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A Text Book of Psychology

Unit V Personality Personality represents a dynamic orientation of organism


to environment
• Definition, topography, types, theories
• Psychometric assessments of personality Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions
• Alteration in personality Personality represents a unique organisation of
• Applications persistent dynamic and social predisposition
Introduction: Heredity contributes to intelligence and mental traits.
Personality has been derived from the Latin These factors do influence the development of
word “persona” which means “mask” used by the actors to personality, because they have a place in the society.
change their appearance. It is the combination of an Heredity imposes several limitations and restrictions on
individual thoughts, characteristics, behaviors, attitude, idea the personality of an individual. Culture is very much a
and habits. gift of the heredity.
Definition : Besides biological inheritance, in social heredity there is
According to Macionis “It is the constant pattern of thinking, a transmission of personality characteristics from one
feeling and acting.” generation to another through pattern of relationship. The
vehicle of transmission is not the germ plasm but a
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff Define it as the totality of
psychogenetic influence of parent on child.
sentiments, attitudes, idea, habits, skills and behaviors of an
Topographical Aspect of Mind, Freud has divided the
individual.”
structure of mind into three levels, such as the conscious,
the preconscious or the subconscious and the
According to American psychologists Randy Larsen and
unconscious.
David Buss1, goes something like: “personality is a stable,
Types of personality:
organized collection of psychological traits and mechanisms
in the human being that influences his or her interactions with 1. Theories adopting the type approach
and modifications to the psychological, social and physical Three important ‘Type approach theories’ of personality
environment surrounding them." are Hippocrates, CG jung’s , Kretschmer’s classification,
Topography of personality William sheldon’, :
Personality is something which is unique in each
individual A. Hippocrates Classification : in this type approach
Personality refers to internal as well as external qualities, theory Hippocrates who thought that people could be
some of which are quite general. But it is unique to each classified into 4 types
individual. It is not possible for any other individual to • Sanguine: These type of person are good in the
reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality of the physique, they perform their task quickly,
individual. cheerful and optimist by nature.
Personality refers particularly to persistent qualities of an • Phlegmatic: In this type of personality person
individual. Every individual has certain feeling as well as are physically weak, slow and these person are
other permanent traits and qualities. Personality is not stimulated by behaviours.
mainly composed of the persistent or permanent qualities • Choleric: These are weak in physique and
that exhibit themselves in form of social behaviour and easily get excited or they are easily irritated
attempt to make adjustment with the environment.

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A Text Book of Psychology
• Melancholic: These types of person are normal Such people are called as Ambiverts. This
in physique & pessimistic by nature. In this of classification was made by psychologists who came
personality anxiety is the main feature. after Jung.

B. CG Jung’s Classification: C. Kretschmer’s classification:


CG Jung has classified personality on the basis of sociability German psychologist Kretschmer has attempted to correlate
character as Introverts and Extroverts. physique and character. From his studies on mental patients,
he found that certain body types are associated with particular
Introverts types of mental disorders. He has classified personalities into
Are described as people who share characteristics such four types:
as shyness, social withdrawal, and tendency to talk less.
Good in writing than other a. Pyknic type:
Day dreaming These are people who are short and having round body.
Person not interested in external events They will have personality traits of extraverts.
Social withdrawal Good nature of the person
Because of these characteristics these people appear to Sociable
be self-centered, unable to adjust easily in social These people are more prone to suffer from a mental
situations. disorder called Manic Depressive Psychosis (MDP).
b. Asthenic type:
Extroverts These people will have a slender or slim body. They will

Share a tendency to be outgoing, friendly, talkative, have the personality traits of introverts.

and social in nature. They prefer social contacts, These people are more prone to suffer from a serious

generous, sportive, and courageous. mental disorder called Schizophrenia.

They are happy-go-lucky persons and show interest c. Athletic type:


in present reality than future. They express their These people will have strong body. They are more
feelings openly. energetic and aggressive.
Take decisions quickly and act upon quickly. They They will be strong enough, optimistic, adventurous and
are not affected easily by difficulties. balanced.
Involves in social participation They are comparable with ambiverts.
Realistic and practical person They are more prone to suffer from MDP.
Optimistic and risk taker etc. d. Dysplastic type:
Ambiverts: These people will have unproportionate body and do not
There are only few people who are pure introverts or belong to any of the three types mentioned above. This
pure extraverts. disproportion is due to hormonal imbalancement. Their
The remaining majority of people possess both the
behaviour and personality are also imbalanced.
qualities of introverts and extraverts.
D. William sheldon’ classification:

