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ICT and School Management A Review of Selected Literature

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 ICT and School Management

A Review of Selected Literature

June 2002

Don Passey
Senior Research Fellow
Department of Educational Research
Lancaster University
Lancaster LA1 4YL

Tel: 01524 593600

Fax: 01524 592914
Email: d.passey@lancaster.ac.uk
 An Introduction to this Review
Background
ICT is becoming increasingly used in schools and educational institutions, and established in
professional and classroom practice. As a consequence, research activity looking at developing and
established practices is increasing and becoming more diversified. However, although head teachers,
LEAs, companies and policy makers continue to take increasing interest in the scope of this field,
relatively little research work is being undertaken which considers aspects of ICT and school
management. This claim was supported by feedback at the research conference that Becta organised in
the summer of 2001, at which one discussion group considered the scope of research outcomes
available in this field to inform practice currently. Although wide interest in the field was apparent in
the discussion group, there was little awareness of any extent of research being carried out at that time.
As a consequence participants at the conference put forward a number of areas which they considered
worthy of future investigation. Areas for further investigation which were suggested at the conference
included: the nature of effective support for senior managers; the differences in managing ICT as
compared to non-ICT facilities; the link between training and effective leadership; the role of project
management; the applicability of findings generated from research in secondary schools to the primary
sector; the quality and skill levels of senior management teams; and appropriate measures for
evaluating ICT in school management. Following the conference, it was agreed that Becta should
commission a series of research reviews into a number of fields concerned with ICT and education.
This report results from that intention, and is an initial review into this field.

Audience
This review is written for a general audience with interest in the wider field of research into ICT and
education. It is intended to offer an introductory review of the literature, and an overview of the
research methodologies and techniques that have been employed to date. It is intended for use by a
wide audience, including teacher practitioners, research practitioners, research students, ICT co-
ordinators and curriculum managers, LEA advisers, policy makers, industry managers, and sponsors
and supporters of research.

Contents
This review is divided into seven main sections. Those sections cover:
ƒ An executive summary of the review.
ƒ An introduction to the area, suggesting its significance and future importance.
ƒ An indication as to the amount, type and quality of research available.
ƒ Identification and discussion of key research documents and findings.
ƒ Emerging messages at this stage.
ƒ Suggestions as to key priority areas, issues, and emerging technologies for future research.
ƒ Selected research for further reading.
The review concludes with the list of references cited in this report, and an appendix provides ideas of
valuable sources and fields for relevant literature.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 1

 An executive summary

ICT and school management is an important issue, since it is well recognised that senior managers in
schools have a major impact upon classroom and curriculum practices, and that the use of ICT within
schools is permeating aspects of school practice to the extent that it will impact upon the practice of all
staff (both teaching and non-teaching). The purpose of this review is to begin a process of
investigating the width of literature across this field, to find areas of pertinence that can add to our
understanding of current practices and current needs. The review arose from the discussions and
feedback at a research conference organised by Becta in the summer of 2001. This current review
provides an indication as to the research available in this field, identifies some key documents and
emerging messages, and suggest priority areas for future research.

Key emerging messages include the following: the importance of ICT to society and to future
prospects is clear within the educational literature, but the real significance of this for educational
management has yet to be seen within the literature; the educational management literature is
beginning to indicate that attitudes towards ICT are shifting, and often significantly, which is likely to
have a major impact upon ICT and school management; the importance of communication systems for
education is being highlighted within the literature increasingly, but the personnel effects of this
outcome are not yet being studied to any great extent, and it would appear to be difficult to find case
study examples from which to extrapolate at this present time; messages arising from the general
management and management of change literature appear to be relevant and pertinent within the
educational, and ICT and management, areas, but there are a number of key concerns which suggest
that some caution needs to be taken with regard to certain areas of that literature – in particular
personnel, financial, and strategic aspects. Likely priority areas for future research include: how
management information systems (MIS) assist effective school management; whether the available
research evidence points to certain recurring factors underpinning the effective use of ICT to support
and enhance school management – for example, school culture, leadership skills, training, and so on;
the extent to which messages derived from the wider literature are applicable to education, and in
particular, to school management; how development and use of emerging technologies (such as
interactive whiteboards) can be managed with and alongside those of other existing technologies (such
as computer suites); how out-of-school practices can be managed through and alongside the
management needs of in-school practices in order to gain the maximum educational outcomes for
pupils in learning situations.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 2

 An introduction to the area, and a consideration of its significance and
future importance

There are two key assertions which imply that the field of ICT and school management is a vital field
to explore, to support appropriately both current and future practice:
ƒ Senior managers in schools have a major impact upon classroom and curriculum practices, and the
ways in which changes are introduced.
ƒ Use of ICT within schools is permeating aspects of school practice increasingly, and will impact
upon the practice of all staff (both teaching and non-teaching, and if not at this present time, then
in the near future).

