Equations: Bell - Ch03.indd 19 8/17/07 6:51:01 PM

Source: HVAC Equations, Data, and Rules of Thumb
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3
Equations
h v a c e q u at i o n s , d ata , a n d r u l e s o f t h u m b
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Bell_ch03.indd 19 8/17/07 6:51:01 PM

Equations
20 Pa rt 3
3.01 Airside System Equations and Derivations
A. Equations
HS = 1.08 × CFM × T
HS = 1.1 × CFM × T
HL = 0.68 × CFM × WGR.
HL = 4840 × CFM × WLB.
HT = 4.5 × CFM × h
HT = HS  HL
HS HS
SHR = =
HT H S + H L
HS = Sensible Heat (Btu/hr.)
HL = Latent Heat (Btu/hr.)
HT = Total Heat (Btu/hr.)
T = Temperature Difference (F)
WGR. = Humidity Ratio Difference (Gr.H2O/lbs.DA)
WLB. = Humidity Ratio Difference (lbs.H2O/lbs.DA)
h = Enthalpy Difference (Btu/lbs.DA)
CFM = Air Flow Rate (Cubic Feet per Minute)
SHR = Sensible Heat Ratio
m = Mass flow (lbs.DA/hr.)
ca = Specific Heat of Air (0.24 Btu/lbs.DA F)
DA = Dry Air
B. Derivations
1. Standard air conditions:
a. Temperature: 60F
b. Pressure: 14.7 psia (sea level)
c. Specific volume: 13.33 ft.3/lbs.DA
d. Density: 0.075 lbs./ft.3
e. L V = Latent heat of water @60F: 1060 Btu/lbs.
2. Sensible heat equation:
HS = m × ca × T
cP = 0.24 (Btu/lbs.DA . F) × 0.075 lbs.DA/ft.3 × 60 min./hr.
= 1.08 Btu min./hr. ft.3 F
HS = 1.08 (Btu min./hr. ft.3 F) × CFM (ft.3/min.) × T (F)
HS = 1.08 × CFM × T
3. Latent heat equation:
HL = m × L V × WGR
L V = 1060 Btu/lbs.H2O × 0.075 lbs.DA/ft.3 × 60 min./hr. × 1.0 lbs.H2O/7,000 Gr.H2O
= 0.68 Btu lbs.DA min./hr.ft.3 Gr.H2O
HL = 0.68 (Btu lbs.DA min./hr.ft.3 Gr.H2O) × CFM (ft.3/min.) × WGR (Gr.H2O/lbs.DA)
HL = 0.68 × CFM × WGR
4. Total heat equation:
HT = m × h
Factor = 0.075 lbs.DA/ft.3 × 60 min./hr. = 4.5 lbs.DA min./hr.ft.3
HT = 4.5 (lbs.DA min./hr.ft.3) × CFM (ft.3/min.) × h (Btu/lbs.DA)
HT = 4.5 × CFM × h

Bell_ch03.indd 20 8/17/07 6:51:04 PM

Equations
Equations 21
3.02 Waterside System Equations and Derivations
A. Equations
H = 500 × GPM × T
TONS × 24
GPM EVAP. =
∆T
TONS × 30
GPM COND. =
∆T
H = Total Heat (Btu/hr.)
GPM = Water Flow Rate (Gallons per Minute)
TONS = Air Conditioning Load (Tons)
GPM EVAP. = Evaporator Water Flow Rate (Gallons per Minute)
GPM COND. = Condenser Water Flow Rate (Gallons per Minute)
cw = Specific Heat of Water (1.0 Btu/lbs.H2O)
B. Derivations
1. Standard water conditions:
a. Temperature: 60F
b. Pressure: 14.7 psia (sea level)
c. Density: 62.4 lbs./ft.3
2. Water equation
H = m × cw × T
cw = 1.0 Btu/Lb H2O F × 62.4 lbs.H2O/ft3 × 1.0 ft3 / 7.48052 gal. × 60 min./hr.
= 500 Btu min./hr. F gal.
H = 500 Btu min./hr. F gal. × GPM (gal./min.) × T (F)
H = 500 × GPM × T
3. Evaporator equation:
GPMEVAP = H/(500 × T)
Factor = 12,000 Btu/hr./1.0 tons  500 Btu min./hr. F gal.
= 24F gal./tons min.
GPMEVAP = tons (tons) × 24 (F gal./tons min.) / T (F)
GPMEVAP = tons × 24 / T
4. Condenser equation:
GPMCOND = 1.25 × GPMEVAP = 1.25 × tons × 24 / T
GPMCOND = tons × 30 / T
3.03 Air Change Rate Equations
AC CFM × 60
=
HR VOLUME
AC
× VOLUME
CFM = HR
60
AC/HR. = Air Change Rate per Hour

