LESSON 17: REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT Lesson 17.

2: Compare and Contrast

Process in Plants and Animals
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
DEVELOPMENT
- Only one parent produces offspring
- Involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation,subsequent
The offspring is identical to the parent stages in one’s life span.
- It is terminated by death.
Does not depend on fertilization
LIFE CYCLE
Sexual reproduction
- A biological life cycle is a series of changes in form that an
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION organism undergoes, returning to the starting state.
- Includes reproduction
I. FISSION
STAGES OF ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
- Reproduction involving the division of body into two
equal parts I. GAMETOGENESIS
- A parent cell divides into two organisms - the process in which diploid or haploid cells undergo meiosis
(cell division and differentiation) to form mature haploid gametes.
II. BUDDING
- depending on the biological life cycle of the organism, this
- Reproduction where a new individual arises as an outgrowth occurs by meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into various gametes,
(bud) from its parent or by mitosis.
- the bud develops organs like those of a parent, and then II. FERTILIZATION
detaches itself
- stage of development that results in a unicellular diploid
III. FRAGMENTATION zygote.
- A reproduction where the body breaks into two or more parts - male and female sex cells fuse to form a single cell
called a zygote
- Each fragment capable of becoming a complete individual
- provides for recombination of paternal and maternal
- In animals, it is usually followed by regeneration where the
genes.
missing parts are produced
- activates the egg to begin development.
- For example, a lost arm of the starfish may be regenerated by
mitotic cell divisions. III. CLEAVAGE
IV. SPORULATION - Rapid, multiple rounds of mitotic cell division following
fertilization where the overall size of the embryo does not increase.
- reproduction where a new individual forms from an
aggregation of cells surrounded Morula
By a resistant capsule or spore, which – solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum
and from which a blastula is formed.
Later on germinates.
- first 5-7 divisions.
TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- the developing embryo is called a blastula (a hollow
I. ISOGAMY
sphere of cells) following completion of cleavage.
- It is the fusion of similar gametes which are usually
- each cell is called a blastomere
motile
- very little growth occurs
II. HETEROGAMY
TOTIPOTENT STEM CELLS
- fusion of dissimilar gametes.
- Have the potential to develop into any cell found in the human
- in oogamy, a large immotile gamete, the egg is
fertilized by a small motile gamete, the sperm. - capable of differentiating to become any kind of cell.

- the cells started out as totipotent in cleavage, but as the cells

are moved around through morphogenetic movements, they become
SPECIAL TERMS FOR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
more specialized in terms of their fates as they get assigned to specific
I. BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION germ layers.

- Sexual reproduction involving the union of IV. GASTRULATION

gametes from two genetically different parents - The process by which a gastrula forms from a blastula.

I. HERMAPHRODITES - Stage of development involving morphogenetic movements of

- An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues.
- in animals “self fertilization” is not common.
- in worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to donate sperms in
order to fertilize the oocytes in its body.
the cells to produce a gastrula with distinct germ cell layers.
- in vertebrates, this will result in three layers: the outermost
ectoderm, the inner endoderm, and the middle layer, the mesoderm
(each will give rise to specific tissues and organs).
- during gastrulation, the fates of the cells are beginning to be
determined.
IV. GASTRULATION - Fraternal twins may have different biological sex. Body.
- Have separate placentas and umbilical cords.
- identical twins result from an accident during cleavage when - The technical name for this is dichorionic.
totipotent cells, whose fates have not yet been determined, are - Can be the same or opposite sex and their genes are as different
separated and continue with their development independently of each as any other brother and sister.
group of cells. - Often look different
- For example, they might have different hair or eye colour
V. ORGANOGENESIS - Occasionally they look quite similar
- stage of development where the different germ layers REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
differentiate into specific organ systems.
HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- starts at the end of gastrulation and continues until birth.
COMPOSED OF SEVERAL ORGANS THAT PERFORM THE
FOLLOWING FUNCTIONS:
- during organogenesis, the three germ layers formed from
gastrulation form the internal organs of the organism.  Produce, maintain, and transport sperm and
protective fluid (semen)
GROWTH
 Discharge sperm into the female reproductive tract
- Stage of development characterized by an increase in size of during copulation
an individual
 Produce and secrete male sex hormones
DIFFERENTIATION
SEMINAL VESICLE
- Embryonic differentiation is the process of development during
which embryonic cells specialize and diverse tissue structures - Secretes fluid that forms part of the semen;
arise. - secretion gives the semen its alkaline characteristic to
- The key to cell, tissue, organ, and organism identity. counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract and therefore protect
the sperm;
TWINS - the fluid also contains sugars like fructose
We usually describe twins according to: PROSTATE GLAND
- how many eggs they develop from – one or - Secretes fluid that also provides alkalinity to the semen;
two - it also contains proteolytic enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases,
and lipids
- whether they share a placenta in their mother’s womb.
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
The main types of twins are fraternal twins and identical twins.
- Paired glands that produce clear, viscous secretion known as
MONOZYGOTIC pre-ejaculate that helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to
pass through, neutralizing traces of acidic urine in the urethra,
- One zygote
and helps flush out any residual urine or foreign matter.
- Also termed as identical twins
- Sometimes a fertilized egg splits (during the first cleavage HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
stage within a few days of conception to produce genetically
identical. CLITORIS
- Identical twins should have identical gender (always of same
sex) The homologue (equivalent) of the penis in females
There are three types of identical twins: VAGINA
 1/3 SPLIT SOON AFTER FERTILIZATION Main entrance to the female reproductive tract; receives the penis during
sexual intercourse
- Form completely separate twins)
CERVIX
- have separate placentas
Where the vagina ends; projection of the uterus into the vagina; leads to
 2/3 SPLIT AFTER THEY ATTACH TO THE WALL OF THE the uterus
WOMB.
UTERUS
- they share a placenta
Also known as the womb; where the embryo develops; with thick
- the technical name for this is muscular walls, blood vessels; and the endometrial lining
monochorionic.
ENDOMETRIAL LINING/ ENDOMETRIUM
- In a very small number of identical twins, splitting might happen even
later. Innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo implants and develop
- In this case, both twins share an inner sac, called the amnion, in FALLOPIAN TUBES
addition to sharing a placenta.
Also known as oviducts
- The technical name for this is monoamniotic twins.
paired tubes that are connected to the uterus and terminate near the
- They’re often called MoMo twins. ovaries; this is where fertilization takes place
DIZYGOTIC OVARIES

- Sometimes a woman’s ovaries release two eggs, and two separate Female gonads that release the oocytes during ovulation, which are then
sperm fertilize each egg. caught by the fimbrae of the fallopian tubes in order for the oocytes to
- Means two zygotes pass on to the fallopian tubes
- Also termed as fraternal twins or non- identical twins
 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT corresponds to the early part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days
1-5) when endometrium degenerates and sloughs off, producing the
I. FERTILIZATION menstrual discharge
Occurs in the fallopian tube; results in a unicellular zygote PROLIFERATIVE PHASE
II. CLEAVAGE corresponds to the latter part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days
8-14) when the endometrium heals and begins to thicken as a
Also takes place in the fallopian tube after fertilization consequence of estrogen secretion
MORULA SECRETORY PHRASE
A human blastula made up of a solid ball of cells corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovaries;
BLASTOCYST the endometrium undergoes final changes before it receives the embryo
during implantation
A human blastula composed of the inner cell mass, which becomes the
embryo, and the trophoectoderm, which becomes the placenta CONTRACEPTION & ITS TYPES
IV. IMPLANTATION CONTRACEPTION
Attachment of blastocyst to endometrium of uterus; - Process that blocks any one of the following stages of reproduction in
humans:
Process where the blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium; this
signals the start of pregnancy (1) release and transport of gametes;
V. GESTATION (2) fertilization;
Differentiate embryonic development from fetal development in terms of (3) implantation;
period
covered during gestation (4) actual completion of development of the embryo/fetus
Carrying of the embryo inside the female reproductive tract, specifically I. Ovulation
the uterus; can last up to 9 months in humans
- Suppressing methods
HUMAN EMBRYO
- Type of contraception that prevents the oocyte to mature
Corresponds to the first two months of gestation
Oral Contraceptives
HUMAN FETUS
- Type of contraception taken in by women to prevent them from
Corresponds to the months 3-9 of human gestation ovulating
MENSTRUAL CYCLE II. Barrier methods
I. OVARIAN CYCLE - Type of contraception that prevents fertilization
FOLLICULAR PHASE PHYSICAL

follicles begin to mature; CONDOM

it is marked by secretions of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
the leutinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary gland and the
estrogen by the ovaries;
both FSH and LH stimulate the maturation of the oocytes while estrogen
stimulates uterine lining growth in preparation for implantation of the
embryo
- Type of barrier method that is inserted on the male penis to prevent
release of sperm into the female reproductive tract
DIAPHRAGM
- Type of barrier method that blocks the cervix, thereby preventing the
passage of the sperm into the uterus

OVULATION PHASE - Made of soft silicone

the release of eggs from the ovaries. CERVICAL CAP

In humans, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and - Type of barrier method that covers the cervix and blocks passage of the
release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. sperm into the uterus

LUTEAL PHASE - Made of soft rubber

after the oocytes are released from the follicles; III. CHEMICAL

the remains of the follicle become the corpus luteum, - Spermicidal jelly and foam
- Type of barrier method that kills the sperm on contact; they are
which then secretes progesterone, placed inside the vaginal canal
which stimulates the uterus to undergo final maturational changes that IV. SURGICAL METHODS
prepare it for gestation to house and nourish an embryo
special type of contraception preventing fertilization that involves surgery
II. UTERINE CYCLE

Menstrual phase VASECTOMY

Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; also known as the “period”; Type of surgical method for men; entails cutting the vas deferens
TUBAL LIGATION III. DIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE

Type of surgical method for women; entails cutting the fallopian tubes Type of life cycle found in flowering plants (and in most animals).