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Sheldon has proposed a theory of personality correlating and they cover all aspects of an individual’s behaviour and
temperament and body type. He has divided people into three attributes. Central traits represent few characteristics which
types: can be used to describe a person such as kindness, honesty,
etc. Secondary traits appear in only a relatively small range of
a. Endomorphic: situations. These are not strong enough like cardinal traits and
These people will have soft, fat and round body, having hence they are not regarded as integral parts of one’s
predominance of abdominal region. They are sociable and personality.
relaxed (can be compared to pyknic type). I. Cardinal disposition : are the primary traits so
dimension is one’s personal disposition that they
b. Ectomorphic:
colour virtually every aspect of one’s behaviour and
These are the people who are tall, thin and flat chested,
attributes. Very few people possess cardinal
having the skin, bones and neural structure predominantly.
disposition and are broad in nature and determines
They are shy, reserved and self-conscious (can be compared
the human behaviour in the widest range of
with asthenic type).
circumstances. Example: Ms. Florence nightingale.
II. central disposition: these are not dominant as cardinal
c. Mesomorphic:
disposition but the influence the person’s behaviour in a
These people are well built with heavy and strong muscles
very prominent way . there for they are called the
appear predominantly. They are physically active, noisy,
building blocks of personality. For examples : central
adventurous by nature (can be compared to athletic type).
dispositions person have punctuality, honesty,

2. Traits of Personality and Trait Theories (trait responsibility and honesty etc.

approach theory): III. secondary Traits : these are not as dominant as the

Traits are tendencies to behave in relatively consistent and cardinal or central traits. They appear in only a relatively

distinctive ways across situations. These are the measurable small range of situations or these traits appear when the

aspects of personality. The most common way to describe individual face the particular situation & are not

people is to list these traits or qualities possessed by them. considered strong. For eg. Individual likes towards

For example, friendliness, social, honesty, perseverance, sweets, ice cream and clothing preference.

submissiveness, dominance, etc. RB Cattell theory has identified two types of traits.

The groups of personality traits are known as personality behaviour. Surface traits are influenced by source traits and

factors or dimensions of personality. Allport and RB Cattell are manifested in our behaviour.

are famous for their work on personality studies using traits.


Cattell, by adopting a method called factor analysis has
GW Allport was the first person to adopt the trait approach
recognised 16 ‘Source traits’ as building blocks of our
against the type approach for the description of personalities.
personality. The ‘Sixteen personality factor test’ developed
According to him the traits are the basic units of personality.
by him includes these factors. This test is widely used,
Every person develops a unique set of organized tendencies
because these personality characteristics can be measured and
called traits.
described more objectively.
GW Allport has identified three types of traits—
cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal traits are primary
Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Hans eysenck’s theory: personality is the more or less
Cattell describe four types of traits
stable and enduring organization of a person character,

01. Common Traits : These types of traits found in large temperament, intellect and physique which determine
his unique adjustment to the environment. The
scale in a general population like honesty and
definition given by eysenck has very strong points in its
cooperation
favour. First it tries to provide personality with a

02. Unique Traits: These traits unique to a person such as physiological base and gives a balanced consideration

temperaments traits and individual emotional reactions. to the race of heredity and environment.
Secondary, it gives a complete picture of human
03. Surface Traits: these are not the consistency over time behaviour by involving all of its aspects – conative,

and do not have much value in accounting for the cognitive and affective

individual personality. These can be recognized by Thirdly, it stresses the need of integration and

manifestation of behaviour like curiosity, dependability organization of the characteristics.


Finally it aims at making personality somewhat
etc.
measurable and assessable, giving it a scientific base.

04. Source Traits : These types of traits are the basic On the other hand it does have some weakness also in

building blocks of personality, which determine the that human personality cannot be supposed to

consistencies of each person’s behaviours over an necessarily possess physiological base and it cannot be
considered to be as static and fixed in given his
extended period of time like honesty , kindness etc.
definition.
The following personality trait list describes some of the The three basic dimensions derived by eysenck through
descriptive terms used for each of the 16 personality his work are
dimensions described by Cattell. Introvertism- Extrovertism
Neuroticism (emotionally stability – instability
1. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical
Psychoticism
2. Apprehension: Worried versus confident
3. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
4. Emotional Stability: Calm versus high-strung These three basic dimension refer to definite personality
5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
6. Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to types example introvert, extrovert, neurotic and
the familiar psychotic
7. Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
8. Privateness: Discreet versus open
9. Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
10. Rule-Consciousness: Conforming versus non- 04. Theory adopting the psychoanalytic approach:
conforming Psychoanalytical Theory:
11. Self-Reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
12. Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded. This theory was developed by famous psychologist Sigmund
13. Social Boldness: Uninhibited versus shy Freud. This theory has three major parts: (a) The personality
14. Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed
15. Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting structure which includes Id, Ego and Super ego (b)
16. Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved Topography of mind and (c) Psychosocial stages of

3. Type cum trait approach: development,

1. Personality structure:
Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Freud constructed a model of personality with three super ego may condemn as ‘wrong’ certain things which the
interlocking parts: the Id, the Ego and the Super ego. ego would otherwise do to satisfy the id.