VOLUME = Space Volume (Cubic Feet)

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Equations
22 Pa rt 3
3.04 English/Metric Airside System Equations Comparison
A. Sensible Heat Equations
Btu min.
H S = 1.08 × CFM × ∆T
Hr ft 3 � F
kJ min.
H SM = 72.42 × CMM × ∆TM
hr . m3 �C
B. Latent Heat Equations
Btu min. Lb DA
H L = 0.68 × CFM × ∆W
hr . ft 3 Gr H 2O
kJ min. kg DA
H LM = 177 , 734.8 × CMM × ∆WM
hr . m3kg H 2O
C. Total Heat Equations
lb min.
H T = 4.5 × CFM × ∆h
hr. ft.3
kg min.
H TM = 72.09 × CMM × ∆hM
hr. m3
HT = HS  HL
HTM = HSM  HLM
HS = Sensible Heat (Btu/hr.)

HSM = Sensible Heat (kJ/hr.)
HL = Latent Heat (Btu/hr.)
HLM = Latent Heat (kJ/hr.)
HT = Total Heat (Btu/hr.)
HTM = Total Heat (kJ/hr.)
TM = Temperature Difference (C)
W = Humidity Ratio Difference (Gr.H2O/lbs.DA)
WM = Humidity Ratio Difference (kg.H2O/kg.DA)
h = Enthalpy Difference (Btu/lbs.DA)
hM = Enthalpy Difference (kJ/lbs.DA)
CMM = Air Flow Rate (Cubic Meters per Minute)
1
3.05 English/Metric Waterside System Equation Comparison
Btu min.
H = 500 × GPM × ∆T
hr. gal. F
kJ min.
H M = 250.8 × LPM × ∆TM
hr. Liters C

Bell_ch03.indd 22 8/17/07 6:51:10 PM

Equations
Equations 23
H = Total Heat (Btu/hr.)

HM = Total Heat (kJ/hr.)
TM = Temperature Difference (C)
GPM = Water Flow Rate (Gallons per Minute)
LPM = Water Flow Rate (Liters per Minute)
3.06 English/Metric Air Change Rate Equation Comparison
min.
CFM × 60
AC hr.
=
HR VOLUME
min.
CMM × 60
AC hr.
=
HRM VOLUME M
AC/HR. = Air Change Rate per Hour – English

AC/HR.M = Air Change Rate per Hour – Metric
AC/HR. = AC/HR.M
VOLUME = Space Volume (Cubic Feet)
VOLUMEM = Space Volume (Cubic Meters)
CMM = Air Flow Rate (Cubic Meters per Minute)
3.07 English/Metric Temperature and Other Conversions
F = 1.8 C  32
 F − 32
C =
1.8
F = degrees Fahrenheit
C = degrees Celsius
kJ/hr. = Btu/hr. × 1.055
CMM = CFM × 0.02832
LPM = GPM × 3.785
kJ/kg = Btu/lbs. × 2.326
meters = ft. × 0.3048
sq. meters = sq. ft. × 0.0929
cu. meters = cu. ft. × 0.02832
kg = lbs. × 0.4536
1.0 GPM = 500 lbs. steam/hr.
1.0 lb. stm. / hr. = 0.002 GPM
1.0 lb. H2O / hr. = 1.0 lbs. steam/hr.
kg / cu. meter = lbs. / cu. ft. × 16.017 (Density)
cu. meters / kg = cu. ft. / lbs. × 0.0624 (Specific Volume)
kg H2O / kg DA = Gr.H2O / lbs.DA / 7,000 = lbs.H2O/lbs.DA