V. IMPLANTATION-SUPPRESSING METHODS The organism is in the diploid stage ( all cells are diploid in chromosome
number) except for mature, haploid sex cells which are called gametes.
Type of contraception that prevents the blastocyst from being implanted
in the endometrium Gametophyte

IUD (INTRA-UTERINE DEVISE) Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid;

Type of implantation-suppressing method that physically blocks the
blastocyst form implanting into the endometrium
MORNING-AFTER PILL
Type of implantation-suppressing method that blocks the action of
hormones that prepare the uterus to receive the embryo
VI. OTHERS:
stage that produces gametes via mitosis;
these gametes fuse to form a zygote that develops into a sporophyte
Sporophyte
Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is diploid; it is the most recognizable
structure in most flowering plants; it produces haploid spores by meiosis
in structures called sporangia

ABORTION LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS

Type of contraception that involves the deliberate removal of the Angiosperms

embryo/fetus before it completes gestation
Also known as flowering plants;
COITUS INTERRUPTUS
group of plants that produce reproductive structures called flowers in
Type of contraception that requires the man to remove the penis before their sporophyte stages
ejaculation
THE FLOWER
ABSTINENCE
Reproductive structure in flowering plants; made up of four major whorls.
Type of contraception where the man and the woman do not engage in
sexual intercourse The four major whorls

LESSON 17.3: COMPARE AND CONTRAST A. Sepals

PROCESS IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
The outermost whorls of a flower; collectively called the calyx
LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS
B. Petals
The mature, multicellular organism is a diploid sporophyte.
Whorl inner to the sepals;
Later, some cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes which are
then released. may be brightly colored in some;

Gametes fuse and form the zygote which develops by mitosis to become collectively called the corolla
the multicellular diploid sporophyte.
C. Stamen
In some plants, the dominant part of the life cycle is a multicellular,
haploid gametophyte (all cells have a haploid chromosome number). Whorl inner to the petals;

Mitosis releases individual cells that can act like gametes (gamete are the male reproductive structure of the flower;
produced by mitosis).
bears the male sporangia (also known as microsporangia)
GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS
Anther - Part of the stamen that contains the microsporangia that
I. HAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE develops into pollen grains

Chara Filament - Part of the stamen that serves as the stalk of the anther

- is a multicellular green alga related to higher plants because it D. Carpels or Pistil

has both chlorophyll A and B and produce plant starch.
Innermost whorl of the flower; the female reproductive structure of the
- Its dominant stage is a multicellular haploid stage which
flower;
produces gametes that eventually fuse to form unicellular
zygotes. bears the female sporangia (also known as the megasporangia)
- Each zygote then undergoes meiosis to become haploid, after
which it undergoes mitosis to become the multicellular Stigma
organism.
- - Part of the pistil where the pollen grain derived from the
II. HAPLODIPONTIC LIFE CYCLE microsporangium attaches during pollination

Moss Style

- has a multicellular haploid (gametophyte) stage that produces - Part of the pistil that serves as the stalk of the stigma;
gametes. These gametes fuse to produce a zygote that
undergoes mitosis to produce a multicellular sporophyte. - leads to the ovary
- Within a part of the sporophyte called the capsule, cells
undergo meiosis to produce meiospores. Ovary
- These spores are eventually released and germinate by
dividing mitotically to become a multicellular gametophyte. - Found at the base of the pistil;

- contains one or more ovules;

- eventually becomes the fruit pollen tube elongates along the style and penetrates the ovule in the
ovary via the micropyle (an opening)
Ovule
pollen tube discharges the sperm cells into the embryo sac inside the
- Contains the female sporangia or megasporangia; ovule one sperm unites with the egg to form the zygote
- eventually becomes the seed while the other sperm fuses with the polar nuclei to become the
endosperm, which serves as food of the early embryo
II. TYPES OF FLOWERS BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF THE
WHORLS IV. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT (EMBRYOGENESIS)
A. Complete Zygote divides mitotically to produce the proembryo and suspensor,
which anchors the proembryo and transfers nutrients from the parent
A flower with sepals, petals, stamens and carpels plant to it cotyledons appear on the proembryo (monocots have only one
cotyledon whereas dicots have two) proembryo elongates into an
B. Incomplete embryo.
A flower that lacks one or more of the floral whorls Embryo sac
PLANT TYPES BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF REPRODUCTIVE The female gametophyte found inside the ovule;
STRUCTURES:
derived from the megasporocyte inside the megasporangia;
MONOECIOUS PLANT
a mature embryo sac contains 8 nuclei.
A plant having perfect flowers or both staminate and carpellate flowers
on the same individual Eventually, these nuclei become enveloped by membranes to become
real cells.
DIOECIOUS PLANT
These are the one egg cell; two synergids that flank the egg;
A plant having only either the staminate or carpellate flower
two polar cells that are often fused;

and three antipodals opposite the synergids and egg.