The Id: However, super ego is guided by ‘ego ideal’- a set of


This is the most primitive part, develops with the birth of the values and moral ideals that are pursued because they are
child. It can be thought of as a sort of store house of perceived to be worthy. In other words the super ego operates
biologically based urges: the urge to eat, drink, eliminate and on the ‘moral principal’.
especially, to be sexually stimulated.
Freud believed that because of the diverse nature of these
The sexual energy underlies these urges is called the libido. three parts, there will be constant conflicts between one
According to Freud the Id operates on a ‘pleasure principle’. another, which leads to three types of anxiety, viz.
That is-left to itself, the id would satisfy its fundamental
urges immediately and reflexively as they arose without (1) Reality anxiety-arising when the individual is confronted

regard to rules, the realities of life or morals of any kind. by dangers or threats in the external world.

The Ego: (2) Neurotic anxiety-arising when the individual’s Id

This part usually develops from the school year of life of the impulses threaten to break through his ego controls and result

child—as a result of social contacts. The ego consists of in behaviour that will lead to his punishment and

elaborate ways of behaving and thinking which constitute the


(3) Moral anxiety- arising when the individual does
executive function of the person.
something or even contemplates doing something in conflict

The ego delays motives of Id and channels behaviour into with his super ego or moral values and arouses guilt feelings.

more socially acceptable outlets. It keeps a person working


2. Topography of the mind:
for a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting
It is understood that there will be constant conflicts
to the realities of life. Freud characterized the ego as working
going on between id, ego and super ego. These conflicts may
in the service on the ‘reality principle’.
occur in the conscious, subconscious and unconscious levels

That is, the ego tries to satisfy the id’s urge for pleasure, but of human psyche. Freud refers to the unconscious, the

only in realistic ways. The ongoing tension between insistent subconscious and the conscious as the ‘topographical’ aspects

urges of the id and the constraints of reality helps the ego of the self, also called as the level of consciousness. The

develop certain skills to safeguard the self-image. These functioning of these levels is as follows:

skills are called ego defence mechanisms


The conscious:

The Super ego: According to Freud the conscious part of mind is

`This part of personality corresponds closely to what that part which is ready to receive the stimuli from the

we commonly call the conscience. It consists mainly of external world. It helps to perform the functions like eating,

prohibitions learned from parents and other authorities. The drinking, reading, writing, talking, thinking and such other
activities and also helps us to behave in an appropriate way.

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
It will be functioning only when the individual is in Freud has compared these three levels to an ‘Ice
a wake up state. At the conscious level we will be aware of berg’ in water. The conscious part will be like tip of ice berg
certain things around us and of certain thoughts. which is above the surface level. Although that is the part we
can see, it is only a small part.
The preconscious:
This is also known as subconscious. At this level are The subconscious part, as a thin layer is separating
memories or thoughts that are easily available with a the conscious and unconscious. The major part of the mind
moment’s reflection. For example, what we had for breakfast that is unconscious will be like a submerged big part of ice
or what class was held today morning. berg. The Figure 5.1 shows the topography of mind.

Preconscious will be functioning between conscious


and unconscious parts. In character it resembles conscious to
greater extent and will have better adjustment with it. Its
contents can be recalled easily. It prevents the suppressed
thoughts and other prohibited motives in the unconscious
from entering the conscious part. Hence, it is also called as
‘Censor’.