It is not difficult to find supporting evidence for these assertions. For example, with regard to the first
assertion, Fullan (1992) and Everard (1986) indicate the impact that management can have upon
classroom practice in a largely non-ICT based environment, while Scrimshaw (1997) and Becta (2000,
2001a, 2001b) (at http://www.becta.org.uk/research/reports/ictresources.html) indicate the strong
relationship between the two in ICT based environments also. However, linking ‘good’ or effective
management with ‘good’ or higher attainment outcomes of pupils when ICT is used is likely to be
entirely contextual. To develop effective management, or even to understand ‘good’ management,
means that the context, vision, purpose, planning methods, approaches, strategies, tactics and
monitoring mechanisms all at least need to be understood within this context.

With regard to the second assertion, the permeation of ICT and its implications for future management
were highlighted by Scrimshaw (1997) and in the Stevenson Report (1997), and implications for
management at school and LEA levels have been explored further in terms of other technological
contexts in schools by, for example, Passey et al. (1997) and Somekh et al. (2001) Other studies in the
US, such as those by Rockmann et al. (1997) have also looked at implications for management within
and beyond school boundaries. The permeation of uses of ICT for educational purposes means that for
all those who manage, ICT is likely to have an impact now or in the very near future. From the point
of view of those who manage in educational situations this will mean that there will be implications
for those who are involved in all types of management, whether it be strategic management,
implementation management at a policy or school level, those who are responsible for curriculum
management, classroom management, site management, financial management, or personnel
management. This width of involvement means that potential shifts in practice arising from the
involvement of ICT, or concerns about practice in these different areas, are likely to occur both
specifically within the domain as well as locally for individuals. The effects of the pervasive use of
ICT will imply changes, in terms of both practice and intention. Managers at all levels of the
educational system will need to be able to understand how they can best manage the situation for each
group involved (according to their educational purpose and focus), whether they be site managers,
financial managers, or those managing the creation of resource content for teachers or pupils, for
example. The likely width of shift means that management will need to be informed in order to
address educational change effectively, through techniques that adopt appropriate knowledge of the
management of change, using pertinent management approaches, and in ways that consider
organisational impacts that could arise.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 3

 An indication as to the amount, type and quality of research available

Looking for a relevant literature in the field of ICT and school management creates particular
challenges, since the involvement of ICT requires the enquirer to consider what the relevant domains
of literature might be, as well as the sources where ICT might be considered. Many managers are
likely to find that sources they have relied upon may well not take ICT into account, and it is relatively
easy to find standard texts on management without any reference in them to uses or management of
ICT. References to the uses of ICT to manage is even less frequently found within standard texts.

The task of finding useful research outcomes is further complicated by the fact that the field is itself
within a shifting situation in practice, and research can tend to identify what exists, rather than what
will be needed in the future. Looking at sources outside the education arena might be valuable,
therefore, but there are certainly no guarantees that the research literature into ICT and company
management, for example, can be considered as a viable means to identify future educational needs.

For this review a particular categorisation of the subject field is initially used. The categories chosen
are as follows:
• Educational change (this category covers the literature concerned with the reasons for
educational change, and the effects and impacts resulting, particularly at an individual teacher or
manager level).
• Management of change (this category covers the literature concerned with the conception of
management of change principles, approaches and methods adopted in order to bring about
change, and to consider attitudes to change).
• Management approaches (this category covers the literature concerned with management
approaches in general, but more specifically with the types of management approach that lend
themselves to particular purpose or outcomes, and the implications).
• Organisational impacts (this category covers the literature concerned with the impacts of
change upon organisations, both from an institutional and a systems viewpoint).
• ICT management (this category covers the literature concerned with how ICT is managed
within organisations, and the concerns and issues that face managers and others in respect of ICT).
• Strategic and tactical approaches (this category covers the literature concerned with the types
of approach that are involved when change and ICT use is introduced into organisations and
systems, and the impacts that this has upon support and personnel particularly).
• Personnel management (this category covers the literature concerned with how the
introduction of ICT is shifting the needs for personnel within organisations and institutions, and
the future implications that there might be in these respects).
• Resource and resource development management (this category covers the literature
concerned with how resources that are ICT-based can both be developed in a range of ways and by
a variety of groups, and how their uses are managed within educational situations).
• Financial and procurement management (this category covers the literature concerned with
aspects of finance and procurement that managers in educational situations now need to consider).
• Planning and project management (this category covers the literature concerned with the
approaches and needs for planning and project management when different ICT uses are being
introduced into educational situations).
• Managing sustainability (this category covers the literature concerned with the ways in which
managers in educational situations are now considering maintainability and sustainability, and the
implications that arise for the future).
• Monitoring and evaluation processes in management (this category covers the literature
concerned with the methods and approaches which can be used within educational situations to
monitor, evaluate and reflect upon outcomes of ICT uses for the variety of purposes originally
intended).

Using this particular categorisation through which to consider literature sources, it is certainly
possible, from the outcomes of a literature search, to find three broad groups emerging:
Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 4
ƒ A group including areas which are well covered currently but in general rather than in ICT-
specific ways (these tend to cover broad management aspects, and some come from the
‘traditional’ educational management literature which was written before ICT became permeated
within school and educational systems).
ƒ A group including areas which are covered either in general or ICT-specific ways (these tend to be
more concerned with management approaches, and arise from observation of existing practice
within industry and education).
ƒ A group including areas which are not well covered from an ICT-specific viewpoint (these are
often areas which are emerging as management needs, or where only a few specific studies have
been undertaken, such as financial, procurement, or personnel aspects).

