujita-Pearson scale, 53, 54 clouds, 39 meteorological centers, 71 wind, 7, 8
rotation, Earth, 12 potable water, 21 ten most devastating, 55 distribution worldwide, 21 meteorological station, 70 coastal breeze, 26, 27
Southern Hemisphere, 22, 28, 52, 56 United States, 54-55 droplet formation, 20 oceanographic ship, 70 cold fronts, 14
stationary front, 15, 68 where and when, 53 dry zones, 50 radar station, 71 continentality effect, 27
stratocumulus cloud, 39 wind velocity, 53 evaporation measurement, 66 radiosonde, 70, 71 direction, 13
S stratosphere, 11
stratus cloud, 38, 39
subpolar arctic current, 23
toxic rain: See acid rain
trade winds, 12, 32
transpiration, 20
gods and rituals, 76-77
gaseous state, 20
liquid state, 21
sea, 70
sources, 70
weather map, 68-69
hurricane, 57
measuring instruments, 67
monsoon: See monsoon
safety, hurricanes, 60-61 Sun, 9 Tri-State tornado (United States), 54-55 ocean currents, 22-23 cold front, 14, 68 mountains, 24-25, 26
Saffir-Simpson category, hurricanes, 56 cosmic ray, 11 tropical cyclone, 36-37 return to ocean, 20 history of, 68 ocean currents, 22
salt water (sea water), 21, 90 radiation, 8-9 See also cyclone; hurricane; typhoon runoff, 21 isobar, 68 solar: See solar wind
satellite, 72-73 sunlight measurement, 66 tropical depression, 58 scarcity, 50-51 nomenclature, 68 tides, 22
geostationary, 72 ultraviolet ray, 10-11 tropical zone, 78 seasonal lake circulation, 23 overcast sky, 69 tornado: See tornado
infrared images, 71 volcanic eruption, 9 troposphere, 11, 38 soil saturation, 50 symbols, 68 trade, 12, 32
meteorology, 10, 37, 62-63, 70, 71 surface ocean current, 22 tundra, 25, 79 solid state, 21 upper-air, 69 types, 26
military, 10 swallow (bird), weather folklore, 64 typhoon, 19, 36, 57 types, 20, 21 upper-level, 69 valleys, 26
mobile, 72-73 underground circulation, 20-21 warm front, 14, 68 velocity, 13, 69
polar orbit, 72 water cycle, 20-21 wind velocity, 69 weather maps, 69
season, lake circulation variations, 23 water vapor, 10, 20 winds, 69 whirlwind, 26
seaweed, weather folklore, 64
shooting star, 11
silicate soil, 87
T U-V weather aircraft, 71, 81
weather folklore, 64-65
almanac forecast, 65
weather prediction, 4-5
anemometer, 67
artificial satellites, 72-73
World Meteorological Organization, 70
skin cancer, ozone layer weakening, 89 taiga, 25, 79 ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation), 88, 89 clear sunset, 65 barograph, 66
sky, colors, 16-17 temperate zone, 78 CFC gas, 88 clouds, 65 barometers, 66
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BII-LB.

Due to the unique page numbering scheme of this book, the

Britannica Illustrated Science Library

Idea and Concept of This Work: Editorial Sol 90

Project Management: Fabián Cassan

Photo Credits: Corbis, ESA, Getty Images, Graphic News,

Illustrators: Guido Arroyo, Pablo Aschei, Gustavo J. Caironi,

Composition and Pre-press Services: Editorial Sol 90

Translation Services and Index: Publication Services, Inc.

Portions © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Britannica Illustrated Science Library Staff Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Editorial Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board

Information Management and Retrieval

Global Equilibrium SOLAR RADIATION

EVAPORATION about 10% HEAT

Pure Airhe atmosphere is the mass of air that

T Argon Other gases

composition allows it to regulate the quantity Oxygen

the Earth. The atmosphere, in turn, absorbs energy Nitrogen

the Earth, because the magnetic surface AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

Discovered in the 19th

influence the climatic conditions of our planet.

leads to the formation of clouds. The masses of High-pressure

Minimum wind velocity Maximum wind velocity Jet stream

A 4 great interest. However, the anticyclone and

Collision Entire Continents

125 miles KEY

Behind the cold front,

Colors in the Sky How They Are Produced

ELECTRONS COLLIDE WITH THEY BECOME THEY GENERATE LIGHT

Living Water WATER AVAILABILITY

All the Root cells LAKE PERMEABLE

Deep currents are caused by differences in water density. Pacific

EKMAN SPIRAL life to exist in deep water. Stream

Tundra. Its rate of growth

An Obstacle Course MAJOR

Taiga. The vegetation is

The Effect of the Andes Mountains Western slopes Eastern slopes

ANDES MOUNTAIN RANGE

DRY HUMIDS Area affected by

The Land and WINDS OF THE MOUNTAINS

the Ocean 1 of the valley and the

84°F 86°F 88° F

90°F 86°F 82° F

differences very much depend Continentality index

moderate the temperatures of regions WET SAND WATER (WHEN

why a body of water can heat or cool 1. ON THE LAND

differences between the land and the MEADOWS the atmosphere.

MOUNTAIN WINDS The heat

Monsoons How monsoons are

T the tropical zone are called monsoons, an

regions of Australia. This phenomenon, which is Northern Hemisphere

FROM THE CONTINENT

OCEAN STORMS STORMS ON THE

Rays of the Sun

Good Fortune and Catastrophe In June 2006

4 (100) Very humid

2 (50) Humid ~1 million

0.4 (10) Very dry

0.04 (1) Extremely

The Arrival of El Niño SURFACE TEMPERATURE

Average intensity 5.4° F (3° C)

The mass of relatively warm