3. Psychosexual stages of development:


The unconscious:
In his theory of child development, Freud described
This unconscious part of mind contains memories,
a succession of stages around body zones. In his opinion,
thoughts and motives which we cannot easily call up. It is the
every child will have an innate tendency to seek pleasure
largest and also the powerful part of mind. It contains the
especially through physical stimulation and particularly
natural instincts, thoughts inappropriate desires, irrational
through stimulation of parts of the body that are sensitive to
motives and painful experiences. All the experiences
touch: the mouth, the anus and the genitals. Such a pleasure
suppressed by conscious part will remain here. These forces
includes many psychological issues also. Hence, these stages
will be trying to come to conscious part for satisfaction. But
are called as psychosexual stages. These are:
their entry is prevented by preconscious.

i. Oral stage (Infancy, birth to one year):


Hence, they try to come out when preconscious part
According to Freud’s theory, the infant obtains
is at rest. They appear in the form of dreams, or in the form of
sensual pleasure first by sucking and later by biting. A baby
slip of tongue, slip of pen, automatic writing, amnesia, etc.
given too little or too much opportunity to suck, or made

Freud has developed certain techniques such as free anxious about it may acquire oral fixations, leading to

association, dream analysis, analysis of transference, analysis abnormal behaviour like over talkativeness, dependency,

of resistance, hypnosis and such other techniques in order to chain smoking, etc.

bring out the contents of unconscious which cause mental


ii. Anal stage (early childhood ,age one to age three):
illness.

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development /
This is a period of toilet training by parents. The
personality development: Erik Erikson was an ego
anus becomes highly sensitive area. The child finds pleasure
psychologist who developed one of the most popular and
in holding on and letting go of feces. Parents try to teach to
influential theories of development. While his theory was
avoid such prohibited behaviour connected with excretion.
great impact by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work,
Erikson's Theory centered on psychosocial development
This leads to fixation causing abnormal
rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make
characteristics during adulthood such as messiness and
up his theory are as follows:
disorders such as excessive compulsiveness, over conformity
and exaggerated self-control. Stage Psychosocial crisis Basic virtue Age
1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0-1 1/2
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1 ½-3
iii. Phallic stage (latter childhood ,age three to age five ): 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority competency 5-12
During this stage the child’s interest shifts toward
5. Identity vs. Role Fidelity 12-18
genitals. The child enjoys stimulating the genital organs. confusion
6. Intimacy vs. isolation love 18-40
Freud believed that it is at this time the children develop
7. Generativity vs. care 40-65
sensual feelings toward the parent of the opposite sex. Stagnation
8. Ego Integrity vs. Wisdom 65+
Despair
Boys develop ‘Oedipus complex’, i.e. develop
affection towards mother and in turn develop castration 1. Oral stage /Trust vs. Mistrust(birth to 18 months ): Is

anxiety. On the other side, girls develop affection towards the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at birth continues to
father which is called as ‘Electra complex’.
approximately one year of age. During this stage, the infant is

iv. Latency stage (Age six through puberty, 6-12 years ): uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks

During this period the child’s interest is shifted towards their primary caregiver.

towards learning more about the world, sexuality is largely If the care the infant receives is consistent,
repressed and the ego expands. predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust
which will carry with them to other relationships, and they
v. Genital stage (adolescence and beyond, 12-18 years): will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Mature heterosexual interests develop during this
If the child is ill treated & not given affection and
phase. The stage is set for responsible enjoyment of adult
the treatment given by the adult is inconsistent the result is
sexuality. During this stage the sexual interests will lie
mistrust. When an infant does not receive warm and loving
outside the family circle. care or is isolated from other the condition is called need
deprivation.

If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust,


suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

2. Anal stage or habit training stage / Autonomy vs.


Shame and Doubt (18 months to 36 months)

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second Resolving the Electra complex ultimately leads to
stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. identification with the same sex parents.
The child deprives much pleasure from the anus and
the urethra by evacuating the bladder. The habit training stage 4. Latency stage / Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)

is extremely important because self control and autonomy are Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving

initiated in this stage. The child is developing physically and industry (competence) vs. inferiority occurs during childhood

becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has between the ages of six and twelve. It is called latency

many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and because the sexual interests is repressed and lie dormant till

shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's puberty. This is a period of gang formation.

growing sense of independence and autonomy. Children are at the stage where they will be learning
to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own.

If the child is respond as an individual, the child will Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as

develop a sense of autonomy, otherwise feeling of shame and they teach the child specific skills.