DEVELOPMENT IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Micropyle
I. GAMETOPHYTE - Development through gametogenesis
The opening through the integuments of the ovule that surrounds the
A. Male gametophyte embryo sac;
The microsporangium in the anther contains numerous microsporocytes. this is where the pollen tube enters in order to reach the embryo sac
Each microsporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid V. MATURATION OF OVARY AND OVULE
microspores each microspore develops into a pollen grain (containing
two sperm nuclei and one tube nucleus) Ovary matures into fruit while the ovule becomes the seed. The seed
may become dormant for some time.
B. Female gametophyte
VI. SEED GERMINATION
The megasporangium in the ovule contains megasporocytes.
A. Transformation of seed to seedling
One megasporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid
megaspores three megaspores degenerate remaining megaspore B. Seed undergoes imbibition to break dormancy nutrients stored in
divides mitotically three times, an embryo sac with eight haploid nuclei the endosperm or cotyledons are digested and transferred to the
membranes partition to make the embryo sac multicellular growing regions of the embryo to primary meristems (protoderm,
ground meristem, procambium) develop to radicle emerges to
II. POLLINATION plumule breaks through the soil surface
The placement of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a i. Epigeal Germination
carpel
occurs when the cotyledon emerges above ground, thereby exposing the
A. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma hypocotyl of the plumule.
B. May be animal-aided or wind-aided ii. Hypogeal Germination
Pollen grain occurs when the cotyledon remains below ground, thereby concealing
the hypocotyl.
The immature male gametophyte that develops within the anthers of
stamens; VII. SEEDLING GROWTH TO MATURE PLANT
derived from the microsporocytes inside the microsporangia of anthers. Primary meristems differentiate to become the different plant tissues
Inside the mature pollen grain, there is a tube cell and a generative cell. Endosperm
The tube cell develops into the pollen tube as it enters the style and Part of the mature seed
eventually enters the micropyle of the ovule.
derived from the fusion of the sperm nucleus and the two polar nuclei of
The generative cell divides into two sperm nuclei and traverses the pollen the embryo sac.
tube
This becomes a nutritive tissue with triploid cells that serves to store food
III. DOUBLE FERTILIZATION for the developing embryo
Inside a pollen grain there is a tube cell and generative cell Zygote
generative cell divides to produce two sperm cells while the tube cell Part of the mature seed that forms as a result of the fusion of the egg and
becomes pollen tube one of the sperm nuclei
Cotyledon
Embryonic leaf that forms inside the seed
Monocot
A plant with only one cotyledon inside its seed (monocotyledonous)
Dicot
A plant with two cotyledons inside its seed (dicotyledonous)
Seed germination
Process that transforms a seed into a seedling
Imbibition
The first step in seed germination;
absorption of water
Radicle
Embryonic root that emerges from the seed
Plumule
Embryonic shoot that emerges from the seed and breaks through the soil
surface
Epicotyl
Part of the plumule above the cotyledon
Hypocotyl
Part of the plumule below the cotyledon
LESSON 18: NUTRITION
PLANT NUTRITION
Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and
maintenance of an organism. The two
types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals
to produce their own food. Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain
their energy from other organisms. Examples: animals, fungi
the nutritional requirements of plants:
A. water
B. carbon dioxide
Further, note that water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials needed
for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the energy from
sunlight into chemical energy.
C. essential nutrients or elements – which include macronutrients which
are normally required in amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight;
and micronutrients which are required in minute or trace amounts;
D. examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
E. examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo
the routes for the absorption of water and minerals across plant
roots:
A. symplast route – through plasmodesmata
B. apoplast route – along cell walls
Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting
tissues of plants, specifically the xylem.
Specialized absorptive structures:
A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that
greatly increase the surface area available for absorption.
B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where
bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant
fix nitrogen and in turn, the bacteria are able to utilize some organic
compounds provided by the plant.
C. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between
a young root and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-
containing compounds from root cells while the plant is able to get some
scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to absorb from the soil.
Nutritional adaptation by plants:
A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
C. Parasitism
D. Predation
ANIMAL NUTRITION
The concept of calories from food -is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2
lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF). The greater the number of Calories in a
quantity of food, the greater energy it contains (Johnson and Raven,
1996).
The following are the nutritional requirements of animals:
Carbs – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These
are usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables.
On average, carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.
Protein – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly
uses these as building materials for cell structures and as enzymes,
hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. Proteins come from dairy
products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins
also contain 4 Calories per gram.
Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other
cellular structures; also used to insulate nervous tissue, and also serve
as an energy source. Fats also contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that
are important for good health. Fats are obtained from oils, margarine,
butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a
higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins, about
9 Calories per gram.
TIPS: Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are energy-rich compounds
present in food. The energy in food is stored in its chemical bonds.
As body cells break the chemical bonds, energy is harvested to
make ATP.
Essential Nutrients– include substances that animals can only get from
the foods they eat because they could not be synthesized inside the
body. These include:
Essential Amino Acids– needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes;
among the 20 amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans:
lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine and valine.
Essential Fatty Acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an
example is linoleic acid in humans.
Vitamin– organic molecules required in small amounts for normal
metabolism; examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-
soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, C.
Trace Elements – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute
amounts; these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids;
examples include iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese,
selenium.
TIPIS: Essential amino acids, vitamins, and trace elements are
important substances for good health. Essential amino acids serve
as building blocks for proteins, while vitamins and trace elements
are necessary for many cellular chemical reactions.
THREE TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles
derived from the plasma membrane. (Takes in fluids and solute)
Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, eg.
Pseudopod formation in Amoeba. (Takes in larger substances
(bacteria))
Receptor- Mediated Endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor
recognition of specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell via
receptor-coated pits. (is a process by which cells absorb molecules
by using receptor proteins)
The Different Types of Animals Based on Feeding Mechanisms:
Fluid Feeders – Suck nutrient-rich fluid from host
Deposit Feeders – Sift through dirt and other deposits for food
Suspension Feeders (Filter feeders) – Filter food from their water, so
have to be aquatic animals
Substrate Feeders – Live on their food source and eat through it
Bulk Feeders – Eat large amounts and pieces, most animals are bulk
feeders
Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals:
Digestion in Unicellular Organisms – is intracellular in
unicellular organisms. Food is taken by phagocytosis. Food
vacuole then unites with the primary lysosome to form
secondary lysosome. Food molecules are broken down by
hydrolytic enzymes. Undigested materials are thrown out of the
cell by exocytosis.
Incomplete Digestive System -composed of a single opening
through which food is taken in and where wastes are disposed
of; it is a sac-like body cavity. Examples: in the cnidarian Hydra
and in flatworm Planaria.
Complete Digestive System– essentially like a tube with an
opening at one end for taking in food (mouth) and an opening
at the other end where unabsorbed waste materials are
eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are
specialized organs that carry out transport, processing, and
absorption of digested nutrients.
Describe the accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive
system:
I. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.
II. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver.
III. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food
molecules; secretes buffers against HCl from the stomach; secretes the
hormone insulin for control of glucose metabolism.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MAIN STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING
 INGESTION – the act of eating or feeding ; mechanical
breakdown of food into smaller pieces of allowing for a greater
surface area for chemical digestion.
 DIGESTION – breakdown of food into particles, then into
nutrient molecules small enough to be chemical digestion by
enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the
addition of water (enzymatic hydrolysis).
 ABSORPTION – passage of digested nutrients and fluid
across the tube wall and into the body fluids ; the cells take up
(absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and simple
sugars.
 ELIMINATION – expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed
materials from the end of the gut.
ORGANS INVOLVED IN FOOD PROCESSING
A. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
 Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially chewed into shreds by
the teeth, and mixed with saliva by the tongue.
 Pharynx – serves as the entrance to the esophagus that
connects to the stomach and trachea that also serves as
airway to the lungs.
 Esophagus – connects the pharynx with the stomach ; it is
about 10 inches long.
B. The Stomach
The stomach is a muscular, stretchable sac located just below
the diaphragm.
THREE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH:
 Mixes and stores ingested food
 Secretes gastric juice that helps dissolve and degrade the food
 Regulates the passage of food into the small intestine.
The gastric juice is a combination of HCL and acid- stable
proteases. The churning action of the stomach together with the potent
acidity of the gastric juice convert food into a thick, liquid mixture called
chyme.
C. Small Intestine
The small intestine is approximately 6 meters long and is
composed of three regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
 It is where most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules
from food occurs. The complete digestion of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins occurs in the duodenum, about the first 25
cm of the small intestine.
 Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the
ileum, the surface area of which is increased by villi and
microvilli.
 The rest of the small intestine is devoted to absorbing water
and the products of digestion into the bloodstream.
D. The Accessory Digestive Organs
 Pancreas – produces and secretes pancreatic juice,
containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small
intestines.
 Liver – produces bile which emulsifies fat
 Gallbladder – stores bile and introduces it into small intestines
E. The Large Intestines or Colon
The large intestine is much shorter than the small intestine, about 1
meter.
 It concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing
mineral ions and water. A small amount of fluid, sodium, and
vitamin K are absorbed through its walls.
 Unlike the small intestine, it does not coil up and does not have
villi and has only one-thirtieth of the absorptive surface of area
of the small intestine.
 Many bacteria live and thrive within the large intestine where
they help process undigested material into the final excretory
product (feces).
F. The Rectum and Anus
The rectum is a short extension of the large intestine and is the
final segment of the digestive tract. It is where the compacted undigested
food from the colon are pushed via peristaltic contractions. The anus is
the terminal opening of the digestive system through which feces are
expelled. The distention of the rectum triggers expulsion of feces.
THE MECHANISMS OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
 Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but
could not continue in the stomach due to the acidic pH that
 destroys the amylase. It resumes in the small intestine where
the resulting monosaccharides are absorbed.
 Proteins are digested in the stomach and small
intestine. Resulting amino acids are absorbed in the small
intestine where they leave the intestinal cell and enter the
blood through a facilitated diffusion carrier in the plasma
membranes on the opposite side.
.
 Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine.
Although fatty acids and monoglycerides enter epithelial cells
from the intestinal lumen, it is triglycerides that are released on
the other side of the cell and carried by blood capillaries to be
transported throughout the body.
 Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by
diffusion or active transport. Fat-soluble vitamins follow the
pathway for fat absorption.
HOW NUTRIENTS ARE DELIVERED INTO CELLS
 Substances pass through the brush border cells that line the
free surface of each villus by active transport, osmosis, and
diffusion across the lipid bilayer of plasma membranes.
 The nutrients then proceed into the internal environment and
pass to the blood which is collected into the hepatic vein
leading into the liver.
 After flowing through the liver, the blood carrying the nutrients
passes into the hepatic vein which carriers the blood back to
the heart to be distributed to the different body tissues.
REGULATION OF DIGESTION
The digestive system of animals is regulated in part by other organ
systems, especially the nervous and endocrine systems.
The nervous system exerts control on the digestive system in two ways:
a. Regulation of muscular and glandular activity by the local
nerves in the alimentary canal; and
b. Long- distance regulation by the brain
Hormones regulate the rate of digestion.
LESSON 19: GAS EXCHANGE
• What is Gas Exchange?
 It is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream,