The areas which are well covered currently in general (non-ICT specific ways) are:
ƒ Educational change. It has long been recognised that there are implications when making and
bringing about change in educational systems, and the literature covers a wide range of aspects of
the implications for educational change, and the effects it has upon teachers and school systems
particularly. There is less evidence about the impacts upon LEA and policy making groups,
however. The literature includes key work by, for example, Fullan (1992; 1993), and Rogers
(1995).
ƒ Management of change. As individuals are affected by change the need to manage change in
educational settings has been well recognised and documented. However, the literature which
documented changes in industrial organisations pre-empted the work undertaken in educational
contexts. Some key work in industrial settings was undertaken by, for example, Peters (1989), and
Pettigrew (1985).
ƒ Management approaches. There is a rich literature on management approaches, which can be
considered in both educational and industrial contexts. The role of management approaches in
undertaking change is documented within this literature. Some key work in the educational
domain has been undertaken by, for example, Bush et al. (1980), Everard (1986), and Corbett and
Rossman (1986).
ƒ Organisational impacts. Change has implications not just for individuals within organisations, but
also for organisational systems as a whole. The impacts and implications for organisational
systems has been studied and documented in industrial and commercial contexts far more than it
has in educational contexts. The literature includes key work by, for example, Morgan (1986), and
Handy (1993).

The areas which are covered in general or ICT-specific ways are:

ƒ ICT management. How ICT is managed within both industrial and educational contexts is
increasingly being documented. However, often this literature relies upon case study evidence
which therefore by its nature identifies how current situations are managed, rather than how future
situations might need to be managed. The literature includes key work of the MIT90s Programme,
for example. In the educational area more work has been published on the HE and FE sectors than
has been published on the school sectors.
ƒ Strategic and tactical approaches. The roles of elements of systems within change situations,
particularly regarding strategic and tactical elements, and how these relate to one another, has
increasingly become the focus of some studies. Studies and articles exist which cover this area,
and the outcomes tend to be often more concerned with future implications than with current
immediate needs. The literature includes key work by, for example, Checkland (1981).

The areas where more ICT-specific coverage is needed are:

ƒ Personnel management. It is becoming increasingly clear that as ICT becomes more pervasive
within educational systems, and becomes more usable in wider circumstances, that this has an
effect upon the abilities and qualities of those who need to be employed by organisations. The
implications for educational organisations, including schools, are just becoming evident from the
outcomes of some studies, but these are not being reported often in the wider public literature. The
impact of on-line resources on the management of teaching and learning, and the impact of out-of-
school learning on the personnel needs at a policy and at a school level, are clearly key features
that should be considered in this respect.
Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 5
ƒ Resource use and resource development management. Resources that were at one time available
from boxes off-the-shelf are becoming increasingly enhanced by the opportunities that ICT-based
resources can offer. However, both the management of the development and use of these resources
is not well documented within the public domain, nor are ways to approach such developments
through public-private financial initiatives, for example, even though some key studies do exist
which look at this area.
ƒ Financial and procurement management. Over the past few years the spending patterns on ICT in
educational systems have changed dramatically. However, the patterns of financial and
procurement management have not necessarily paralleled this shift. The literature that exists often
points to the fact that managers feel they need more professional development in these areas. The
development of IPAS is a response to this recognition. The literature contains few documents
which enable this area to be explored.
ƒ Planning and project management. Bringing in change often involves the use of project planning
and project management. In the field of ICT this area is not well explored in the literature, and few
documents look specifically at this area. Planning can itself be supported by appropriate
management information systems (MIS), and again few studies in this area are able to inform a
wider application of MIS for curriculum, financial or personnel planning, for example.
ƒ Managing sustainability. Concepts of sustainability are emerging increasingly in educational
systems with regard to ICT. As a consequence, little existing literature covers this area. The need
for studies which look at aspects of sustainability certainly also need to go beyond the concept of
financial or equipment maintainability or sustainability, since access to resources (as pointed to in
the Stevenson and McKinsey Reports (1997), for example) will be a key need in sustainability
terms.
ƒ Monitoring and evaluation processes in management. Generally the importance of monitoring and
evaluation in management processes is understood and is clarified within the literature (in the DES
publications of Hargreaves, Hopkins et al. (1989), for example). However, the impacts that ICT is
making upon the needs for monitoring and evaluation are not yet fully documented. As a
consequence, managers may not be fully aware of how to address monitoring and evaluation
processes adequately, since they are not clear what needs to be monitored or how it can be
monitored using the power of MIS.

A recent literature search of this field (using the sources listed in the subsequent section) was
undertaken recently by Becta. The outcome of the search showed that there is a paucity of current
literature addressing the management of ICT in schools. Only 21 sources were identified as being of
most value, and much of the literature identified was more than 2 years old. Some papers identified
were focused on management of ICT in the FE or HE sectors of education rather than in the school-
based sectors.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 6

 Identification and discussion of key research documents and findings

The range of key documents considered within this review highlight findings which are worthy of
particular consideration at this stage. The items included here have been selected because of their
pertinence to the specific field of ICT and school management, or because of their pertinence in terms
of an historical perspective which underpins the current area of need. The key documents and findings
below are grouped into three broad categories: general management and the management of change;
educational management; and ICT and educational management.

