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Asya Ostroukh, The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus
Mortgagor Mortgagee
The creditor (the 'mortgagee') obtains rights over the property of the debtor (the
'mortgagor'), which are exercisable in priority to the claims of the debtor's general
(unsecured) creditors.
‘A charge is the appropriation of real or personal property for the discharge of a
debt or other obligation. The chargee is not vested with property in the subject
matter of the charge and does not have possession of the property, but he is
entitled to realise his security in almost the same way as a mortgagee’ (Kodilinye).
Types of mortgages (charges)
› Legal and equitable;
› Relating to freehold or leasehold .
If a legal estate or interest can be the subject of a legal or an equitable mortgage,
an equitable interest can only be the subject of an equitable mortgage.
FORM
➢ Legal Mortgages (Kodilinye)
➢ Unregistered land: a mortgage is created by a conveyance of the mortgagor's
fee simple estate to the mortgagee subject to a condition that, upon redemption,
the property should be reconveyed to the mortgagor.
➢ Registered land: by execution of a memorandum of mortgage or charge in the
prescribed form, which must be lodged for registration in the Land Registry.
FORM
➢ Equitable mortgages (Kodilinye)
➢ By deposit of title deeds (duplicate certificate of title to registered land)
with a bank/other institution;
➢ Under the Walsh v Lonsdale principle (an agreement to grant a legal
mortgage).
➢ If the mortgagor has only an equitable interest in property, by assignment
of the interest to the mortgagee.
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ Right to redeem
➢ At law;
➢ In equity.
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Excluding the right to redeem
➢Postponement of redemption
➢Freehold cases;
➢Leasehold cases;
➢Collateral advantages for the mortgagee
➢Restraint of trade.
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ Right to redeem
➢ At law
➢The mortgagor has to redeem (to repay the loan plus interest and recover his property) on a
fixed date (as fixed by the mortgage contract).
➢ The mortgagor has, at law, a right to redeem on that date only.
➢The legal rules do not allow him to insist on redeeming the mortgage either before or after
the contractual date (Kreglinger v New Patagonia Meat & Cold Storage Co. Ltd (1914)).
➢ At common law, if he did not pay on the contractual date, the mortgagor at one time
forfeited the land to the mortgagee and could still be sued in contract for the repayment of
the debt.
➢ The legal right to redeem was, and is, very limited.
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ Right to redeem
➢ In equity
➢Since the purpose of the agreement was merely to provide the mortgagee
with security for the loan, as long as the advance and any interest was paid,
the mortgagee should not be able to object to redemption.
➢Originally in cases of fraud only, but later a general right to redeem in all
cases was recognised (Salt v Marquess of Northampton (1892)) .
➢Equity allows the mortgagor to redeem even after the date fixed by the
mortgage agreement for repayment has passed.
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ Right to redeem
➢ In equity
➢Cukurova Finance International Ltd v Alfa Telecom Turkey Ltd (2013):
“…the equitable right to redeem does not arise until the contractual redemption date
has passed ... So, under a normal form of mortgage, a mortgagor had two rights to
redeem: a legal right only exercisable on the contractually stipulated date, and an
equitable right exercisable at any time after the contractually stipulated date.”
➢ Since this right is enforceable in equity only, it is subject to the general principle
that equitable remedies are discretionary in nature and all the equitable maxims
apply.
➢In deciding whether redemption is possible, equity will look at the substance of the
agreement, not its form (Darby v Read (1675)).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ Right to redeem
➢ Installment mortgages
➢The modern mortgage provides for repayment by instalments over a number
of years, but usually contains a proviso that if the mortgagor defaults on the
payment of one instalment the whole sum will become due.
➢In law, the mortgagor will then have to redeem the mortgage or lose his
property for ever, but equity will moderate the rigour of this.
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ The equity of redemption is the mortgagor's equitable interest in the property,
consisting of the sum of the mortgagor's rights in relation to the land (including
the right to redeem) after the mortgage has been created.
➢ The equity of redemption is an interest in land (Pawlett v Attorney-General
(1667)) that represents the value of mortgagor’s interest in the property after it has
been conveyed to the mortgagee as a security.
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Equity will not tolerate any arrangement which either prevents or deters the mortgagor
from exercising his right to redeem.