doubt oneself are developed. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their greater significance and will become a major source of the
independence, by walking away from their mother, picking child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win
which toy to play with, and making choices about what the approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are
like to wear, to eat, etc. valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in
their accomplishments. During this stage the child develop a
3. Phallic Stage /Initiative vs. Guilt (3- 6 year)
sense of inferiority if it is unable to master the task set by
It is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of
teacher and parents.
psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt
stage, children assert themselves more frequently. 5. Adolescence Stage / Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18
During this stage the boy child who always had a great deal years)
of attention and love from his mother begins to feel very The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of
possessive towards the mother. He wants her for himself and psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and
resent the close tie that he feel exists between his father and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During
mother. Boy developed competitive feeling towards his father this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
and tries to be rival with him for his mother’s love. The father identity, through an intense exploration of personal values,
however is such a large and formidable opponent that the beliefs, and goals.
little boy develops resentment and fear of him. This is called During adolescence, the transition from childhood to
as Oedipus complex. adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
Similarly the little girls identify herself with the independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of
mother thus the basic future relationship with men and career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual
women is initiated during this stage. In female child the wants to belong to a society and fit in.
Electra complex is a psychoanalytic term used to describe a
During physiological changes associated with sexual
girl’s sense of competition with her mother for the affection
maturation mark this stage. This stage in which identity
of her father. It is comparable to the male Oedipus complex.
development begins with the goal of achieving some
perspective or direction answer the question “who I am” ?
Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
acquiring the sense of identity is essential for making adult Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
decision such as choice of vocation as marriage partner. while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to
Dissatisfaction with one’s place and achievement
form their own identity based upon the outcome of their
often leads to stagnation. These individuals may feel
explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within
disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with
society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up")
society as a whole.
can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the
individual not being sure about themselves or their place in 8. Old Age /Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 years to death)
society.
This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends
6. Adulthood (young)/Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years) at death.
This stage takes place during young adulthood
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior
between the ages of approximately 20 to 40 yrs.
citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming
life as a retired person.
intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as
During this period, we begin to share ourselves more
unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life
toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a
and develop despair, often leading to depression and
family member.
hopelessness.
Successful completion of this stage can result in
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and
of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their
care within a relationship.
life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships death without fear.
can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Wise people are not characterized by a continuous
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity
and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity
7. Mature Adulthood /Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65
and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.
years)
This stage takes place during middle adulthood Psychometric assessment of personality: Psychometric
(ages 40 to 65 yrs).Generativity refers to "making your mark" tests are a standard and scientific method used to measure
on the world through creating or nurturing things that will individuals' mental capabilities and behavioural style.
outlast an individual. Psychometric tests are designed to measure candidates'
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will suitability for a role based on the required personality
outlast them, often creating positive changes that will benefit characteristics and aptitude. They identify the extent to which
other people. candidates' personality and cognitive abilities match those
required to perform the role. Employers use the information
We give back to society through raising our
collected from the psychometric test to identify the hidden
children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in
aspects of candidates that are difficult to extract from a face-
community activities and organizations. Through generativity
to-face interview.
we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Personality: Methods of Personality Assessment individual speak freely so as to get a clear picture of the
“Methods of Psychology’.” individual. From what he says, the interviewer knows about
personality assessment can be divided into following his interests, problems, assets and limitations. The chief
categories: dimension in respect to which the interview may vary is the
I. Subjective methods.
rigidity or flexibility with which the interviewer holds to a
II. Objective methods.
pre-decided outline or schedule of questions or topics.
III. Projective methods.
IV. Psycho-analytical methods. 4. Questionnaires:
V. Physical Test methods or Physiological methods. Questionnaires are a series of printed or written
Each one of these categories refers to a number of measuring questions which the individual is supposed to answer.
tools or techniques. Ordinarily, the subject is expected to answer each question by
checking or encircling or underlining ‘yes’ or ‘no’ provided
1. The Subjective Methods: against the question.
The Subjective Methods are those in which the
individual is permitted to disclose what he knows about The questions or statements provided describe certain traits
himself as an objective observation. They are based on what emotions, attitudes in situations revealing personality. The
the subject himself has to say about his traits, attitudes, yes’s or no’s are counted in certain groups or sections
personal experiences, etc. depending on the traits to be indicated by positive or negative
Some of the important subjective methods are: answers.
(1) The autobiography,
(2) The case history, 2. The Objective Methods:

(3) The interview, and The Objective Methods do not depend on the subject’s

(4) The questionnaire or the inventory. own statements about himself but on his overt behaviour as

1. The Autobiography: revealed to others who serve as observers, examiners or

The autobiography is a narration by the individual, judges.

given either freely or according to certain subject headings


The subject, as far as possible, is observed or studied in
provided by the examiner, of his experiences throughout life,
certain life situations where his particular traits, habits, needs
of his present aims, purposes, interests and attitudes.
and other characteristics are brought into play and can thus be

2. The Case History: observed directly by the examiner. Some of the objective

In a case history, we integrate the information that methods are miniature life situations, unobserved

we obtain from various sources about the individual. This observation, physiological measures and rating scales.

