THERMIONIC EMISSION

Atom

Protons Nucleons Neutrons Electrons

-24
Mass = 1.7 x 10 g 1.7 x 10-24 g 9.1 x 10-28 g
Charge = + 1.6 x 10-19 C no charge - 1.6 x 10-19 C
Atoms are electrically neutral.
In an atom, the number of electrons in its orbits is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. The charge of
each proton and neutron are of equal magnitude but opposite in nature.

Bound Electron:- The electrons which are in orbits close to the nucleus, are called the bound electrons because
they are tightly bound with the nucleus by the strong attractive forces between the positive charge of nucleus and
the negative charge of electron.

Free or conduction electrons:- The electrons which are present in the outer orbits are weakly attracted by the
nucleus and are loosely bound. They are called the free or conduction electrons.
Metals contain a very large number of free electrons whereas nonmetals have a very few of them.

Work function: The minimum amount of energy required to emit electrons from a metal surface is called the work
function or threshold energy of that metal.

Relation of electron emission with thermal (heat) energy: In a metal, the electrons do not have sufficient kinetic
energy to leave the metal surface; they are attracted by the positive charge of the nucleus. So as to overcome this
electrical force, it require some sufficient energy(work function).
When the temperature of the metal is low, very few electrons have sufficient energy to escape. However,
when the temperature is increased, the K.E. of the free electrons increases and a large number of electrons acquire
sufficient energy to escape from the metal surface. (Somewhat like the evaporation of a liquid)
 The work function is different for different metals.
 It is measured in electron volt (eV). 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.
 The free electrons emitted by a metal being heated are called thermions.
1 eV is the work done to move one electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 C) through two points in an electric field having potential
difference of I volt.

Electron emission: Depending upon the process of supply of energy to the free electrons of metal, the electron
emission is of the following four types:
(i) thermionic emission (due to heat energy)
(ii) photoelectric emission (due to light energy)
(iii) . field emission (due to electric field), and

(iv) Secondary emission (due to kinetic energy of electrons from outside).

Factors affecting the rate of emission

(i) The metal of the surface - Lower the work function of the metal, greater is the rate of emission of
electrons from it
(ii) The temperature of the surface - Higher the temperature of the surface, greater is the rate of emission of
electrons from the surface and
(iii)Its surface area - Larger the surface area, greater is the rate of emission of electrons.

Requisites for a good electron emitter:-

(1) The melting point should be quite high so that it may not melt on heating.
(2) The work function should be low so that the electrons may be -emitted even at a low temperature.

Thermionic Emission: The emission of free electrons from the metal surface when heat energy is supplied to it is
called thermionic emission.
Types of thermionic emitters (Electron Emitter)
There are two types or kinds of simple electron emitter:

1. Directly Heated Emitter: Such a type of emitter gets heated by passing an electric current. When
its temperature becomes more than the threshold temperature, it starts emitting electrons.

2. Indirect Heated Emitter: When the tungsten filament is used as a heater wire, it is then
surrounded by another metal called cathode which has a low work function. Here the cathode is used to
emit electrons. Such a type of emitter is called an indirect heated emitter.
Example of common electron emitters
1. Tungsten: It is the most suitable electron 6mitter because it has high melting point (about 3655 K).
but it has a high work function of 4.52 electron-volt (4.52 eV).It starts emitting electrons even at a
temperature of 2500 K.
2. Thoriated tungsten: It is tungsten coated with carbon and thorium. It has a low work function of 2.6
eV, and the temperature required to emit electron is only 2000K.
3. Tungsten with alkali metal oxide: If the tungsten is coated with alkali metal oxides like barium oxide. strontium
oxide or cesium oxide, then it has a work function of only 1 eV, and the temperature required to emit electron is only
1000K.
A Diode (Valve)
A diode is the most fundamental form of an electron tube devised in 1904 by Sir John A Fleming.

Construction
1. The cathode serves as an emitter of electron and a plate or anode surrounding the cathode acts as
a collector of electrons.
2. Both these electrodes are enclosed in a highly evacuated glass or metal envelop. The emitter may
be either directly heated or indirectly heated.
3. Usually the anode is a cylindrical metal plate having high work function (aluminium). It is maintained at a positive
potential with respect to the cathode.