➢Any burdens imposed on the mortgaged property that may continue after the
redemption are generally disregarded (the mortgage should provide security only).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Excluding the right to redeem
➢Any provision in a mortgage which would operate to prevent the mortgagor from
redeeming will be disregarded by equity and will be void ((Toomes v Conset (1745)).
➢Samuel v Jarrah Timber & Wood Paving Co. Ltd (1904):
➢“Once a mortgage always a mortgage” (i.e. the agreement could not covertly
become something greater).
➢“…no contract between a mortgagor and a mortgagee made at the time of the
mortgage and as part of the mortgage transaction, or, in other words, as one of the
terms of the loan, can be valid if it prevents the mortgagor from getting back his
property on paying off what is due on his security. Any bargain which has that effect
is invalid, and is inconsistent with the transaction being a mortgage.”
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Excluding the right to redeem
➢ Granting the option in a separate document might avoid the rule, but
only if the option was granted some time after the mortgage (Reeve v
Lisle (1902)).
➢ “Equity seeks to protect a borrower who finds himself in financial
straits and consequently loses his bargaining power” (Kodilinye).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Postponement of redemption
➢Any provision in a mortgage that attempts to postpone redemption to such an
extent that the right to redeem becomes illusory may be rendered void.
➢ The equitable right to redeem arises only once the contractual date for
redemption has passed.
➢“A mortgage is merely a security for a loan, and a provision prolonging the
security beyond the time when the mortgagor is ready and willing to repay the
loan constitutes a clog on the equity of redemption” (Kodilinye).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Postponement of redemption
➢Freehold cases
➢Knightsbridge Estates Trust Ltd v Byrne: a clause postponing redemption is valid,
if: (a) the mortgage as a whole is not so oppressive and unconscionable that equity
would not enforce it; and b) it does not render the equitable right to redeem
illusory.
➢The company would recover an estate of equivalent worth when it redeemed the
mortgage (“equity is concerned to see two things - one, that the essential
requirements of a mortgage transaction are observed, and the other, that
oppressive and unconscionable terms are not enforced”).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Postponement of redemption
➢Leasehold cases
➢Postponement of the date of redemption is more serious in a mortgage of leasehold
property, because a lease is inherently of finite duration.
➢Fairclough v Swan Brewery Co. Ltd (1912): had the postponement been valid, the
mortgagor would, on redemption, have recovered an estate which was nearly
valueless and very different in character from the property mortgaged.
➢ Postponement of the contractual date for redemption is more objectionable in
leasehold, even where the mortgage is a commercial bargain made between
businessmen.
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Collateral advantages for the mortgagee
➢Common in certain types of commercial mortgage
➢If they are not unconscionable or contrary to competition law, they are valid whilst
the mortgage continues (Biggs v Hoddinott (1898)).
➢They will not normally endure once the mortgage is redeemed, for otherwise the
mortgagor would recover an estate encumbered in a way the estate mortgaged was
not (Bradley v Carritt (1903)).
➢An advantage will not, however, invariably end once the mortgage is redeemed
(Kreglinger v New Patagonia Meat & Cold Storage Co. Ltd (1914)).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Collateral advantages for the mortgagee
➢An advantage will not, however, invariably end once the mortgage is redeemed
(Kreglinger v New Patagonia Meat & Cold Storage Co. Ltd (1914)).
“The question is…not whether the two contracts were made at the same moment and evidenced
by the same instrument, but whether they were in substance a single and undivided contract or
two distinct contracts ... if your Lordships arrive at the conclusion that the agreement for an
option to purchase the respondent's sheepskins was not in substance a fetter on the exercise of
their right to redeem, but was a preliminary and separable condition of the loan, the decided
cases cease to present any great difficulty.”
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Collateral advantages for the mortgagee
➢Collateral advantages may also be held to be invalid, even during the continuance of
the mortgage, if they are unconscionable or oppressive (Cityland & Property
(Holdngs) Ltd v Dabrah (1968)).
➢ It is not sufficient to show that the terms are unreasonable even if they are
extremely advantageous to the mortgagee. The agreement must be “unfair and
unconscionable” and imposed by the mortgagee “in a morally reprehensible manner,
that is to say, in a way which affects his conscience” (Multiservice Bookbinding Ltd
v Marden (1979)).