requires many interviews with individual and other persons


a. In miniature life situations:
who know the individual.
In miniature life situations, artificial situations resembling

3. The Interview: real life situations, are created and the subject’s reactions and

The interview is the most common method of behaviour are observed and evaluated. Situations involving

judging personality. The interviewer questions or lets the


Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
honesty, cooperation, and team-work can be created and the The chief limitation of the rating scale lies in the fact that our
subject’s behaviour may be noted and judged accordingly. raters should be well-trained and should have a definite
knowledge of the variables. Often, the raters commit a
For selection of leaders in the army, this method is often mistake in that they assign estimates that cluster around the
used with great advantage. failure and success may also be average point, if at all, towards the favourable direction of the
evaluated by putting subjects in situations where they fail and scale.
get frustrated or gratified.
They are loath to commit themselves to the extremes on a
b. The method of unobserved observation: rating scale and are likely especially to avoid very
The method of unobserved observation is quite popular in unfavourable ratings. The rating scales can be used only by
child development centres of guidance clinics. The individual those who know the persons rated and who have observed
is asked to perform some task or is left himself and his them in respect of the trait for which they are rating them.
behaviour is observed through a one-way mirror, screen or
other device and he is overheard by a concealed microphone 3. The Projective Methods:
setup. In these methods or techniques, the examiner does not
One modification of this method is prolonged observation of observe the overt behaviour of the subject as in miniature life
c. In rating scales: situations; nor does he ask the subject to state his opinion of
A rating scale is a method that requires the rater to assign a
his own behaviour or his feeling about certain experiences.
value, sometimes numeric, to the ratedobject, as a measure
Some of the important projective techniques are the
of some rated attribute. In rating scales we rate an individual
Roareschach Test, the TAT or the Thematic Apperception
of the possession or absence of certain traits on a certain
Test, the Sentence Completion Tests, the Tantophone, the
scale. The individual is given a place on the scale or a score
play techniques, the word-association method or the picture
which indicates the degree to which a person possesses a
association method.
given behaviour trait. There are four primary types of rating
scales which can be suitably used in an online survey:
1. The Rosschach Ink Blot Test:
• Graphic Rating Scale
Developed by a Swiss psychologist Herman Rosschach
• Numerical Rating Scale
(1921), consists of 10 inkblots having symmetrical designs.
• Descriptive Rating Scale
Five of these cards are in black and white, two with splashes
• Comparative Rating Scale
of red and thee in other colours. The test is usually
Examples of rating scale : the organization invests time and
administrated individually.
money to keep the employee updated with new technology.
When the card is shown or placed before the client he is
• Strongly disagree
asked to tell what he sees in the inkblot. In the second phase,
• Disagree
called the enquiry the examiner ascertains more fully not only
• Neither Agree Nor Disagree
what the person sees, but also what and how he sees it.
• Agree
In the third phase, called “testing the limits”, the examiner
• Strongly Agree
tries to ascertain whether the subject responds to the colour,
Five point likert scale
shading and other meaningful aspects of the inkblots, or
whether the whole or parts of the blots are used by the subject
Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
in his responses. All these responses are then subjected to a the test, Psychologist establishes rapport with the chief so as
scoring system, designed either by Beek or by Klopfer and to win his cooperation. CAT brings to light the child’s
Kelley. Then the interpretation follows. repressed desires.
The scoring categories of the test such as movement and
colour, are interpreted as signifying different functions of the 4. The tantoplione is introduced by B.F. Skinner:

personality intellectual creativity, outgoing emotionality, Here the subject is advised to listen while a phonograph

practical mindedness and the like. reproduces at low intensity various speech samples in a

We need highly trained personnel to administer and interpret man’s voice. The subject is asked to say what comes to his

Rosschach test ; and it is a time consuming test there are its mind as he listens to each speech sample in much the same

limitations. way that he might interpret an ink-blot. Thus, it is the


auditory Rosschach technique.
2. The Thematic Apperception Test:
(TAT) developed by Murray and Morgan (1935) consists of a 5. Play Techniques:

series of 20 pictures. The person is asked to tell the story that Play techniques are more applicable to children than to

each one suggests to him. These pictures are arranged in adults. The subject is allowed or encouraged to construct

appropriate groups for male and female adults and for scenes by using dolls, toys, blocks and other building

children. On each picture, the subject tells the story by materials. This technique has both diagnostic and therapeutic

identifying the characters, explaining their relationships to value and is frequently used in Child guidance clinics.