General management and the management of change

ƒ Pettigrew (1985). Pettigrew undertook a major series of early studies into industrial change. His
studies focused upon aspects of change within large multinational organisations, which mirror
educational systems in some respects. He identified at an early stage how existing attitudes could
shape internal change, and how interest groups needed to be managed. Above all, perhaps, his
concept of ‘the mobilisation of support’ was central, and is as pertinent now as it was then.
ƒ Peters (1989). Peters looked at implications of change for managers, and, as a consequence, the
impacts that managers should consider when change is a necessity or a desirable action. He was
concerned with the concept of the potential for rapid innovation within companies, and the need to
consider failure as a reasonable and useful element within the entire realm of processes of change.
ƒ Morgan (1986). Morgan looked at the ways in which organisations can be managed, and the
implications that this has for a developing, continuing or changing practice. His work looked at the
industrial and commercial fields, and showed that there was a need for those managing change to
consider the overall approaches that can be undertaken at an organisational level.
ƒ Browning (1990). Browning offered what might be considered a realistic viewpoint on
commercial change. He argued that change for individuals was not easy, and that change for
groups or organisations was even more difficult. However, he argued further that the need for
change was certain, and that therefore the control of change must be a major consideration for all
organisations. He argued that those who had some control over processes of change would be
more successful than those who did not.
ƒ Carnall (1990). Carnall identified an important series of effects on working practices that
individuals move through when they experience change. He noted that individuals go through a
series of five stages – shock, denial, testing, owning, and implementing. Carnall showed that
effectiveness can be affected by change, and that some lowering of effectiveness should be
anticipated at the early stages before the positive outcomes of change from later stages emerge. He
showed that the stages individuals work through need to be managed from both an individual and
a group point of view. Mevarech (1997) also showed this effect in an educational context, and
argued that the lowering of effectiveness at early stages could halt the emergence of higher level
outcomes at later stages.

Educational management
ƒ Fullan (1992, 1993) and Fullan and Hargreaves (1992). Fullan has written a range of significant
books and articles on educational change and educational change management. Some aspects of
the implications of ICT change have been considered within these texts. His messages have often
been concerned with identifying reasonableness in terms of change, and indicating the need for all
those within an educational system to take on board the meaning of uncertainty and features of
change if change itself is to be accepted and implemented. He pointed to the need for positive
support to bring about change; however, the fact that ICT brings about future needs where support
has to be identified by implication can clearly be a difficult aspect for organisations and groups to
address at certain times. His concept of ‘the learning organization’ is central to this concern – ‘the
capacity to live in a state of continuous imbalance’.
ƒ Davies (1991). Davies pointed to the need to consider how to manage a wide range of different
attitudes in change situations. She identified the need for school managers to consider a range of
attitudes - threat, anxiety, inadequacy, and antagonism as major negative effects. However, she did
not from her studies look at the needs and implications for managing positive attitudes in change

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 7

 situations – it can be just as hard to manage enthusiasm, commitment and endeavour when
resources and access to those resources are limited, for example.
ƒ Rogers (1975). Rogers undertook an important early study on the effects that change has upon the
time for its implementation. His work indicated a long time need of some 25 years to introduce
change effectively into practice. Other later studies (Scrimshaw, 1997; Passey et al., 2000;
Somekh et al., 2001) have pointed to the fact that ICT implementation in schools is now
happening over shorter time intervals. However, the fact that technological change can happen
more rapidly than an integration of ICT into practice means that the development of uses of ICT
into practice need to be managed all the more.