and the elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to
the lungs.
 It is often called respiratory exchange or respiration but it
should not be confused with cellular respiration
 Oxygen is needed in tissues for aerobic cellular respiration to
occur and extract ATP from food
 Carbon dioxide must be release to prevent physiological pH in
tissues from being very acidic. In plant however, the carbon
dioxide that is released as a by product of cellular respiration
may again be taken up for the process of photosynthesis
 Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves. They
require oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.
 Respiratory Surface
 Large animals cannot maintain gas exchange by
diffusion across their outer surface. They developed a
variety of respiratory surfaces that all increase the
surface area for exchange, thus allowing for larger
bodies. A respiratory surface is covered with thin,
moist epithelial cells that allow oxygen and carbon
dioxide to exchange. Those gases can only cross cell
membranes when they are dissolved in water or an
aqueous solution, thus respiratory surfaces must be
moist
 Respiration systems rely on the diffusion of gasses down
pressure gradients
 Diffusion is a process in which transport is driven by
a concentration gradient. Gas molecules move from a
region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
 Partial pressure for each gas in the atmosphere can be
computed.
 Partial pressure is a measure of the concentration of
the individual components in a mixture of gases. The
total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of the
partial pressures of the components in the mixture.
The rate of diffusion of a gas is proportional to its
partial pressure within the total gas mixture.
 Fick's Law describes the relationship between the rate of
diffusion and the three factors that affect diffusion. It states that
'the rate of diffusion is proportional to both the surface area and
concentration difference and is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the membrane'
 Surface to volume ratio
 The surface area to volume ratio of a cell must be
such that the cell membrane has enough surface
area to adequately serve the internal contents
(volume) of the cell, including the adequate exchange
of gases.
 As the cell grows, its surface area to volume ratio
decreases, reducing the rate of gas exchange. This is
because as the surface to volume ratio decreases,
there is not enough surface area (cell membrane) for
adequate gas exchange to occur in order to serve the
needs of the internal contents (volume) of the cell.
 As a animal grows, the surface are increases at a
lesser rate than its volume, making diffusion of gases
into the interior more difficult.
 As the cell size increases, the surface area/volume ratio
decreases. The cell needs this ratio to be high to ensure it can
perform gas exchange at the necessary rate.
 Ventilation and Perfusion
 Two important aspects of gas exchange in the lung
are ventilation and perfusion. Ventilation is the
movement of air into and out of the lungs, and
perfusion is the flow of blood in the pulmonary
capillaries. For gas exchange to be efficient, the
volumes involved in ventilation and perfusion should
be compatible. However, factors such as regional
gravity effects on blood, blocked alveolar ducts, or
disease can cause ventilation and perfusion to be
imbalanced
• Structures for Gas Exchange in Plants
 Palisade cells are plant cells located on the leaves, right below
the epidermis and cuticle. They are vertically elongated, a
different shape from the spongy
 Mesophyll cells beneath them in the leaf. Their chloroplasts
absorb a major portion of the light energy used by the leaf.
 Spongy mesophyll allow for the interchange of gases (CO2)
that are needed for photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll
cells are less likely to go through photosynthesis than those in
the palisade mesophyll.
  Stomata are tiny openings or pores in plant tissue that allow
for gas exchange. Stomata are typically found in plant
leaves but can also be found in some stems.
 Guard cells are cells surrounding each stoma. They help to
regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the
stomata
 Upper epidermis refers to a single layer of cells on the upper
surface of the leaf, which aids the. water conservation.
 Lower epidermis refers to a single layer of cells on
the lower surface of the leaf, which contains. stomata and guard
cells.
 Vascular bundles are a collection of tube-like tissues that flow
through plants, transporting critical substances to various parts
of the plant
 Xylem transports water and nutrients
 Phloem transports organic molecules, and cambium is involved
in plant growth.
 Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic
algae that conduct photosynthesis.
 Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction
with water and carbon dioxide gas to produce food for
the plant.
 Waxy cuticle a waxy layer known as the cuticle covers the
leaves of all plant species. The cuticle reduces the rate of
water loss from the leaf surface
 lenticels in stems
 A lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells with
large intercellular spaces in the periderm of the
secondarily thickened organs and the bark of woody
stems and roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants.
The shape of lenticels is one of the characteristics
used for tree identification
 Root hairs in aerial roots
 Aerial roots are roots that are exposed to the air all
or most the time. They serve the same purposes
as roots in the ground, but some of them also have
chlorophyll and can photosynthesize. Aerial
roots are a type of adventitious root, and they grow
from the plant stem or leaf tissues
 Pneumatophores or the lateral roots of
mangroves
 Pneumatophores are specialized root structures
that grow out from the water surface and facilitate the
aeration necessary for root respiration in hydrophytic
trees such as many mangrove species (e.g.,
Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia raecemosa),
bald cypresses, and cotton (tupelo) gum (Nyssa
aquatica).
Respiratory Surfaces or Organs in Invertebrates
 Cell membrane
 Cell Membrane is the thin layer that forms
the outer boundary of a living cell or of an
internal cell compartment. The outer
boundary is the plasma membrane, and the
compartments enclosed by internal
membranes are called organelles.
 Integumentary exchange
 It distinguishes, separates, and protects
the organism from its surroundings. Small-
bodied invertebrates of aquatic or
continually moist habitats respire using the
outer layer (integument).
 External gills
 used by invertebrates that live in aquatic habitats;
gills are highly folded, thin-walled, vascularized
epidermis that projected outward from the body
 Tracheal System in arthropods
 Unlike most animals the arthropods have no single
major respiratory organ. The respiratory system of
most terrestrial arthropods consists of small branched
cuticle lined air ducts called tracheae
 Air passes into the tracheae by way of specialized
openings in the exoskeleton called spiracles.
 Most terrestrial arthropods have a highly efficient
tracheal system of air tubes, which delivers oxygen
directly to the tissues and cells and makes a high
metabolic rate possible during periods of intense
activity. 'His system also tends to limit body size.
Aquatic arthropods breathe mainly by some form of
internal or external gill system.
 External Gills
 Fish and some amphibians respire primarily with gills.
Gills are comprised of highly vascular structures, with
their outer surfaces thrown into thin folds or narrow
filaments to increase the surface area for the
exchange of oxygen between the water and the blood.
 These gill structures develop entirely from the
pharyngeal arch complex. Blood is supplied through
the aortic arches that pass through each pharyngeal
arch.
 The aortic arches branch to form the afferent brachial
arteries and the capillary network in the gills.
Oxygenated blood comes from the gills through
efferent brachial arteries which supply the dossal
aorta; the vessel which is the primary supply of
oxygenated blood to the body.
 Internal gills
 Gills are very efficient at removing oxygen from water:
there is only 1/20 the amount of oxygen present in
water as in the same volume of air. Water flows over
gills in one direction while blood flows in the opposite
direction through gill capillaries. This countercurrent
flow maximizes oxygen transfer.
 Lungs
 Lungs are ingrowths of the body wall and connect to
the outside by as series of tubes and small openings.
Lung breathing probably evolved about 400 million
years ago. Lungs are not entirely the sole property of
vertebrates, some terrestrial snails have a gas
exchange structures similar to those in frogs.
 Terrestrial vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, birds,
and mammals) use a pair of lungs to exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide between their tissues and the air.
 The frog's lungs are a pair of thin-walled sacs connected to the
mouth through an opening, the glottis. The surface area of the
lungs is increased by inner partitions which are richly supplied
with blood vessels. The frog inflates its lungs by
 filling its mouth with air
 then closing its mouth
 closing the internal openings to its nostrils
 opening its glottis
  Raising the floor of its mouth thus forcing air into the
lungs.
 Reptile Lungs
 The skin of reptiles is dry and scaly, so they can live in arid
locations (although many do not). However, they cannot use
their skin as an organ of gas exchange. Reptiles depend entirely
on their lungs for this.
 Their lungs are considerably more efficient than those of
amphibians
 They have a much greater surface area for the
exchange of gases.
 They are inflated and deflated by the bellows like
expansion and contraction of the rib cage.
 Bird Lungs
 Unlike reptiles, birds are homeothermic ("warm
blooded"), maintaining a constant body temperature
(usually around 40°C) despite wide fluctuations in the
temperature of their surroundings. They maintain their
body temperature with the heat produced by muscular
activity. This depends, in turn, on a high rate
of cellular respiration. So the demands on the gas-
exchange efficiency of the lungs of a small, active bird
are great.
 Mammalian Lungs
 Ventilation of mammalian lungs is assisted by
the diaphragm - a muscular partition that divides the
thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
 In Lungs:
 Air moves by bulk flow into and out of the lung
 Gases diffuses across the inner respiratory surface of the lungs
 Pulmonary circulation allows the diffusion of dissolved gases
across lung capillaries
 In body tissues, oxygen diffuses from blood to interstitial fluid to
cells, the pathway of the carbon dioxide is in reverse
 All lungs receive deoxygenated blood from the heart and return
oxygenated blood to the heart
 Fish
 A number of fishes depend in varying degree on aerial
respiration. The ability to breathe air enables them to
live in places where the oxygen content of water may
be low or nil. Two general means of acquiring oxygen
are employed. Some fishes stay near the surface of
the water, where the oxygen pressure resulting from
surface diffusion is highest. Others have
developed ancillary respiratory structures in the
pharynx or the stomach; the gulping of air at the
surface is a means of charging these respiratory
surfaces (such as the pharyngeal epithelium
in Electrophorus or the stomach in Plecostomus).
The frequency with which these fishes rise to the
surface to gulp air corresponds to their current need
for oxygen.
 Amphibians
 The mechanism of lung inflation in amphibians is the
buccal cavity (mouth-throat) pumping mechanism that
also functions in air-breathing fishes. To produce
inspiration, the floor of the mouth is depressed,
causing air to be drawn into the buccal cavity through
the nostrils. The nostrils are then closed, and the floor
of the mouth is elevated. This creates a positive
pressure in the mouth cavity and drives air into the
lungs through the open glottis.
 Birds
 Birds must be capable of high rates of gas exchange
because their oxygen consumption at rest is higher
than that of all other vertebrates, including mammals,
and it increases many times during flight. The gas
volume of the bird lung is small compared with that of
mammals, but the lung is connected to voluminous air
sacs by a series of tubes, making the total volume of
the respiratory system about twice that of mammals
of comparable size.
 Reptiles
 The breathing patterns of most reptiles are not
regular, usually consisting of a series of active
inspirations and expirations followed by relatively long
pauses. In aquatic reptiles diving occurs during these
pauses, which may last an hour or more in some
turtles and aquatic snakes. Even terrestrial reptiles
show intermittent periods of breathing and breath
holding. The metabolic rate of most reptiles is one-fifth
to one-tenth that of birds or mammals, and constant
lung ventilation is unnecessary in most reptiles.
 Mammals
 To provide the gas exchange necessary to support
the elevated metabolic rate of mammals, mammalian
lungs are subdivided internally. The repetitive
subdivisions of the lung airways provide gas to the
tiny alveoli (gas sacs) that form the functional gas-
exchange surface area of the lungs. Human lungs
have an estimated 300,000,000 alveoli, providing in
an adult a total surface area approximately equivalent
to a tennis court.
• Coordination of Gas Exchange and Blood Circulation
 Blood plays an important role in your body since is the fuel that
keeps you going. Oxygenated blood is brought to organs and
tissues via the arteries, while veins bring deoxygenated blood
back to the heart to be replenished. The point is, without the
respiratory system your blood would be useless.
 The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to
circulate blood and oxygen throughout the body. Air moves in
and out of the lungs through the trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles. Blood moves in and out of the lungs through the
pulmonary arteries and veins that connect to the heart.
 The pulmonary vessels operate backwards from the rest of the
body's vasculature. For example, the pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle into the alveolar
capillaries of the heart to the lungs. These are the only arteries
that carry deoxygenated blood, and are considered arteries
because they carry blood away from the heart. The pulmonary
veins carry oxygenated blood back to the left atrium of the heart
to be distributed to the body.
• Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
 Carbon dioxide molecules are transported in the blood from
body tissues to the lungs by one of three methods: dissolution
directly into the blood, binding to hemoglobin, or carried as a
bicarbonate ion. Several properties of carbon dioxide in the
blood affect its transport. First, carbon dioxide is more soluble in
blood than oxygen. About 5 to 7 percent of all carbon dioxide is
dissolved in the plasma. Second, carbon dioxide can bind to
plasma proteins or can enter red blood cells and bind to
hemoglobin. This form transports about 10 percent of the carbon
dioxide. When carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin, a molecule
called carbaminohemoglobin is formed.
• Control of Respiration in Vertebrates
 The nervous system controls oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
for the entire body by regulating the rate and depth of breathing
  The brain monitors the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid through  It is not curable, but there are treatments that can help you
sensors (reflecting carbon dioxide concentration in the blood ) manage the disease