each other, describing what preceded the situation shown in


6. Word Association Test:
the picture, and stating an outcome.
Another commonly used technique is the word-association

The record of story is analysed according to major theories – method in which the subject is presented with a list of words,

the hero, sexual interests, vocational ambitions, family one at a time, with the instruction to respond with the first

conflicts and social status etc. The recurrence of a given topic word that enters his mind. The examiner notes the time

or the theme is to be noted carefully. required forgiving each response and the responses
themselves. Departures from the average amount of time and
These theme projects implicit attitudes, habits of thought, the content of unusual responses help us to identify certain
ideals and drives of the subject, as well as the characteristics attitudes, anxieties or sentiments.
of the other characters- father, mother, brother, sister,
husband and wife. The Rosschach Test throws light on the 7. Picture Association Test:

structures of personality whereas the TAT throws light on the A recent projective technique is the picture- association

functioning of personality. method in which pictures of social situations are substituted


for words as the stimulus material. The picture-frustration
3. Children’s Apperception Test (C.A.T.): study of Rosensweig is a well-known technique of this type.
This test was constructed Bellack in 1948. It is used to assess Recently, it has been adapted in India by Dr. Udya Parik.
the personality of children upto twelve years of age. Young
children are very much interested in listening to stories about It consists of 24 cartoons like drawings depicting everyday

animals and in playing with animals. Before administering situations of frustration or stress involving his individuals,

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
one of whom is usually shown as frustrating the other. The meaning thereby the unrestricted state of the mind associates
subject is asked to write or say in the blank caption box, freely the dream objects and activities.
above the head of the frustrated individual, the first Because of the absence of the mental element, the truth of the
association that comes into his mind as appropriate. Then unconscious mind is expressed by which the psycho analyst
associations reveal areas of conflict, anxieties and stress in discovers many peculiarities of a character. Its main difficulty
the life of the individual. lies in the need for a skilled and experienced psycho-analyst.
Often the psycho-analyst analyses his own mind in order to
8. The Incomplete Sentence Technique: remove the possibility of any prejudice.
The incomplete sentence technique given by Rotter, Stein and
many others is a type of paper-and-pencil personality 5. Physical Test Methods or Physiological Methods:
inventory which has features of an association test as well as In physiological methods of assessment of personality
of a projective technique. The subject is represented with a following instruments are commonly used:
number of incomplete sentences which he finishes in any way 1. Pneumograph:
that he likes. It is used for measuring the rate of respiratory activity of the
individual.
A specimen of this technique is given in Appendix III. It is
said the portions supplied reveal wishes, anxieties conflicts, 2. Plenthysmograph:
healthy or unhealthy attitudes. The examiner tries to see the It is used for measuring the individual’s Blood pressure.
total pattern of attitudes and feelings revealed in the series of
responses and uses it as part of the total study of the 3. Shymograph:

individual. It is used for measuring the activity of heart.

4. The Psycho-Analytic Method: 4. Electrocardiograph:

This method was propounded by Sigmund Freud, the father It is used for measuring the activity-of-heart.

of the School of Psycho-analysis.


5. Electro-encephalograph:

Two types of tests, in the Psycho-analytic method of It is used for measuring the electrical activity in the human

investigation of Personality are very popular viz.: brain,

(1) Free Association Test.


6. Graphology:
(2) Dream Analysis Method.
The individual’s personality is assessed through a study of his
Both these tests show the peculiarities of the Personality, in
handwriting.
its unconscious aspect. Free association is a technique used in
psychoanalytic therapy to help patients learn more about what
7. Electromyogram:
they are thinking and feeling.. Freud used free association to
It is used for measuring muscular activity.
help his patients discover unconscious thoughts and feelings
that had been repressed or ignored. In the dream analysis, the
subject describes his dream and without using the mind, ALTERATION IN PERSONALITY

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
Healthy people differ significantly in their overall between questions and answers. For example, people may
personality, mood, and behavior. However, a sudden, major jump from one topic to another without ever finishing a
change in personality or behavior, particularly one that is thought called as flight of idea.
not related to an obvious event (such as taking a drug or Disorganized behavior
losing a loved one), often indicates a problem. Disorganized behavior refers to doing quite unusual things
Changes in personality and behavior can be roughly (such as undressing or shouting in a class ) or to being
categorized as one of the following: unable to behave normally. People with disorganized
• Confusion or delirium behavior typically have trouble doing normal daily
• Delusions activities.
• Disorganized speech or behavior Hallucinations

• Hallucinations Hallucination is an experience involving the apparent

• Mood changes perception of something not present. Hallucinations refers to

These categories are not disorders. They are different types hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, or feeling things that are

of abnormal thought, speech, and behavior. These changes not actually there. That is, people perceive things,

in personality and behavior can be caused by physical or seemingly through their senses, that are not caused by an

mental health problems. outside stimulus. Most common hallucinations involve

people with confusion due to a drug interaction may have auditory hallucinations. Some types of hallucinations are

hallucinations, and people with mood extremes may have more likely to be caused by a neurologic disorder. For

delusions. example, before a seizure occurs, people may smell

Confusion and delirium something when there is no smell.