Rights of the mortgagor
➢ The equity of redemption
➢ No clogs on the equity of redemption
➢Restraint of trade (Kodilinye)
➢Any stipulation in a contract that imposes an unreasonable restriction on the freedom
of a person to engage in trade or to pursue a profession will be prima facie void.
➢The onus is on the mortgagee to show that the restraint is reasonable: (a) as between
the parties; and (b) in the public interest.
➢Esso Petroleum Co Ltd v Harper's Garage Ltd (1968): during the mortgage, the
mortgagors would sell only fuel supplied by Esso. The solus agreement was void as
being in restraint of trade.
Rights of mortgagor in possession
“It is well settled that a mortgagee is not a trustee of the power of sale for the mortgagor.
Once the power has accrued, the mortgagee is entitled to exercise it for his own purposes
whenever he chooses to do so. It matters not that the moment may be unpropitious and that,
by waiting, a higher price could be obtained. He has the right to realise his security by turning
it into money when he likes. Nor, in my view, is there anything to prevent a mortgagee from
accepting the best bid he can get at an auction, even though the auction is badly attended and
the bidding exceptionally low. Provided none of those adverse factors is due to any fault of
the mortgagee, he can do as he likes. If the mortgagee's interests, as he sees them, conflict
with those of the mortgagor, the mortgagee can give preference to his own interests, which of
course he could not do were he a trustee of the power of sale for the mortgagor.”
Cuckmere Brick Co Ltd v Mutual Finance Ltd:
“It is impossible to pretend that the state of the authorities on this branch of the law is entirely
satisfactory. There are some dicta which suggest that, unless a mortgagee acts in bad faith, he
is safe. His only obligation to the mortgagor is not to cheat him. There are other dicta which
suggest that, in addition to the duty of acting in good faith, the mortgagee is under a duty to
take reasonable care to obtain whatever is the true market value of the mortgaged property at
the moment he chooses to sell it. The proposition that the mortgagee owes both duties, in my
judgment, represents the true view of the law... I accordingly conclude, both on principle and
authority, that a mortgagee in exercising his power of sale does owe a duty to take reasonable
precautions to obtain the true market value of the mortgaged property at the date on which he
decides to sell it.”
Dreckett v Rapid Vulcanizing Co Ltd (1988): applied Cuckmere Brick Co Ltd v Mutual
Finance Ltd.
➢ The mortgagor claimed that the respondent had been negligent in failing to ascertain the
current market value of the property at the time of the sale, and in failing to fix a reserve
price at the auction.
➢ The court held that the appellant had failed to show negligence on the part of the
respondent.
➢ “The instant case was conducted on the basis that the Cuckmere case should be adopted
and followed by the courts in Jamaica, and if there was any doubt on the matter I think it
should be received and followed by the courts of Jamaica.”
Adams v Workers Trust and Merchant Bank Ltd (1992):
➢ The mortgagee, having made an unsuccessful attempt to sell by public auction, sold the
property by private treaty.
➢ The mortgagee had obtained a valuation of the property, but took no steps to advertise
before selling.
➢ The mortgagee had rejected a higher offer, in the erroneous belief that it was contractually
bound to sell to the buyer.
➢ The court decided that “by advertising, the property could have been exposed to
prospective purchasers in the open market”;
➢ Because the mortgagee failed to advertise and rejected a higher offer, it had fallen short of
the standard of the duty of care owed to the mortgagor.
Paradise Manor Ltd v Bank of Nova Scotia (1985) :
➢ The mortgagee bank had advertised extensively and sought (without success) to interest
potential buyers in acquiring the site. The site was ultimately sold by private treaty after a
long time.
➢ The mortgagee bank had made every reasonable effort and had taken all of the necessary
steps to obtain a sale of the property and “took reasonable precautions to obtain the best
price reasonably obtainable at the time of the sale”.
International Trust and Merchant Bank Ltd v Gardiner (2004): in the case of a sale by
private treaty, the following pre-conditions had to be satisfied:
➢ A current market valuation of the property;
➢ A proper advertisement of the property;
➢ A sale of the property at the market value of the property or the best price reasonably
obtainable.
Daley v RBTT Bank Jamaica Ltd (2007)
➢ The absence of a current valuation in a sale by private treaty means that the bank
did not take reasonable precautions to obtain the true market value of the property.