Working:

A : A battery is connected between the plate and cathode of a diode, so as to make the plate negative with respect to the
cathode.
When a voltage is applied to the heater element (H), the cathode emits electrons. These electrons are strongly repelled by
the negatively charged plate and tend to fill the inter electrode space between cathode and plate.
Since no electron is able to reach the plate, the tube acts like an open switch and the milli ammeter connected between
plate and cathode records no deflection.

B : When the plate is made positive with respect to the cathode, the electrons are attracted by the plate and strike it at a
high speed. Therefore the circuit is completed and current starts to flow in it. This current is called plate current. Upon
reaching the plate the electron current continue to flow through the external circuit made up of the connecting wires, milli
ammeter and the battery. The flow of plate current is registered by the milli ammeter.
Note : Current flows in the diode only when the plate is made positive with respect to the cathode.
No current can flow when the plate is made negative with respect to the cathode. This is called unidirectional or
unilateral conduction.
The fact that a diode allows only one way flow of electrons is made use of in converting an alternating current into a direct
current i.e., rectification.
Hot Cathode Ray Tube
Cathode Ray Tube (C R T) or Cathode Ray
Oscillograph (C R O)
It is an instrument to produce the visual
representation in the form of a wave of an
alternating voltage, i.e., it is used to convert
electrical signals into visual signals.

The three main parts of cathode ray tube are:

1. Electronic gun
2. Deflecting system
3. Fluorescent screen

Construction: The cathode ray tube essentially

consists of the following parts:
1. Evacuated glass-tube: It consists of a specially designed glass tube. It is evacuated to a pressure 10 -5 to 10 -6 mm of
mercury. The tube is fitted with an electron source. The electron beam moves along the axis of symmetry of the tube in
the absence of any deflecting electric or magnetic field and strikes the centre of a big circular screen coated with some
fluorescent material and produces a fluorescent spot: The beam can be deflected by suitable electric or magnetic fields.

2. Electron gun: The function of the electron gun is to produce a narrow beam of high speed electrons. It contains a
number of electrodes as given below:
a. Cathode (C): It is a small filament of platinum or tungsten coated with a mixture of barium and strontium
oxides welded to form a u-shaped filament. When heated up to a high temperature, it emits a large number of
electrons. It is connected to a low tension battery (L.T) of about 6 V.
b. Grid (G): It is nickel cylinder which encloses the filament completely. It is maintained at a negative potential
with respect to the cathode so that the electron beam given out by filament is rendered into a fine narrow pencil.
The negative potential can be changed by potential dividing arrangements. This variation in potential alters the
brightness of the spot on the screen by changing the number of electrons in the beam, i.e., the intensity.
c. Two disc anode Plates: The electrons are focused and accelerated by a series of cylindrical anodes A1 and
A2 respectively These anodes have a small hole in the middle and are maintained at a high positive
potential with respect to the cathode, by means of a high tension battery (H T.) of about 1000 V.
Note: Note: The anode A2 is at a higher potential than A1. A1 and A2 having increasing potentials makes
the electron lens system focus the electron beam. The beam therefore, becomes very fine on passing through these
plates. The electrons perform the accelerated motion.

3. The deflecting system: It consists of two pairs of plates; one kept vertical called the X -plates and the other kept
horizontal called the Y -plates. The plates are placed with their planes parallel to the beam.
The plates YY deflect the electron beam in a vertical plane when a potential difference is applied to them. The plates
XX deflect the beam in a horizontal plane. If a varying potential is applied on the deflecting plates, the beam and
therefore the spot traces out a pattern on the screen according to the variation of voltage.
 The electron beam gets deflected towards the positive plate (i.e., in a direction opposite to the
direction of the electric field).
 If the electric field is normal to the direction of motion of electrons, they follow a parabolic path
within the electric field.
 In a magnetic field, the electron beam is deflected in a direction given by Fleming's left hand rule.
 If the direction of magnetic field is normal to the direction of electron beam the path of electron beam
is circular within the magnetic field.
  The electron beam remains undeflected if the direction of electron beam is parallel to the direction of
magnetic field.
4. Fluorescent screen: The end of the tube is made flat like a screen and is coated from inside with a fluorescent
material (such as zinc sulphide or barium platinocyanide or zinc silicate containing traces of manganese etc.).
The electron beam on striking the screen gives a bright spot due to fluorescence on the screen.