ICT and educational management

ƒ Scrimshaw (1997). In his synopsis of the Superhighways Evaluation report, Scrimshaw reported
on the clear need for positive and supportive management to enable all those involved in
educational endeavours to gain from the potential that ICT can bring to learning and teaching. He
indicated the pervasive effect that ICT was having upon the pilot schools being studied, and the
implications that this would have for the future. The report highlighted the need for all those
involved in educational systems (whether they be parents, pupils, teachers, managers, or
supporters) to become conversant with the concepts being introduced and developed, to become
aware that their needs would enlarge and widen, and that their awareness of the potential that
communication systems could offer educational outcomes would need to be enhanced in order for
each group to utilise and work together for specific purpose.
ƒ Passey et al. (1997). Passey et al. identified a range of management implications of using on-line
resources in schools and in homes. A particular outcome highlighted the need for groups to
consider purpose carefully before investing heavily in communication technologies, since practical
use did not merge unless users had some pre-existing concepts of potential applications. The
impact upon management when laptop technologies were used was reported further in a series of
later studies (1999, 2000). Of particular note was the outcome that parents would be likely to use
ICT more in the future for communication with schools, and that this would require managing, just
as any other area of important relationship needs to be managed between homes and schools. Most
recently the implications for management in terms of personnel needs, financial needs, and
procurement needs have been studied and reported (2000, 2002). It is becoming clear that as ICT
use pervades to greater extents, so the range of roles and responsibilities shifts, and the importance
of managing finance and procurement becomes all the greater. There have been very few research
studies or reports into financial and procurement aspects of ICT for managers in schools. An
exception, an earlier study by Hunt into the financial management needs of ILS, was published in
1997.
ƒ Somekh et al. (2001) and DfES (2001). Somekh et al. have studied implications for management
at national, regional, LEA, and school levels when ICT uses are implemented widely within
schools. They have reported on the needs this brings for those within schools as well as in homes.
It is clear from these studies that even lines of responsibility are becoming unclear, and need to be
regularly reviewed and clarified. When resources become used within homes and schools to the
extent that is now happening, for example, it is unclear where insurance responsibilities might lie,
or where educational activity begins or ends. Aspects for future consideration in this respect are
also considered in Bentley (1998).
ƒ Twining (2001). Twining reports in one article on aspects of ICT and school management in the
primary school sector specifically. He reports on the use of a particular technique as a means to
bring strategic vision and implementation need closer together. He argues that strategic vision is
important, but that implementation requires the use of techniques which will offer the teacher
more opportunity to plan for educational practice.
ƒ Visscher, Wild, and Fung (2001). Visscher, Wild and Fung bring together a series of studies from
a range of countries that explore current features of computerised school information systems,
their implementation in a range of schools, the outcomes of this implementation, and implications
for the future in terms of further research. This text offers perhaps the widest view of ICT and
school management from the perspective of MIS. However, it is clear from this literature that most
concern currently is being focused on data entry and collation, rather than upon data transfer or
analysis (and particularly so at the teacher level).
Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 8
ƒ North et al. (2000). North et al. have looked at the impact that the use of management information
systems (MIS) can have on the abilities of schools to manage more effectively. Their study looks
at the role of support in bringing about such processes, and the implications there are for the
future, if MIS is to have a wider effect than it has currently. However, it is clear that an important
feature to consider will be the relationship of data collection and collation to data use, since school
managers need quite different forms of analysis in some respect to those that are needed by
teachers.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 9

 Emerging messages at this stage

There are messages emerging from the literature which are of significance at this time, especially in
view of the need that school managers register in this respect. The messages offered here tend to be
concerned at a strategic rather than at an implementation level. However, these messages can perhaps
alert managers to some key strategic or visionary concerns worthy of reflection upon at this time.
• The importance of ICT to society and to future prospects is clear within the educational literature.
However, the real significance of this for educational management has yet to be seen within the
literature.
• The educational management literature is beginning to indicate that attitudes towards ICT are
shifting, and often significantly. This is likely to have a major impact upon ICT and school
management.
• The importance of communication systems for education is being highlighted within the literature
increasingly. However, the personnel effects of this outcome are not yet being studied to any great
extent, and it would appear to be difficult to find case study examples from which to extrapolate at
this present time.
• Messages arising from the general management and management of change literature appear to be
relevant and pertinent within the educational, and ICT and management, areas. However, there are
a number of key concerns which suggest that some caution needs to be taken with regard to certain
areas of that literature – in particular personnel, financial, and strategic aspects.
• Both business and commerce, and education, have undergone, and are undergoing, shifts and
changes as a result of the integration of ICT within management systems. However, while
business and commerce is concerned with major shifts towards service industry aspects and away
from manufacturing concerns to some extent, this should not be taken at face value as the focal
need for school shifts and management. The core business of schools is concerned with preparing
youngsters to be able to deal with the needs of this shifting environment – not preparing them to
work within this environment per se. Schools have a potentially major role to play in terms of the
needs to manage attitudinal shifts to work (and wider social) environments of the future.
• Similarly, business and commerce have been concerned with shifts in terms of the need to
consider personnel, financial and procurement needs where ICT is concerned. However, the core
need for education is different in some respects, and this should be considered carefully. For
example, businesses and commerce now consider how ICT can lead their businesses and services
to greater extents; whether this outcome in management terms is applicable to education is not yet
known.
• It is clear that ICT and the management of ICT in education requires an increasing understanding
and application of management of change approaches. At this present time the management of
change is itself a fluid or shifting area where ICT is concerned; it is clear that continuous
management of change approaches are needed rather than investing in a single application of
managing change as a once-and-for-all remedial support.
• It is clear that ICT integration involves risk at certain levels, and the need to be concerned with
and accepting of failure as well as success. It is not clear currently whether the educational
literature has fully integrated this approach and need.
• The integration of ICT within business and commerce has tended to be accompanied by a parallel
shift in management approach from stratified or tayloristic approaches, to flatter or more bottom-
up approaches. The educational literature also indicates that this parallel shift may well be needed
in some respects, but not necessarily in others. The challenge for education is to work out in which
respects these shifts are not needed.
• The increasing and shifting roles of parents and others within education are being recognised, but
the management implications are only beginning to be recognised. Research into this area is only
beginning to emerge at this present time.
• It is clear that the research being carried out indicates that there are areas where school managers
could be supported more. The provision of techniques and approaches arising from research is an
area which is only beginning to be developed and explored.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 10

• The role of ICT in supporting school management is an area of clear developmental as well as
research need. Research in this area is often not yet critical enough to gain a wider understanding
of the future directions it would be worth working towards. Certainly there are a number of critical
gaps in the research literature - the role of data bases within management information systems in
the research literature is not being translated into practice at this time; the role of analytical and
presentation techniques for teachers is not being translated into practice; the needs of different
groups in respect of management information systems is not being explored within the research
literature at this time.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 11

 Suggestions as to key priority areas, issues, and emerging technologies for
future research

It is clear that there are a range of aspects of ICT and school management which could benefit from
further research study, particularly where this could support management practice further in schools.
Research outcomes are emerging over time, and a potentially useful practice would be to chart the
literature emerging in key areas. One way to approach this task would be to use the categorisation
offered earlier, to produce a review in each of these more specific areas, namely:
• Educational change.
• Management of change.
• Management approaches.
• Organisational impacts.
• ICT management.
• Strategic and tactical approaches.
• Personnel management.
• Resource and resource development management.
• Financial and procurement management.
• Planning and project management.
• Managing sustainability.
• Monitoring and evaluation processes in management.