 Pneumonia
 Secondary is control is exerted by sensors in the aorta and
carotid arteries that monitors blood levels of oxygen as well as  is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both
carbon dioxide lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent
material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever,
• Respiratory adaptations to extreme conditions such as low chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms,
oxygen environment including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause
pneumonia.
 Respiratory acclimatization in humans is achieved through
mechanisms that heighten the partial pressure of oxygen at all LESSON 20: TRANSPORT & CIRCULATION
stages, from the alveolar spaces in the lung to the mitochondria
in the cells, where oxygen is needed for the ultimate biochemical Plant Transport
expression of respiration.
Vascular tissues: xylem and phloem
 The decline in the ambient partial pressure of oxygen is offset to
some extent by greater ventilation, which takes the form of • Xylem
deeper breathing rather than a faster rate at rest.
• Tracheids
 Diffusion of oxygen across the alveolar walls into • Vessel elements
the blood is facilitated, and in some experimental animal • Parenchyma cells
studies, the alveolar walls are thinner at altitude than at sea • Fiber
level. The scarcity of oxygen at high altitudes stimulates • Phloem
increased production of hemoglobin and red blood cells, which
increases the amount of oxygen transported to the tissues.. • Sieve-tube members
• Companion cells
 The extra oxygen is released by increased levels of • Sclerenchyma fibers
inorganic phosphates in the red blood cells, such as 2,3- • Parenchyma cells
diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG). With a prolonged stay at • Both are continuous throughout the plant body
altitude, the tissues develop more blood vessels, and,
as capillary density is increased, the length of the diffusion path Water transport in 3 parts
along which gases must pass is decreased—a factor
• Transpiration (or evapo-transpiration) is the transport of water
augmenting gas exchange. In addition, the size of muscle fibres
and minerals from roots to leaves. It involves three basic steps:
decreases, which also shortens the diffusion path of oxygen
• Absorption at the roots.
• Capillary action in the xylem vessels.
• Evaporation at the leaf.
Transport occurs on three levels
• Respiratory problems and impact on public health
1. Uptake and release of water and solutes by individual cells
 Asthma 2. Short-distance transport of substances by tissues and organs
3. Long-distance transport of minerals in water and sap within
 is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways xylem and phloem by the whole plant body
characterized by episodes of reversible breathing Transport of ions at the cellular level depends on selectively
problems due to airway narrowing and obstruction. permeable membranes
These episodes can range in severity from mild to life
threatening  Controls the movement of solutes into and out of the cell
 With specific transport proteins
 COPD(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease)  Enable plant cells to maintain an internal environment different
from their surroundings
 is a preventable and treatable disease characterized Part 1: Roots
by airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The
airflow limitation is usually progressive and • Roots absorb water and minerals in a 4-step process:
associated with an abnormal inflammatory response
of the lungs to noxious particles or gases (typically • Active transport of minerals into root hairs.
from exposure to cigarette smoke).4 Treatment can • Diffusion to the pericyclic.
lessen symptoms and improve quality of life for those • Active transport into the vascular cylinder.
with COPD. • Diffusion into the xylem.
• Pressure differences created by transpiration draws water out
 Emphysema of the roots and up the stems.
• This creates lower water pressure in the roots, which draws in
 Emphysema is one of the diseases that more water.
comprises COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary Kasparian Strip
disease). Emphysema involves gradual damage of • The Kasparian strip controls water movement into the vascular
lung tissue, specifically thinning and destruction of the cylinder of the root.
alveoli or air sacs. • Water cannot move between cells. It must move through the
cells by osmosis.
Key Facts Microbial helpers
• Microbes in the soil help plants absorb nutrients:
 Air sacs are destroyed in emphysema, making it progressively - Mycorrhiza fungi help absorb minerals by
difficult to breathe. extending the surface area over which
minerals are absorbed.
 Emphysema is usually accompanied by chronic bronchitis, with - Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules
almost-daily or daily cough and phlegm. help plants acquire nitrogen.
- N-fixing bacteria are associated mostly
 Cigarette smoking is the major cause of emphysema.
with legumes and alder trees.
 People with emphysema experience shortness of breath with
activities
 Step 2: Capillary action
• Cohesion: polar water molecules tend to stick together with
hydrogen bonds.
• Adhesion: water molecules tend to stick to polar surfaces.
• Cohesion and adhesion cause water to “crawl” up narrow
tubes. The narrower the tube the higher the same mass of
water can climb.
• Maximum height: 32 feet.
Cohesion-tension theory
• Cohesion between water molecules creates a “water chain”
effect.
• As molecules are removed from the column by evaporation in
the leaf, more are drawn up.
Part 3: Evaporation
• Evaporation at the surface of the leaf keeps the water column
moving.
• This is the strongest force involved in transpiration.
Stomata control
• Guard cells around the stomata are sensitive to light, CO2, and
water loss.
• Cells expand in response to light and low CO2 levels, and
collapse in response to water loss.
Stomata help regulate the rate of transpiration
Leaves – broad surface areas
• Increase photosynthesis
• Increase water loss through stomata (transpiration)
Stomata
• When stomata are open, evaporation draws water out of the
leaf. Gas exchange can also occur to keep photosynthesis and
respiration running.
• When stomata are closed, evaporation cannot occur, nor can
gas exchange. Photosynthesis and transpiration slow down.
• Organic nutrients are translocated through the phloem
(Pressure – Flow model)
• Translocation – transport of organic molecules in the plant
• Phloem sap
• Mostly sucrose
• Sugar source  sugar sink
• Source is a producer of sugar
• Sink is a consumer/storage facility for sugar
Phloem
• Phloem tissue transports sap (water and sugar) from “source”
to “sink.”
• Phloem vessels are live at maturity, but need companion cells.
Source and Sink
• Source: where the sugar starts its journey (either where it is
produced or stored).
• Sink: where sugar ends up (either where it is needed or will be
stored).
Xylem
• Xylem tissue transports water from roots to leaves.
• Xylem vessels are dead at maturity.
Pressure
1. high solute concentration at source
2. increase in hydrostatic pressure
3. sugars in sink draw water out of phloem
ANIMAL CIRCULATION
FISH CIRCULATION
• a fish heart has two chambers, one atrium and one
ventricle.
• ‘single-loop circulation” results in lower blood pressure
in the body capillaries
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
• SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION – delivers blood to all body cells
and carries away waste.
• PULMONARY CIRCULATION- eliminates carbon dioxide and
oxygenates blood (lung pathway)
FOUR MAJOR VALVES OF THE HEART
• Aortic Semilunar valves – act to prevent backflow of blood
from the arteries to the ventricles during ventricular diastole
and help maintain pressure on the major arteries.
- it separates the left ventricle from the
opening of the aorta.
• Tricuspid valve- the valve that separates the right atrium from
the right ventricle and prevents blood from flowing back into
the right atrium during contraction of the ventricle.
• Pulmonary semilunar valves- it causes blood to flow in only
one direction through the heart and blood vessels.
• Bicuspid valve- it permits blood to flow one way only, from the
left atrium into the left ventricle.
•
LESSON 21: REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS
Key Terms we should remember…
• Internal Environment- the fluid environment that bathes the
cells (extracellular fluid) composed of the interstitial fluid and
blood.
• Osmolarity- solute concentration expressed in milliosmoles
per liter of solution (mOsm/L)
• Osmosis- the movement of water from a region of higher
osmolarity to a region of lower osmolarity across a selectively
permeable membrane.
• Osmoregulation- the regulation of water and ion balance.
• Excretion- the elimination of metabolic wastes including
nitrogenous wastes produced from the breakdown of proteins;
this process also helps in the regulation of water and ion
balance.
TYPES OF ANIMALS BASED ON THE OSMOLARITY OF
THEIR BODY FLUIDS IN RELATION TO THE
ENVIRONMENT
I. Osmoconformers – allow the osmolarity of their body fluids to match
that of the environment;
A. These include most marine invertebrates with body fluids that are
generally hyperosmotic to their surroundings
B. Because their bodies are isosmotic to seawater, they consume little or
no energy in maintaining water balance
II. Osmoregulators – keep the osmolarity of body fluids different from
that of the environment;
A. These include most marine vertebrates, birds, mammals
B. Either they discharge water in hypotonic environment or they take in
water in a hypertonic environment
Types of animals based on the
Osmolarity of their body fluids in relation to the environment
THREE TYPES OF NITROGENOUS WASTES EXCRETED
BY ANIMALS
I. Ammonia – the primary nitrogenous waste for aquatic invertebrates,
teleosts, and larval amphibians
A. It is readily soluble in water but is also highly toxic
B. It can be excreted from the body only in dilute solutions.
II. Urea – produced by mammals, most amphibians, some reptiles, some
marine fishes, and some terrestrial invertebrates
A. It is formed by combining ammonia with bicarbonate ion (HCO3 )̄ and
converting the product into urea
B. Although its formation requires more energy compared to ammonia, it
is about 100,000x less toxic than ammonia
C. Its excretion requires only about 10% as much water compared to
ammonia
III. Uric acid – excreted by birds, insects, and terrestrial reptiles
A. It is relatively nontoxic but more energetically expensive to produce
than urea
B. It is largely insoluble in water and it is excreted as a semisolid paste or
precipitate with very little water loss
 EXCRETORY SYSTEMS IN INVERTEBRATES
I. Cell surface or cell membrane – allows passage of wastes in
unicellular organisms
II. Contractile vacuole – a specialized cytoplasmic organelle in many
freshwater protists (e.g. Paramecium) that expels excess water out of the
cell to prevent lysis
III. Protonephridia or Flame Bulb System – network of tubules that
lack internal openings but have external openings at the body surface
called nephridiopores such as in the flatworm, Dugesia.
A. The smallest branches of the tubule network end with a large cell
called a flame bulb or cell
B. Water and solutes in body fluids enter the flame cell and get filtered
C. Specific molecules and ions are removed by reabsorption while other
ions and nitrogenous wastes are released into the tubule network and
excreted via the nephridiopore.
IV. Metanephridia – the excretory tubule of most annelids and adult
mollusks;
A. The tubular network has a funnel-like internal opening called a
nephrostome that collects body fluids
B. As the body fluids move through the network, some molecules and
ions are reabsorbed while other ions and nitrogenous wastes are
secreted into the tubule
C. The bladder stores the nitrogenous wastes as urine and later on
excreted from the body surface via the nephridiopore
V. Malpighian Tubules – the excretory tubules of insects and other
terrestrial arthropods attached to their digestive tract (midgut)
A. The tubules have ends that are immersed in the hemolymph
(circulatory fluid) while the distal ends empty into the gut
B. Malpighian tubules do not filter body fluids; instead they employ
secretion to generate the fluid for release from the body
C. In particular, they help actively secrete uric acid and ions like Na+ and
K+ into the tubules, allowing the water to move osmotically from the
hemolymph into the tubule
D. The fluid then passes into the hindgut (intestine and rectum) of the
insect as dilute urine
E. Reabsorption of ions and water occurs in the hindgut wall, causing
the formation of uric acid crystals that are released with the feces.