Some of its main uses of cathode ray tube are as follows:

(i) To investigate the changes in the varying potential difference,
(ii) In demonstrating the features of wave motion,
(iii) For checking the wave forms of electrical signals.
(iv) Television pictures are obtained with the help of a cathode ray tube.

Atomic Structure and Radioactivity

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus at the centre made up of protons and neutrons surrounded by
negatively charged electrons revolving around the nucleus.
Electrons
1. Electrons are constituent particles of all atoms.
2. They have negative electrical charge. [- 1.6 x 10 -19 C]
3. Electrons are identical in mass. An electron is found to be nearly 2000 times lighter than a hydrogen atom.
[9.1 x 10 -28 g]
Proton
1. It carries a positive charge.
2. It has a mass almost the same as that of hydrogen atom [1.7 x 10 -24 g].
3. The charge is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron [+ 1.6 x 10 -19 C]

Neutrons
1. It carries no electric charge and are neutral.
2. Their mass is almost equal to the mass of the proton. [1.7 x 10 -24 g]

Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of the element and is denoted by
the symbol Z. Since atoms are electrically neutral, it is also equal to the number of electrons in the orbits.

Mass number: The total number of neutrons and protons (i.e., nucleons) in the nucleus is called the mass number of the
element and is denoted by the symbol A. The protons and neutrons inside the nucleus are called the nucleons.

Representation of an atom:-
The atom is specified by the symbol Z X A where X is the chemical symbol for the element.
Number of electrons= Z Number of protons = Z Number of neutrons = A – Z

Stability of Nucleus and Nuclear Force

The nuclear force is a strong attractive force which binds the nucleons (neutrons and protons) inside the nucleus to have
stable nuclei.
1. This force cannot be the electrostatic force given by Coulomb’s law, which states that, like charges repel and unlike
charges attract. The proton-proton (like positive charges) in the nucleus would repel each other and would not remain
bound in the nucleus.
2. This force cannot be the gravitational force which is too weak to hold nucleons [(proton-proton) or (proton-neutron)]
inside the nucleus.
Both the forces mentioned above are long range forces and are effective when the distance between masses or charges is
greater than 10 -15 m. According to the "neutron-proton model", the distance between the proton and neutron is of the order
of 10 -14 m as the diameter of nucleus is 10 -14 m. Thus, nuclear forces are the strong attractive short range forces that can
exist between proton-proton; proton-neutron; neutron-neutron.

Isotopes: The atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number Z, but differ in their mass number A are
called the isotopes.
The nuclei of isotopes have the same number of protons (Z), but different number of neutrons (A – Z),
1. Hydrogen has three isotopes, 1 H 1 (protium), 1 H 2 (deuterium) and 1 H 3 (tritium).
2. Uranium has two isotopes, 92 U 235 and 92 U 238.

Isobars: The atoms of the different elements which have the same mass number A but differ in their
atomic number Z are called the isobars.
The nuclei of isobars have different number of protons (Z) and different number of neutrons (A – Z), but the
number of total nucleons is the same.
For example 11 Na 23 and 12 Mg 23 are the isobars.
23
11 Na contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons inside its nucleus while 12 Mg 23 contains 12 protons and 11 neutrons inside
its nucleus.

Radioactivity: Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is the spontaneous emission of radiation from within the
nuclei of certain heavy unstable elements.
The nuclear forces are the strong attractive forces between proton-proton, neutron-neutron or proton-neutron.
If the nucleus has a greater number of protons than neutrons, or greater number of neutrons than protons, then the
nuclear forces become weak. Therefore, the nuclei of such an element become unstable and have the tendency to
disintegrate into a more stable element. This happens in the case of nuclei of elements having atomic number higher
than 82 (i.e., lead) exhibit the phenomenon of radioactivity. These are called the natural radioactive substances.
Any physical condition (such as pressure and temperature) or chemical condition (such as excessive heating,
freezing, action q1strong electric and magnetic fields, chemical treatment, oxidation etc.) cannot alter the
activity (or the rate of disintegration) of the radioactive .substance. This clearly shows that the phenomenon
cannot be due to the orbital electrons which could easily be affected by such changes. The phenomenon should
therefore be the property of the nucleus. A chemical process, on the other hand, is due to change in orbital
electrons.

Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation: In 1897, Rutherford found that the radiations emitted by radioactive substances
were of more than one kind, some rays being more penetrating than others. He called the less penetrating rays α - rays
(alpha-rays) and the more penetrating ones β – rays (beta rays). In 1900, Sir Villard found a third kind of radiation,
which is even more penetrating than β – rays. These are called as γ – rays (gamma rays).
Most pure radioactive substances emit γ – rays accompanied by either α - rays or β – rays.

Rutherford's Experiment
Aim: To study of the nature of radiations

Construction:
1. The three types of radiations can be separated with the help of an
electric field or a magnetic field.
2. The radioactive material is kept in a small cavity in a block of lead.
3. The whole apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated vessel.

Observations: When the electric or magnetic field is applied, the beam is

split up into three components. The radiations which emerge from the
radioactive material strike a photographic plate and produce three different
spots on the photographic plate.

(a) The rays which are deflected towards the negative plate must consist of
positively charged particles. These are known as α - rays (alpha rays).
(b) The rays which are deflected towards the positive plate must consist of
negatively charged particles. These are known as the β – rays (beta
rays).
(c) The rays which are not deflected must not contain any charged
particles. These are the γ – rays (gamma rays).
(d) β – particles deviated more than α - particles showing that (β – par-
ticles are lighter than alpha-particles or vise versa.
(e) γ – rays have no charge and are electromagnetic waves.
Before going to know about Radioactive Decay, let us know about the following terms:-
 The nucleus of the radioactive element which can emit nucleons is called parent nuclei.
 The nucleus of the element formed after the emission of nucleons is called daughter nuclei.
 The transformation of parent nuclei into daughter nuclei is called radio-active decay.

Alpha particles: - The emission of an alpha-particle by the nucleus of an atom of a radioactive element decreases (A)
the mass number of the atom by four units (A-4) and atomic number (Z) by two units (Z-2).
The symbolic representation of a-emission is :
Z XA Z -2 YA-4 + 2 He4 (α-particle)
(Parent nuclei) (Daughter nuclei)
Note:- 1) The mass number (A) of the atom decreases by four units.
2) The atomic number (Z) of the atom decreases by two units.

Example of α – radiation:-
238
1. 92 U 90 Th 234 + 2 He 4 (α-particle)

2. 84 PO 218 82 Pb 214 + 2 He 4 (α-particle)

3. 88 Ra 226 86 Rn 222 + 2 He 4 (α-particle)

4. 86 Rn 222 84 Po 218 + 2 He 4 (α-particle)

Properties of alpha particles:-

(a) Alpha-particles have been identified as helium nuclei, i.e., they carry two protons and two neutrons and is
represented as 2 He 4. The mass of an alpha-particle is approximately four times heavier than the hydrogen nucleus
or proton. The mass of an alpha-particle = 4 x 1.6 x 10 – 27 Kg
m = 6. 4 x 10 – 27 Kg (four times heavier than the mass of a proton)
The charge on an alpha-particle is +2e.
q = 2 x 1. 6 x 10 – 19 C = 3. 2 x 10 – 19 C
(b) They are emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom with a high velocity of the order of 10 7 ms-1.
(c) They ionize the gas through which they pass. Their ionizing power is roughly 100 times greater than that of beta-
rays and 10,000 times greater than that of gamma-rays.
The penetrating power of a-particles is very small. (Since alpha-particles produce intense ionization, they lose
energy quickly and are therefore stopped within a short distance).
(d) The penetrating power of alpha-particles is approximately 1\100 th that of beta-rays and 1\10,000th that of gamma-
rays. (Penetrating power of these rays is inversely proportional to their ionizing powers).
(e) They affect photographic plates.
(f) They produce tiny sparks (i.e., scintillations) of light when they strike a fluorescent screen.
(g) Since they carry a positive charge, they can be deflected by an electric and magnetic field. As alpha-particles
have a large momentum (i.e., they are very heavy), the deflection produced is less as compared to that of
beta- particles.
(h) Alpha-particles are scattered on passing through thin metal foils (gold or mica).
(i) Alpha- particles have large momentum and so have large kinetic energy. Hence, they are used to bombard
the atomic nuclei to obtain a new atomic nucleus.
(j) Alpha-particles destroy the living cells and tissues and cause biological damage.