Confusion and delirium refer to a disturbance of Mood changes

consciousness in which people are less aware of their Mood extremes include outbursts of rage, periods of

environment and, depending on the cause, may be extreme elation such as mania. or no emotion such as

excessively agitated and belligerent or drowsy and sluggish. appearing unresponsive .

Their thinking appears cloudy and slow or inappropriate. Causes

Speech may be slurred. Often, people do not know what day • Mental disorders

it is, and they may not be able to say where they are. • Drugs
Delusions • Medical disorders that affect mainly the brain
Delusions are fixed false beliefs that people hold despite • Systemic disorders that also affect the brain
evidence against those beliefs. Some delusions are based on Mental disorders
a misinterpretation of actual perceptions and experiences. It include
For example, people may feel persecuted, thinking that a Bipolar disorder, Depression, Schizophrenia, Posttraumatic,
person behind them on the college area is following them. stress disorder
Other delusions are easier to identify. For example, in Drugs
religious or grandiose delusions, people may believe they Drugs may affect personality or behavior when they cause
are god or the prime minister of the country. • Intoxication of drugs Particularly alcohol
Disorganized speech amounts), amphetamines, cocaine, hallucinogens (su
Disorganized speech refers to speech that does not contain ch as LSD), andphencyclidine (PCP)
the expected logical connections between thoughts or
Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur
A Text Book of Psychology
• Withdrawal: Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, • A complete blood count (CBC)
and opioids etc. • is not available
• Side effects (see Drug Effectiveness and Safety): Treatment:
Drugs intended to affect brain function The underlying condition is corrected or treated when
(including anticonvulsants,antidepressants, antipsych possible. Whatever the cause, people who are a danger to
otics, sedatives, and stimulants), drugs with themselves or others typically need to be hospitalized and
anticholinergic effects (such as antihistamines— treated whether they are willing or not. Many states require
seeAnticholinergic: What Does It Mean?), opioid that such decisions be made by someone appointed to make
pain relievers, and corticosteroids health care decisions for the mentally ill person (called
Medical disorders that mainly affect the brain a surrogate decision maker). If the person has not appointed
Medical disorders affecting mainly the brain include a decision maker, doctors may contact the next of kin, or a
• Alzheimer disease, meningitis, encephalitis, and court may appoint an emergency guardian.
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Brain People who are not dangerous to themselves or others can
tumors, Head injuries, Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson refuse evaluation and treatment, despite the difficulties their
disease, Seizure disorders, Stroke refusal may create for themselves and their family.
Warning signs Nursing and application of personality:
In people with changes in personality or behavior, certain Knowledge of personality will help the nurse to identify
symptoms and characteristics are cause for concern. These behaviour patients and others. Nurse should acquire skill and
warning signs include knowledge as well as developing good and strong
• Symptoms that appear suddenly personality. The entire patient and other person have different
• Attempts to harm themselves or others or threats to type of behaviour pattern. Personality testing enables the
do so identification of an individual’s personality characteristics.

• Confusion or delirium These characteristics can inform how an individual is likely

• Fever to respond or cope when exposed to different situations

• Severe headache Nurse working with different age group. A knowledge of


nurse and his professional activity nurse should be aware of
• Symptoms that suggest malfunction of the brain,
their personality.
such as difficulty walking, balancing, or speaking or
Personality is deemed to play a part in an individual’s choice
vision problems
of work, with individuals’ preferencing a profession or field
• A recent head injury (within several weeks)
of work that will satisfy their personal needs. There is limited
Testing
research exploring the personality characteristics of nurses
Typically, tests include the following:
within clearly defined nursing specialty areas. Retaining
• Measurement of the oxygen level in the blood using
nurses within specialty areas has workforce implications.
a sensor clipped to the person's fingertip (called
**************
pulse oximetry)
• Blood tests to measure sugar (glucose) levels
• Blood tests to measure levels of alcohol and levels
of any anticonvulsants the person is taking
• Urine tests to check for drugs

Omprakash Swami (Author) - Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College, Jaipur

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