Some key priority areas, issues and emerging technologies for future research include:
ƒ How management information systems (MIS) assist effective school management. The current
research literature is not being fully considered yet in practice, and research into the current
practice is not critical enough to be of value to those involved. There are issues in this area both
with the forms of technology being used, and with the lack of techniques available to enable users
to make use of data currently available. Research could have a major role to play in supporting
educational endeavour and practice in this area.
ƒ Whether the available research evidence points to certain recurring factors underpinning the
effective use of ICT to support and enhance school management – for example, school culture,
leadership skills, training, and so on. The literature already points to a range of such factors (some
of which are included within the text of this review). However, a fuller appreciation of the
recurring factors could help to support effective management with and of ICT.
ƒ The extent to which messages derived from the wider literature are applicable to education, and in
particular, to school management. Some of the extent of applicable messages is explored within
this review, but it is likely that a more structured review will need to be undertaken if the scope of
these messages is to be understood fully (of the type indicated in the preceding text sub-section
above).
ƒ How research in this field should develop in the future, and which methodologies should be used.
It is clear that research methodologies influence the messages being presented. If research is to be
of more value in the future, then all research studies must identify the methodologies and their
implications so that readers can be clear about their potential use within given situations.
ƒ How development and use of emerging technologies (such as interactive whiteboards) can be
managed with and alongside those of other existing technologies (such as computer suites). Over
the past two decades there has seen a succession of technologies arising in education which have
tended to overtake those already existing. The future will be unlikely to be shaped in this way –
new technologies will work in parallel with others rather than overtake them. This will have a
direct impact upon the needs of research in the management area.
ƒ How out-of-school practices can be managed through and alongside the management needs of in-
school practices in order to gain the maximum educational outcomes for pupils in learning
situations. Out-of-school learning is a major focus of policy and practice. Research not only needs
to be concerned with what happens to the outcomes of these policies, but also with how to support
those who are managing such processes.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 12

ƒ How current and likely shifts in ICT uses and practices will affect the need for personnel
management in the future. It is clear that new roles are emerging in education as a result of new
technologies being introduced – the need for web-surfers, for example, to inform teachers across a
school about potentially useful resources. It is also clear that all roles within a school are being
affected by uses of ICT. Both of these aspects need to be researched further if policy and practice
are to benefit from research experience.
ƒ How resource uses and resource development can be managed most effectively. A range of current
practices are being developed and deployed. It is likely that some are more effective than others,
and that contexts determine the degree of success that could be measured in particular ways. If
future learning and teaching is to be supported by increasing ranges of web-based resources
available, then research has a role to play in identifying worthwhile or potential management
practices in these respects.
ƒ What elements of financial and procurement management need to be integrated within wider
management practice, and how support for this process can be most effectively gained. The
financial and procurement needs for management awareness and action with regard to ICT are
increasing. Currently, research practice in this area is not paralleling this increase.
ƒ How planning and project management can be utilised to develop specific practice and then wider
integrated practice across organisations. Project management approaches are being used to support
implementation practice at local, regional and national levels. The means by which this can occur,
and the implications of this practice on future policy requirements is an area which has yet to be
explored within the research literature.
ƒ How the managing of sustainability should be considered in the present and in the future.
Sustainability is a concept which is developing within practice. It is clear so far that concepts of
sustainability are wide and different. This is an area where research exploration could support the
development of appropriate concepts for educational practice.
ƒ Which monitoring and evaluation processes in management need to be integrated to successfully
address ICT involvement and practices. It is well recognised that successful management requires
successful monitoring and evaluation practice. In the area of ICT and management there is little
known as to whether wider monitoring and evaluation practices have a part to play when ICT is
involved, or whether different practices need to be considered.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 13

 Selected research outcomes for further reading

A current selected research for further reading would include the following texts, which have been
placed in three broad categories used earlier. In each category the literature is listed in chronological
order.