Beta particles:- The emission of beta- particle by the nucleus of a radioactive atom does not alter the mass number (A)
of the atom but increases its atomic number (Z) by one unit (Z + 1).
The symbolic representation of β - emission is :
Z XA Z +1 YA + -1 e 0 (β - particle)
(Parent nuclei) (Daughter nuclei)
Note:- 1) The mass number (A) of the atom does not alter, i.e it remain constant.
2) The atomic number (Z) of the atom increases by one unit.

Example of β – radiation:-
14
1. 6 C 7 N 14 + -1 e0

2. 15 P 32 16 S 32 + -1 e0

3. 83 Bi 214 84 Po 214 + -1 e0

4. 11 Na 23 12 Mg 24 + -1 e0

Properties of β - rays
(a) Beta-particles are basically electrons, but of nuclear origin.
(i) The mass of beta-particles is 9.1 x 10 - 31kg, which is the same as that of an electron.
(ii) The charge of beta-particles is the same as that of an electron (- e) e = 1.6x10 -19 C
(b) They also produce fluorescence and affect a photographic plate.
(c) The velocity of the beta-particles emitted from a source is not constant and is very high (of the order of 10 8 ms -1).
In some cases the velocities of beta-particles are found to approach the velocity of light (3 x 10 8m) ranges
1.08 x 10 8 and 2.94 x 108 m). On account of their small mass, the kinetic energy of beta-rays is comparatively
smaller than those of alpha-particles.
(d) They are smaller in size than alpha-particles. Therefore, they produce only moderate ionization. The ionizing power
of beta-rays is roughly 1/100th that of the alpha-rays but nearly 100 times that of gamma-rays.
(e) The penetrating power of beta-particles is more than that of alpha-particles. It is 100 times more penetrating than
alpha-rays and 1/ 100 times less penetrating than gamma.
(f) Beta particles (similar to electrons) produce X-rays when they are stopped by metals of high atomic number such as
tungsten.
(g) They cause greater radiation damage than alpha-particles to the skin of the body because they have more penetrating
power than alpha particles.
 Beta-emission generally takes place in such nucleus which has far excess of neutron as compared to protons.
 The nuclei after beta-emission (daughter nuclei) are a new element which has properties similar to those of an
element placed after it in the periodic table.

Gamma radiation: In many cases an alpha or beta emission is found to be followed by the γ -emission.
Gamma emission occurs when the daughter or the parent nucleus is in a state of excitation (i.e., it has an excess of
energy). This excess energy is released in the farm of electromagnetic radiation known as the y-radiation (or y ray
photon). The γ -rays take no mass and no electric charge from the nucleus i.e., no neutrons or protons are lost,
hence the nucleus does not decay into a different nucleus, i.e. there is no change in the mass number A and
atomic number Z of the nucleus in gamma emission.
The gamma emission is represented as follows:
A A
Z X* Z X* + γ
Here the star* indicates the excited state of the nucleus.
It should be noted that in a single radioactive decay, α and β particles are never emitted simultaneously.
There will be either an α -emission or a β -emission, which may be accompanied by the γ - emission.
Properties of γ - Rays
Some properties of gamma radiations are given below:
(a) Gamma radiations are the electromagnetic waves like X-rays and light. The wavelength of γ - radiation is shorter
than that of X-rays. The wavelength of gamma radiation is of the order of 10-13 m (or 10-3A)
(b) The speed of γ -radiations is the same as the speed of light (i.e., 3 X 101 m s-1 in vacuum or air).
(c) The ionizing power of y-radiations is very low. It is 10 - 4 times that of a-particles and 10 -2 times that of β -particles.
(d) The penetrating power of γ -radiations is high. It is about 104 times that of α -particles and 102 times that of β
-particles. They can pass even through 30 cm of iron.
(e) Gamma radiations are not deflected by the electric and magnetic fields as they are not the charged particles.
(f) Gamma radiations affect a photographic plate.
(g) Gamma radiations cause fluorescence when they strike a fluorescent material.
(h) Like X-rays, gamma radiations are also diffracted by crystals.