THE MAMMALIAN URINARY OR EXCRETORY SYSTEM
I. The mammalian urinary system consists of two kidneys, each with
a ureter, a tube leading to a urinary bladder (for storage), with an open
channel called urethra leading to the body surface.
II. The kidneys serve as specialized organs for osmoregulation and
excretion; they are composed
 of the following:
A. Renal capsule – the outer coat of connective tissue;
B. Cortex – the zone near the capsule consisting of blood
vessels and nephrons;
C. Medulla – inner zone also consisting of blood vessels and
nephrons;
D. Nephrons – the functional units of the kidney where urine is
formed; and
E. Renal pelvis – central cavity in the kidney where urine
coming from the nephrons is channeled before going to the ureter.
III. Each kidney contains about 1.3 M nephrons, approximately 80 km
long if connected end to end.
IV. About 1,600 liters of blood pass through the kidneys each day (300x
the blood volume); approximately 180 liters become filtrate but only about
1.5 liters of urine get excreted.
V. More than 99% of the water and almost all sugar, vitamins and other
organic nutrients are reabsorbed across the tubule epithelium.
THE COMPONENTS OF NEPHRONS – FUNCTIONAL UNITS
OF KIDNEYS
I. Nephrons generally have the following components:
A. Bowman’s capsule – an infolded region that encloses a ball of blood
capillaries called glomerulus where initial filtration of the blood plasma
occurs.
B. Renal tubules – receive and modify the glomerular filtrate; consist of
a proximal convoluted tubule, followed by a U-shaped loop of Henle, and
a distal convoluted tubule.
C. Peritubular capillaries – bring substances to and take substances
away from the renal tubules.
D. Collecting duct – receives the urine from the renal tubule leading to
the renal pelvis.
II. Nephrons filter and retain water and solutes, leaving concentrated
urine to be collected in the central renal pelvis.
III. The glomerulus serve as initial site for filtration and the glomerular
filtrate produced is directed into the Bowman’s capsule.
IV. The Bowman’s capsule collects the filtrate and directs it though the
continuous renal tubules: proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal
tubule → collecting duct → renal pelvis.
V. The peritubular capillaries exit the glomerulus, converge, then
branch again around the nephron tubules where they participate in
reclaiming water and essential solutes.
THE MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION IN MAMMALIAN
NEPHRONS
I. Urine formation involves three processes:
A. In filtration, blood pressure forces filtrate (water and small solutes)
out of the glomerular capillaries.
i. Blood cells, proteins, and other large solutes cannot pass the
capillary wall and they remain in the blood.
ii. Filtrate is collected by the Bowman’s capsule and funneled
into the proximal tubule.
B. During tubular reabsorption, useful materials such as salts, water,
glucose, and amino acids move out from the renal tubules and into
adjacent peritubular capillaries.
C. Tubular secretion results in movement of surplus hydrogen and
potassium ions, uric acid, toxins and other drugs from the blood into the
renal tubules.
II. There are several factors influencing filtration:
A. Blood enters the glomerulus under high pressure in order to facilitate
filtration; arterioles present in the glomerulus tend to have wider
diameters than most.
B. Glomerular capillaries are highly “leaky” to water and small solutes.
C. The volume of blood flow affects the rate of filtration.
THE REGULATION OF MAMMALIAN KIDNEY FUNCTION
I. Receptors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus function in the kidney’s
autoregulation system.
A. The receptors trigger constriction or dilation of the afferent arteriole to
keep blood flow and filtration constant during small variations in blood
pressure.
II. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) promotes water conservation.
A. It is secreted from the hypothalamus via the pituitary when
osmoreceptors detect an increase in the osmolarity of body fluids.
 B. It makes the walls of distal tubules and collecting ducts more
permeable to water, and thus the urine becomes more concentrated.
III. Aldosterone enhances sodium reabsorption.
A. When too much sodium is lost, extracellular fluid volume is reduced,
and pressure receptors detect corresponding drop in blood pressure.
B. In response, the kidney secretes an enzyme, renin, which indirectly
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, which in turn
stimulates reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting ducts.
IV. Cells in the hypothalamus thirst center inhibit saliva production and
stimulate the urge to drink when there is an increase in the solute
concentration in extracellular fluid.
ROLE OF THE KIDNEYS IN THE BODY’S ACID BASE BALANCE
I. Over-all acid-base balance is maintained by controlling hydrogen ions
through buffer systems, respiration, and excretion by the kidneys.
II. Only the urinary system can eliminate excess hydrogen ions,
permanently, and restore the bicarbonate buffering ions to the blood.
LESSON 22: IMMUNE SYSTEMS
LESSON 22.1
IMMUNITY
-the balanced state of multicellular organisms having adequate biological
defences to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion,
while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune
diseases.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
-is made up of special cells, proteins, tissues, and organs, defends people
against germs and microorganisms every day
2 TYPES OF IMMUNE SYSTEM:
1. INNATE
the innate immune response involves :
I. Barrier defenses like the skin, mucous membranes and
secretions. In humans and in most vertebrates, the skin
with other ectodermal derivatives is the first line of defense
against infection. That is why it is important to wash hands
with soap and water frequently. If there is an invading
pathogen like a virus (or bacteria or any foreign substance)
the body reacts through mucous secretions. Even the
saliva contains agents which are antimicrobial.
II. Internal defenses of the innate immune response consist
of phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial
proteins (interferons; the complement system) and the
inflammatory response (that involves histamines, mast
cells and cytokines).
2. ADAPTIVE
The adaptive immune response ( for vertebrates only ) involves
the recognition of traits specific to particular pathogens using a vast
array of receptors. The adaptive immune response is made possible
because of:
I. The Humoral response- production and secretion of
antibodies or immunoglobulins against specific antigens
(any foreign body/structure- pollen, bacteria, virus, dust).
Antibodies are produced by cells that secrete them in the
bloodstream or display them in the surface of some cells,
ready to face and combat any antigen.
II. Cell mediated response- occurs when cytotoxic cells
defend the body against infection. The development of B
and T cells, memory cells and plasma cells are important
aspects of cell mediated immune mechanism.
LESSON 22.2
ANTIBODIES
-The antibody response is best suited to combat pathogens that survive
outside of the cell,
such as bacteria, fungi, and some worms.
5 MAJOR TYPES OF ANTIBODIES
1. IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and
promotes endocytosis by macrophages.
2. IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of
the immune response and leads to neutralization and
destruction of pathogen.
3. IgA is the important antibody for the mucosal immune response.
It prevents pathogens from crossing the epithelium and entering
the blood system.
4. IgE activates mast cells and leads to the production of
histamine, which is why it is also associated with allergic
reactions.
5. IgD is an antibody that is still unclear at this point.
LESSON 22.3
T CELLS
-T cells (also called T lymphocytes) are one of the main components of the
adaptive immune system. They are vital in hosting an immune response
against pathogens.
-T cells play a major role in defence against intracellular pathogens such
as viruses, protozoa and intracellular bacteria, and in immunity to
extracellular pathogens by providing help for the antibody response.
PRODUCTION OF T CELLS
-T cells originate from haematopoietic stem cells which are produced in
the bone marrow. These stem cells then split into 2 progenitor groups,
myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells, the latter of which then differentiate
into T cells and B cells.
T cells then migrate to the thymus gland, in the anterior mediastinum, to
undergo the process of maturation. They enter the cortex and proliferate,
mature and pass onto the medulla of the thymus. From the medulla,
mature T cells enter the circulation. These mature T cells are now capable
of responding to antigens in the periphery.
The thymus shrinks as we age and so provides fewer T cells over time. As
such, the older a person becomes, the more important T cell expansion in
the periphery becomes in providing immune protection.
TYPES OF T CELLS
1. CD4+ HELPER CELLS
CD4+ helper cells help in the maturation of B cells into plasma
cells and memory B cells. They also help activate cytotoxic T
cells and macrophages.
They become activated when they are presented with
peptide antigens by MHC Class II molecules, which are
expressed on the surface of antigen presenting cells (APCs).
Once activated, they divide rapidly and secrete small
proteins called cytokines that regulate or assist in the active
immune response. There are various subtypes present within
the immune system that are able to secrete different cytokines
depending on the immune response occurring, however these
are beyond the scope of this article.
2. CD8+ CYTOTOXIC CELLS
CD8+ cytotoxic cells cause lysis of virus-infected and
tumour cells. They are also involved in transplant rejection.
These cells recognize their targets by binding to antigen
associated with MHC Class I molecules which are present on
the surface of all nucleated cells.
3. MEMORY T CELLS
Once they come into contact with an antigen naive T
cells differentiate into effector cells (CD4+ and CD8+ cells) and
memory T cells. Memory T cells are long-lived and can quickly
expand to large numbers of effector T cells upon re-exposure to
the antigen.
They provide the immune system with “memory” against
previously encountered pathogens. Memory T cells may be
either CD4+ or CD8+.
4. NATURAL KILLER T CELLS
They bridge the adaptive immune system with the
innate immune system. Whilst most T cells function based on
recognition of MHC class molecules, natural killer T cells are
able to recognise other antigen classes. Once activated they are
also able to perform the same functions as CD4+ and CD8+
cells.
T CELLS AND THE IMMUNE
RESPONSE
The foreign antigen is transported to lymphoid tissues by Antigen
Presenting Cells (APCs). The APC processes the antigen and displays it
as a MHC molecule on its cell surface. The T cell then recognizes the MHC
using its T cell Receptor and becomes activated.
After activation, the T cell secretes cytokines to directly attack infected or
cancerous cells, and stimulate growth of more T cells. Some T cells will
become cytotoxic T cells to attack virus-containing cells, and others
become memory T cells in preparation for future infections.
LESSON 23: CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS CONTROL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
o It is the one responsible for coordinating the function of the other
body systems.
o Gathers information, processes the information and elicits a
corresponding response or reaction to the stimulus.
o Has two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 The central nervous system is composed of the brain and
the spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system is composed of the motor
neurons and sensory neurons.
 The motor neurons is composed of somatic nervous
system which controls the voluntary responses and
autonomic nervous system which controls the
involuntary responses.
 The autonomic nervous system is composed of
sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.
o It is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known
as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the
body.
The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system is
the neuron. Once stimulated, a neuron transmit electrical signals
called an action potential or an impulse across the system and lets a
body part respond accordingly. Although neurons differ in some
respects, they contain four basic parts:
 Cell body or Soma- contains the nucleus and most organelles.
 Axon- a single protection from the soma which carries the
impulse to the axon terminal.