General management and the management of change

Pettigrew, A.M. (1985) The Awakening Giant: Continuity and Change in Imperial Chemical
Industries. Oxford: Blackwell
Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications
Peters, T. (1989) Thriving on Chaos. London:Pan
Carnall, C. (1990) Managing Change in Organisations. London: Prentice-Hall.
Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of innovations. The Free Press: New York

Educational management
Davies, S. (1991) Developing a Programme in a Rural School. In M. Sullivan (ed.) Supporting
Change and Development in the Primary School. London: Longman
Fullan, M.G. (1993) Change Forces: Probing the Depths of Educational Reform. London: Falmer
Press

ICT and educational management

Scrimshaw, P. (1997) Preparing for the Information Age: Synoptic Report of the Education
Departments' Superhighways Initiative. Cardiff, Belfast, Edinburgh, London: Welsh Office,
Department of Education for Northern Ireland, The Scottish Office, Department for Education and
Employment.
Passey, D. (1999) Strategic evaluation of the impacts on learning of educational technologies:
Exploring some of the issues for evaluators and future evaluation audiences. In Education and
Information Technologies, 4, 2, 1-28
North, R.F.J, Serain, D.M. and Abbott, L. (2000) Training Teachers in Computer-based Management
Information Systems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16, 1, 27-40
Visscher, A J., Wild, P. and Fung, A.C.W. (eds.) (2001) Information Technology in Educational
Management: Synthesis of Experience, Research and Future Perspectives on Computer-assisted
School Information Systems. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 14

References
Becta (2000) A Preliminary Report for the DfEE on the Relationship Between ICT and Primary
School Standards. http://www.becta.org.uk/research/reports/ictresources.html
Becta (2001a) Primary Schools of the Future – Achieving Today. Coventry: Becta
Becta (2001b) The Secondary School of the Future – A Preliminary Report to the DfEE by Becta.
Coventry: Becta
Bentley, T. (1998) Learning Beyond the Classroom. London: Routledge
Browning, J. (1990) A Curriculum for Change. The Economist, 16 June
Bush, T., Glatter, R., Goodey, J. and Riches, C. (eds.) (1980) Approaches to School Management.
London: Harper and Row
Carnall, C. (1990) Managing Change in Organisations. London: Prentice-Hall.
Checkland, P. (1981) Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester: Wiley
Corbett, H.D. and Rossman, G.B. (1986) Three Paths to Implementing Change: A Research Note. In
Curriculum Inquiry, 19, 2, 163-190
Davies, S. (1991) Developing a Programme in a Rural School. In M. Sullivan (ed.) Supporting
Change and Development in the Primary School. London: Longman
DfES (2001) NGfL Research and Evaluation Series No. 4 – Using ICT to enhance home-school links:
An evaluation of current practice in England. DfES: London
Everard, K.B. (1986) Developing Management in Schools. Oxford: Blackwell
Fullan, M.G. (1992) Successful School Improvement: The Implementation Perspective and Beyond.
Buckingham: OUP
Fullan, M.G. (1993) Change Forces: Probing the Depths of Educational Reform. London: Falmer
Press
Fullan, M. and Hargreaves, A. (eds.)(1992) Teacher Development and Educational Change. London:
Routledge Falmer
Handy, C.B. (1993) Understanding Organizations. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books
Hargreaves, D.H., Hopkins, D., Leask, M., Connolly, J. and Robinson, P. (1989) Planning for School
Development: Advice to Governors, Headteachers and Teachers - School Development Plans
Project. London: DES
Hunt, M.R. (1997) Counting the cost of ILS. In J. Underwood and J. Brown (eds.) Integrated Learning
Systems: Potential into Practice. London: Heinemann
McKinsey and Company (1997) The Future of Information Technology in UK Schools. London:
McKinsey and Company
Management in the Nineties Program (MIT90s) MIT's Sloan School of Management in conjunction
with a number of sponsors, including ICL
Mevarech, Z.R. (1997) The U-curve process that trainee teachers experience in integrating computers
into the curriculum. In D. Passey and B. Samways (eds.) Information Technology: Supporting
Change through Teacher Education. London: Chapman and Hall.
Morgan, G. (1986) Images of Organization. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications
North, R.F.J, Serain, D.M. and Abbott, L. (2000) Training Teachers in Computer-based Management
Information Systems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16, 1, 27-40
Passey, D. (1999) Strategic evaluation of the impacts on learning of educational technologies:
Exploring some of the issues for evaluators and future evaluation audiences. In Education and
Information Technologies, 4, 2, 1-28
Passey, D. (2001) Anytime Anywhere Learning Pilot Programme: A Microsoft UK supported laptop
project: Learning gains in Year 5 and Year 8 classrooms. Reading: Microsoft
Passey, D., Forsyth, K., Hutchison, D., Scott, A. and Steadman, S. (2000) Anytime Anywhere
Learning Pilot Programme: End of First Phase Implementation (September 1998 – December
1999) Summary Report. Reading: Microsoft
Passey, D., Forsyth, K., Hutchison, D., Scott, A. and Williams, N. (1997) Group D - Home-School
Links: Final Report. Coventry: NCET.
Peters, T. (1989) Thriving on Chaos. London:Pan
Pettigrew, A.M. (1985) The Awakening Giant: Continuity and Change in Imperial Chemical
Industries. Oxford: Blackwell