An impulse is a sudden change in the electric potential of the
cell membrane.
 Myelin sheath- the axon may be enveloped for faster
conduction of impulse.
 Dendrites- are several projection which extend outward from
the cell body and receive chemical signals from the axon
terminals of another neuron.
Electrical disturbances in the dendrites or axon will cause a new wave
of impulse down the axon.
Neurons connect with one another through a junction called
synapse. The moment an action potential reaches the axon’s
terminal, a series of events will be created leading to the stimulation
of the next neuron. Chemicals called neurotransmitters are
released which facilitate the transmission of an impulse across a
synapse.
Endocrine Gland System
Chemical coordination of body functions is mediated
by the endocrine system, composed of ductless glands that release
hormones.
Hormones
Chemical messengers secreted by a gland and affect
a specific target issue or organ. The endocrine and the nervous
system coordinate with each other through a series of feedback
mechanisms. A disorder results when a hormone is under-or over-
secreted.
PLANT RESPONSE
All living things respond to environmental stimuli primarily to
survive. Plants, which are sensible (stationary) exhibit responses to
stimuli such as light, water, touch and wind. Responses are important
to get a needed nutrient, survive a certain condition (such as extreme
weather changes) or defend itself from predators and to reproduce.
EXAMPLES:
 The sensitive plant, mimosa pudica (makahiya), closes
its leaflets once touched.
 The sunflower moves toward the direction of the sun.
The seed of some plants need to be burned to trigger seed
germination. Recent studies also show that some plants can release
chemicals that act as defence mechanism against pathogen and
predators and warm nearby plants to prepare for an impending
attack.
Tropism
-a biological mechanism that enables plant to move toward( positive
tropism) or against (negative tropism) the source of a stimulus. The
roots grow underground because they usually move toward the
source of water and the centre of gravity while leaves usually grow
above the ground where they absorb sunlight.
KINDS OF TROPISM
 Geotropism – gravity causes a response in a plant growth.
 Hydrotropism – the way a plant grows or bends in
response to water.
 Thigmotropism – plants grow or bend in response to
touch.
 Phototropism – the way a plant grows or bends in
response to light.
Hormones
 chemical messenger in plants
 They regulate various biochemical and physiological response
that include seed germination, flowering, photosynthesis, fruit
ripening and shoot and root development.
LESSON 24: SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISM
Overview: Sensing and Acting
Bats use sonar to detect their prey.
Moths, a common prey for bats, can detect the bat’s sonar and attempt to
flee.
Both organisms have complex sensory systems that facilitate survival.
These systems include diverse mechanisms that sense stimuli and
generate appropriate movement.
Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals
to the CNS, central nervous system
All stimuli represent forms of energy.
Sensation involves converting energy into a change in the membrane
potential of sensory receptors.
Sensations are action potentials that reach the brain via sensory
neurons.
The brain interprets sensations, giving the perception of stimuli.
Sensory Pathways
Functions of sensory pathways: sensory reception, transduction,
transmission, and integration.
For example, stimulation of a stretch receptor in a crayfish is the first step
in a sensory pathway.
Sensory Reception and Transduction
Sensations and perceptions begin with sensory reception, detection of
stimuli by sensory receptors.
Sensory receptors can detect stimuli outside and inside the body.
Sensory transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into a change
in the membrane potential of a sensory receptor.
This change in membrane potential is called a receptor potential.
Many sensory receptors are very sensitive: they are able to detect the
smallest physical unit of stimulus.
For example, most light receptors can detect a photon of light.
Transmission
After energy has been transduced into a receptor potential, some
sensory cells generate the transmission of action potentials to the CNS.
Sensory cells without axons release neurotransmitters at synapses with
sensory neurons.
Larger receptor potentials generate more rapid action potentials.
Integration of sensory information begins when information is received.
Some receptor potentials are integrated through summation.
Perception
Perceptions are the brain’s construction of stimuli.
Stimuli from different sensory receptors travel as action potentials along
different neural pathways.
The brain distinguishes stimuli from different receptors by the area in the
brain where the action potentials arrive.
Amplification and Adaptation
Amplification is the strengthening of stimulus energy by cells in sensory
pathways.
Sensory adaptation is a decrease in responsiveness to continued
stimulation.
Types of Sensory Receptors
Based on energy transduced, sensory receptors fall into five categories:
Mechanoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Electromagnetic receptors
Thermoreceptors
Pain receptors
Mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformation caused by stimuli such as
pressure, stretch, motion, and sound.
The sense of touch in mammals relies on mechanoreceptors that are
dendrites of sensory neurons.
Chemoreceptors
General chemoreceptors transmit information about the total solute
concentration of a solution.
Specific chemoreceptors respond to individual kinds of molecules.
When a stimulus molecule binds to a chemoreceptor, the chemoreceptor
becomes more or less permeable to ions.
The antennae of the male silkworm moth have very sensitive specific
chemoreceptors.
Electromagnetic Receptors
Electromagnetic receptors detect electromagnetic energy such as light,
electricity, and magnetism. Photoreceptors are electromagnetic
receptors that detect light.
Some snakes have very sensitive infrared receptors that detect body
heat of prey against a colder background.
Many mammals, such as whales, appear to use Earth’s magnetic field
lines to orient themselves as they migrate.
Thermoreceptors & Pain Receptors
Thermoreceptors, which respond to heat or cold, help regulate body
temperature by signaling both surface and body core temperature.
In humans, pain receptors, or nociceptors, are a class of naked dendrites
in the epidermis.
They respond to excess heat, pressure, or chemicals released from
damaged or inflamed tissues.
The mechanoreceptors responsible for hearing and equilibrium
detect moving fluid or settling particles
Hearing and perception of body equilibrium are related in most animals.
Settling particles or moving fluid are detected by mechanoreceptors.
Sensing Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates
Most invertebrates maintain equilibrium using sensory organs called
statocysts.
Statocysts contain mechanoreceptors that detect the movement of
granules called statoliths.
Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals
In most terrestrial vertebrates, sensory organs for hearing and
equilibrium are closely associated in the ear.
Hearing
Vibrating objects create percussion waves in the air that cause the
tympanic membrane to vibrate.
Hearing is the perception of sound in the brain from the vibration of air
waves.
The three bones of the middle ear transmit the vibrations of moving air to
the oval window on the cochlea.
These vibrations create pressure waves in the fluid in the cochlea that
travel through the vestibular canal.
Pressure waves in the canal cause the basilar membrane to vibrate,
bending its hair cells.
This bending of hair cells depolarizes the membranes of
mechanoreceptors and sends action potentials to the brain via the
auditory nerve.
The ear conveys information about sound waves:
Volume = amplitude of the sound wave
Pitch = frequency of the sound wave
The cochlea can distinguish pitch because the basilar membrane is not
uniform along its length.
Each region vibrates most vigorously at a particular frequency and leads
to excitation of a specific auditory area of the cerebral cortex.
Equilibrium
Several organs of the inner ear detect body position and balance:
The utricle and saccule contain granules called otoliths that allow us to
detect gravity and linear movement.
Three semicircular canals contain fluid and allow us to detect angular
acceleration such as the turning of the head.
Hearing and Equilibrium in Other Vertebrates
Unlike mammals, fishes have only a pair of inner ears near the brain.
Most fishes and aquatic amphibians also have a lateral line system along
both sides of their body.
The lateral line system contains mechanoreceptors with hair cells that
detect and respond to water movement.
The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory
receptors
In terrestrial animals:
Gustation (taste) is dependent on the detection of chemicals called
tastants
Olfaction (smell) is dependent on the detection of odorant molecules
In aquatic animals there is no distinction between taste and smell.
Taste receptors of insects are in sensory hairs called sensilla, located on
feet and in mouth parts.
Taste in Mammals
In humans, receptor cells for taste are modified epithelial cells organized
into taste buds.
There are five taste perceptions: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
(elicited by glutamate).
Each type of taste can be detected in any region of the tongue.
When a taste receptor is stimulated, the signal is transduced to a sensory
neuron. Each taste cell has only one type of receptor.
Smell in Humans
Olfactory receptor cells are neurons that line the upper portion of the
nasal cavity.
Binding of odorant molecules to receptors triggers a signal transduction
pathway, sending action potentials to the brain.
Similar mechanisms underlie vision throughout the animal kingdom
Many types of light detectors have evolved in the animal kingdom.
Most invertebrates have a light-detecting organ.
One of the simplest is the eye cup of planarians, which provides
information about light intensity and direction but does not form images.
Two major types of image-forming eyes have evolved in invertebrates:
the compound eye and the single-lens eye.
Compound eyes are found in insects and crustaceans and consist of up
to several thousand light detectors called ommatidia.
Compound eyes are very effective at detecting movement.
Single-lens eyes are found in some jellies, polychaetes, spiders, and
many molluscs.
They work on a camera-like principle: the iris changes the diameter of the
pupil to control how much light enters.
In vertebrates the eye detects color and light, but the brain assembles
the information and perceives the image.
Structure of the Eye
Main parts of the vertebrate eye:
The sclera: white outer layer, including cornea
The choroid: pigmented layer
The iris: regulates the size of the pupil
The retina: contains photoreceptors
The lens: focuses light on the retina
The optic disk: a blind spot in the retina where the optic nerve attaches to
the eye.
The eye is divided into two cavities separated by the lens and ciliary
body:
The anterior cavity is filled with watery aqueous humor
The posterior cavity is filled with jellylike vitreous humor
The ciliary body produces the aqueous humor.
The human retina contains two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones
Rods are light-sensitive but don’t distinguish colors.
Cones distinguish colors but are not as sensitive to light.
In humans, cones are concentrated in the fovea, the center of the visual
field, and rods are more concentrated around the periphery of the retina.
Sensory Transduction in the Eye
Each rod or cone contains visual pigments consisting of a light-absorbing
molecule called retinal bonded to a protein called an opsin.
Rods contain the pigment rhodopsin (retinal combined with a specific
opsin), which changes shape when absorbing light.
Once light activates rhodopsin, cyclic GMP breaks down, and Na+
channels close.
This hyperpolarizes the cell.
Processing of Visual Information
In humans, three pigments called photopsins detect light of different
wave lengths: red, green, or blue.
Processing of visual information begins in the retina.
Absorption of light by retinal triggers a signal transduction pathway.
The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle
function
Muscle activity is a response to input from the nervous system.
The action of a muscle is always to contract.
Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle
Vertebrate skeletal muscle is characterized by a hierarchy of smaller and
smaller units.
A skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long fibers, each a single cell,
running parallel to the length of the muscle.
Each muscle fiber is itself a bundle of smaller myofibrils arranged
longitudinally.
The myofibrils are composed to two kinds of myofilaments:
Thin filaments consist of two strands of actin and one strand of regulatory
protein
Thick filaments are staggered arrays of myosin molecules
Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle because the regular
arrangement of myofilaments creates a pattern of light and dark bands.
The functional unit of a muscle is called a sarcomere, and is bordered by
Z lines.
The Sliding-Filament Model of Muscle Contraction
According to the sliding-filament model, filaments slide past each other
longitudinally, producing more overlap between thin and thick filaments.
The sliding of filaments is based on interaction between actin of the thin
filaments and myosin of the thick filaments.
The “head” of a myosin molecule binds to an actin filament, forming a
cross-bridge and pulling the thin filament toward the center of the
sarcomere.
Glycolysis and aerobic respiration generate the ATP needed to sustain
muscle contraction.
The Role of Calcium and Regulatory Proteins
A skeletal muscle fiber contracts only when stimulated by a motor
neuron.
When a muscle is at rest, myosin-binding sites on the thin filament are
blocked by the regulatory protein tropomyosin.
Myosin-binding sites exposed when Ca2+ released.
The synaptic terminal of the motor neuron releases the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine.
Acetylcholine depolarizes the muscle, causing it to produce an action
potential.
Action potentials travel to the interior of the muscle fiber along transverse
(T) tubules.
The action potential along T tubules causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum
(SR) to release Ca2+
The Ca2+ binds to the troponin complex on the thin filaments.
This binding exposes myosin-binding sites and allows the cross-bridge
cycle to proceed.
Nervous Control of Muscle Tension
Contraction of a whole muscle is graded, which means that the extent
and strength of its contraction can be voluntarily altered.
There are two basic mechanisms by which the nervous system produces
graded contractions:
Varying the number of fibers that contract
Varying the rate at which fibers are stimulated.
In a vertebrate skeletal muscle, each branched muscle fiber is innervated
by one motor neuron.
Each motor neuron may synapse with multiple muscle fibers.
A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it
controls.
Recruitment of multiple motor neurons results in stronger contractions.
A twitch results from a single action potential in a motor neuron.
More rapidly delivered action potentials produce a graded contraction by
summation.
Tetanus is a state of smooth and sustained contraction produced when
motor neurons deliver a volley of action potentials.
Slow-twitch fibers contract more slowly, but sustain longer contractions.
All slow twitch fibers are oxidative.
Fast-twitch fibers contract more rapidly, but sustain shorter contractions.
Fast-twitch fibers can be either glycolytic or oxidative.
Most skeletal muscles contain both slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscles in
varying ratios.
Other Types of Muscle
In addition to skeletal muscle, vertebrates have cardiac muscle and
smooth muscle.
Cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, consists of striated cells
electrically connected by intercalated disks.
Cardiac muscle can generate action potentials without neural input.
In smooth muscle, found mainly in walls of hollow organs, contractions
are relatively slow and may be initiated by the muscles themselves.
Contractions may also be caused by stimulation from neurons in the
autonomic nervous system.
Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion
Skeletal muscles are attached in antagonistic pairs, with each member of
the pair working against the other
The skeleton provides a rigid structure to which muscles attach.
Skeletons function in support, protection, and movement.
Types of Skeletal Systems
The three main types of skeletons are:
Hydrostatic skeletons (lack hard parts)
Exoskeletons (external hard parts)
Endoskeletons (internal hard parts)
Hydrostatic Skeletons
A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed
body compartment
This is the main type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms,
nematodes, and annelids.
Annelids use their hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis, a type of
movement on land produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions.
Exoskeletons
An exoskeleton is a hard encasement deposited on the surface of an
animal.
Exoskeletons are found in most molluscs and arthropods.
Arthropod exoskeletons are made of cuticle and can be both strong and
flexible.
The polysaccharide chitin is often found in arthropod cuticle.
Endoskeletons
An endoskeleton consists of hard supporting elements, such as bones,
buried in soft tissue
Endoskeletons are found in sponges, echinoderms, and chordates.
A mammalian skeleton has more than 200 bones.
Some bones are fused; others are connected at joints by ligaments that
allow freedom of movement.
Types of Locomotion
Most animals are capable of locomotion, or active travel from place to
place.
In locomotion, energy is expended to overcome friction and gravity.
In water, friction is a bigger problem than gravity. Fast swimmers usually
have a streamlined shape to minimize friction.
Locomotion on Land
Walking, running, hopping, or crawling on land requires an animal to
support itself and move against gravity.
Diverse adaptations for locomotion on land have evolved in vertebrates.
Flying
Flight requires that wings develop enough lift to overcome the downward
force of gravity.
Many flying animals have adaptations that reduce body mass.
For example, birds lack teeth and a urinary bladder.
LESSON 25: FEEDBACK MECHANISM
Feedback Mechanism
✢ a loop system wherein the system responds to a perturbation.
The response may be in the same direction (as in positive
feedback) or in the opposite direction (as in negative
feedback). In biological sense, a feedback mechanism involves
a biological process, a signal, or a mechanism that tends to
initiate (or accelerate) or to inhibit (or slow down) a process.
✢ A feedback mechanism may be observed at the level of cells,
organisms, ecosystems, or the biosphere. It regulates
homeostasis or balance to achieve certain range or level of
optimal condition. Deviation from homeostasis could
eventually lead to effects detrimental to the proper functionality
and organization of a system.
Homeostasis
✢ refers to stability, balance, or equilibrium within a cell or the
body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal
environment. Homeostasis is an important characteristic of
living things. Keeping a stable internal environment requires
constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside
the cell.
✢ The adjusting of systems within a cell is called homeostatic
regulation. Because the internal and external environments of
a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made
continuously to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or
range). Homeostasis can be thought of as a dynamic
equilibrium rather than a constant, unchanging state.
Feedback Regulation Loops
✢ The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis
because hormones regulate the activity of body cells. The
release of hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus.
For example, the stimulus either causes an increase or a
decrease in the amount of hormone secreted. Then, the
response to a stimulus changes the internal conditions and
may itself become a new stimulus. This self-adjusting
mechanism is called feedback regulation.
✢ Feedback regulation occurs when the response to a stimulus
has an effect of some kind on the original stimulus. The type of
response determines what the feedback is called. Negative
feedback occurs when the response to a stimulus reduces the
original stimulus. Positive feedback occurs when the
response to a stimulus increases the original stimulus.
Positive and Negative Feedback?
Positive
If we look at a system in homeostasis, a positive feedback loop moves a
system further away from the target of equilibrium. It does this by
amplifying the effects of a product or event and occurs when something
needs to happen quickly.
Negative
a negative feedback loop brings a system closer to a target of stability or
homeostasis. Negative feedback loops are responsible for the
stabilization of a system, and ensure the maintenance of a steady, stable
state. The response of the regulating mechanism is opposite to the
output of the event.
Thermoregulation: A Negative Feedback Loop
✢ Negative feedback is the most common feedback loop in
biological systems.
✢ Thermoregulation is another example of negative feedback.
When body temperature rises, receptors in the skin and the
hypothalamus sense the temperature change. The
temperature change (stimulus) triggers a command from the
brain. This command, causes a response (the skin makes
sweat and blood vessels near the skin surface dilate), which
helps decrease body temperature.
Control of blood glucose level is an example of negative feedback. Blood
glucose concentration rises after a meal (the stimulus). The hormone
insulin is released by the pancreas, and it speeds up the transport of
glucose from the blood and into selected tissues (the response). Blood
glucose concentrations then decrease, which then decreases the original
stimulus. The secretion of insulin into the blood is then decreased.
✢ Positive feedback is less common in biological systems.
Positive feedback acts to speed up the direction of change. An
example of positive feedback is lactation (milk production). As
the baby suckles, nerve messages from the mammary glands
cause the hormone prolactin, to be secreted by the pituitary
gland. The more the baby suckles, the more prolactin is
released, which stimulates further milk production.
System Interactions
✢ Each body system contributes to the homeostasis of other
systems and of the entire organism. No system of the body
works in isolation and the well-being of the person depends
upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. A
disruption within one system generally has consequences for
several additional body systems. Most of these organ systems
are controlled by hormones secreted from the pituitary gland, a
part of the endocrine system.
Main examples of homeostasis in mammals are as follows:
✢ The regulation of the amounts of water and minerals in the
body. This is known as osmoregulation. This happens primarily
in the kidneys.
✢ The removal of metabolic waste. This is known as excretion.
This is done by the excretory organs such as the kidneys and
lungs.
✢ The regulation of body temperature. This is mainly done by the
skin.
✢ The regulation of blood glucose level. This is mainly done by
the liver and the insulin and glucagon secreted by the
pancreas in the body.
You can also split your content
White
Is the color of milk and fresh snow, the color produced by the
combination of all the colors of the visible spectrum.
Black
Is the color of coal, ebony, and of outer space. It is the darkest color, the
result of the absence of or complete absorption of light.
Maintaining Homeostasis
✢ Maintenance of homeostasis usually involves negative
feedback loops. These loops act to oppose the stimulus, or
cue, that triggers them. For example, if your body temperature
 is too high, a negative feedback loop will act to bring it back
down towards the set point, or target value, of 98.6∘F /37.0∘C.

Disorders that result from disruption of homeostasis

Diabetes

✢ a metabolic disorder caused by excess blood glucose levels

✢ It occurs when the control mechanism for insulin becomes

imbalanced, either because there is a deficiency of insulin or
because cells have become resistant to insulin.

Causes of Homeostatic Disruption

✢ People with type 1 diabetes do not produce insulin due to auto-

immune destruction of the insulin producing cells, while people
with type 2 diabetes have chronic high blood glucose levels
that cause insulin resistance. With diabetes, blood glucose is
increased by normal glucagon activity, but the lack of or
resistance to insulin means that blood sugar levels are unable
to return to normal.

Restoring Homeostasis

✢ The basic restorative hormone in the body is insulin, secreted

by the pancreas as part of the balancing act of the endocrine
system. Insulin maintains the normal amount of sugar in the
bloodstream

✢ The phenomenon of restoring homeostasis is comparable to a

thermostat compensating for temperature changes.