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 15

Rockmann, S. et al. (1997). Report of a Laptop Program Pilot: A Project for Anytime Anywhere
Learning by Microsoft Corporation, Notebooks for Schools by Toshiba America Information
Systems. Rockman et al: San Francisco, CA
Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of innovations. The Free Press: New York
Scrimshaw, P. (1997) Preparing for the Information Age: Synoptic Report of the Education
Departments' Superhighways Initiative. Cardiff, Belfast, Edinburgh, London: Welsh Office,
Department of Education for Northern Ireland, The Scottish Office, Department for Education and
Employment.
Somekh, B., Barnes, S., Triggs, P., Sutherland, R., Passey, D., Holt, H., Harrison, C., Fisher, T., Joyes,
G. and Scott, R. (2001) NGfL Research and Evaluation Series No. 2 – NGfL Pathfinders:
Preliminary Report on the roll-out of the NGfL Programme in ten Pathfinder LEAs. London:
DfES
Stevenson, D. (1997) Information and Communications Technology in UK Schools: An Independent
Inquiry. London: Independent ICT in Schools Commission.
Twining, P. (2001) Planning to Use ICT in Schools? In Education 3-13, 29, (1)
Visscher, A J., Wild, P. and Fung, A.C.W. (eds.) (2001) Information Technology in Educational
Management: Synthesis of Experience, Research and Future Perspectives on Computer-assisted
School Information Systems. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 16

 Appendix

Valuable sources and fields for relevant literature

Sources which in the future could highlight relevant articles or books are likely to include those which
have been used for the recent search (these are listed below). A summary of each source (from web-
based home page sources in each case) is given.

British Educational Index (BEI). The British Education Index responsibility is to identify, evaluate,
analyse, describe and bring together appropriate information from disparate sources so that enquirers
can locate specific things of value to them. The oldest service, the Index itself, provides information
about the contents of journals. The newer services address different sources: informally published
literature, conference activity and internet resources, for example. Co-ordinated access to all British
Education Index information services is available at: http://www.bei.ac.uk

Educational Research Abstracts (ERA). The ERA is a comprehensive database comprising specially
selected high-quality abstracts which cover the current international research in education. ERA is
supported by a fully-flexible search engine, and comprises links to full-text on-line versions of articles
where possible. Searches can be conducted by a choice of criteria and full search histories are stored.
Hypertext links to the British Library's Articles Direct TM document supply service provides access to
a fully-comprehensive back-up document delivery service. Inter-library loan forms for UK libraries
are also available on-line. ERA is primarily aimed at researchers, academics, and students studying all
fields of education but is also valuable to practitioners in the discipline. Coverage includes subjects
such as educational technology, multicultural education, higher education, organisation and
management, sociology of education, special needs and technical education and training. ERA is
hosted by the Taylor and Francis Group.

ERIC. The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is a US national information system
designed to provide ready access to an extensive body of education-related literature. Established in
1966, ERIC is supported by the US Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and
Improvement and is administered by the National Library of Education (NLE). At the heart of ERIC is
the largest education database in the world - containing more than 1 million records of journal articles,
research reports, curriculum and teaching guides, conference papers, and books. The ERIC system,
through its 16 subject-specific clearinghouses, associated adjunct clearinghouses, and support
components, provides a variety of services and products that can help up-to-date searches on a broad
range of education-related issues. Products and services include research syntheses, electronic
journals, on-line directories, reference and referral services, and document delivery.

NFER Current Educational Research in the UK (CERUK). CERUK is a database, sponsored by

NFER, the DfES and the EPPI Centre (The Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-
ordinating Centre), that seeks to include all recently completed and ongoing research in the UK, from
large sponsored programmes to individual projects. Information is gathered annually from all
institutions where research is undertaken. This includes not only universities and colleges, but also
research organisations and consultancies, other specialised institutes and government agencies.
However, data may be supplied throughout the year and the database can be updated
systematically whenever additional information is received. The database is held in the Library at the
NFER and covers current research and research completed since 2000.

Lexis-Nexis. LexisNexis™ provides authoritative legal, news, public records and business
information; including tax and regulatory publications in on-line, print or CD-ROM formats. Products
and services can be viewed by occupation, industry or task. These show new tools that go beyond
research aimed at helping the productivity of enterprises.

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 17

 Business and Management Practices (BaMP). Business and Management Practices content focuses
on practical approaches to management processes and methods. It aims to provide real-world know-
how about business planning, decision making, how businesses adopt and implement new
technologies and techniques, and plan for change or expansion. BaMP focuses on real-life
applications, case studies, and explicit "how-to" guidelines. BaMP offers highly-focused coverage
from more than 300 professional and trade journals containing information relevant to the fields of
management, planning, production, finance, marketing, information technology and human resources.
Business and Management Practices can be searched by entering words or word phrases in the Word
or Phrase field.

ABI-Inform. ABI/INFORM Global from ProQuest Information and Learning is an essential source of
business information. For more than two decades, managers, librarians, executives, students and
government officials have relied on this database to track business activity in hundreds of industries
around the world. With the Global Full Text version, researchers can get immediate access to full text
articles from the most frequently requested publications. ABI/INFORM contains over 550,000
citations with abstracts to articles appearing in approximately 1,000 international periodicals covering
business and management as well as related functional areas including trends, corporate strategies and
tactics, and competitive and product information. Abstract and index coverage begins with 1971
material. ABI/INFORM is a valuable source of business conditions, trends, corporate strategies and
tactics, management techniques competitive and product information.

Google (internet search engine). This internet search engine indicates that it has the facility to search
2,073,418,204 web pages (as accessed on 5 June 2002).

Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University 18

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