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Equations
24 Pa rt 3
3.08 Steam and Condensate Equations
A. General
BTU / HR BTU / HR
LBS.STM. / HR = =
H FG 960
EDR
LBS.STM.COND. / HR =
4
BTU / HR
EDR =
240
GPM × 500 × SP.GR. × Cw × ∆T
H FG
CFM × 60 × D × Ca × ∆T
H FG
B. Approximating Condensate Loads

GPM (WATER) × ∆T
2
GPM (FUEL OIL) × ∆T
4
CFM (AIR) × ∆T
900
stm. = Steam
GPM = Quantity of Liquid in Gallons per Minute
CFM = Quantity of Gas or Air in Cubic Feet per Minute
SP.GR. = Specific Gravity
D = Density in lbs./cubic feet
Ca = Specific Heat of Air (0.24 Btu/lb.)
Cw = Specific Heat of Water (1.00 Btu/lb.)
HFG = Latent Heat of Steam in Btu/lbs. at Steam Design Pressure (ASHRAE Fundamen-
tals or Part 45)
T = Final Temperature minus Initial Temperature
EDR = Equivalent Direct Radiation
3.09 Building Envelope Heating Equation

and R-Values/U-Values
H = U × A × T
1 1
R= = × Thickness
C K
1
U=
∑R

A = Area (sq.ft.)
U = U-Value (Btu./hr. sq.ft. F): See Part 35 for Definitions.
R = R-Value (hr. sq.ft. F/Btu.): See Part 35 for Definitions.

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Equations
Equations 25
C = Conductance (Btu./hr. sq.ft. F): See Part 35 for Definitions.

K = Conductivity (Btu. in./hr. sq.ft. F): See Part 35 for Definitions.
R = Sum of the Individual R-Values
3.10 Fan Laws
CFM 2 RPM 2
=
CFM1 RPM1
2 2
SP2 CFM 2   RPM 2 
= =
SP1  CFM1   RPM1 

3 3 1.5
BHP2 CFM 2   RPM 2   SP2 
= = =
BHP1  CFM1   RPM1   SP1 
CFM × SP × SP.GR.
BHP =
6356 × FAN EFF.
BHP
MHP =
M / DEFF .
CFM = Cubic Feet/Minute Air Density = Constant

RPM = Revolutions/Minute SP.GR.(Air) = 1.0
SP = in. W.G. FANEFF = 65–85%
BHP = Break Horsepower M/DEFF = 80–95%
Fan Size = Constant M/D = Motor/Drive
3.11 Pump L.ws
GPM 2 RPM 2
=
GPM1 RPM1
2 2
HD2 GPM 2   RPM 2 
= =
HD1  GPM1   RPM1 
3 3 1.5
BHP2 GPM 2   RPM 2   HD2 
= = =
BHP1  GPM1   RPM1   HD1 
GPM × HD × SP.GR.
BHP =
3960 × PUMPEFF.
BHP
MHP =
M / DEFF.
V2
VH =
2g
P × 2.31
HD =
SP.GR.
GPM = Gallons/Minute
RPM = Revolutions/Minute
HD = ft. H2O
BHP = Break Horsepower

Bell_ch03.indd 25 8/17/07 6:51:20 PM

Equations
26 Pa rt 3
Pump Size = Constant

Water Density = Constant
SP.GR. = Specific Gravity of Liquid with respect to Water
SP.GR.(Water) = 1.0
PUMPEFF = 60–80%
M/DEFF = 85–95%
M/D = Motor/Drive
P = Pressure in psi
VH = Velocity Head in ft.
V = Velocity in ft./sec.
g = Acceleration due to Gravity (32.16 ft./sec.2)
3.12 Pump Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Calculations
NPSHAVAIL  NPSHREQ’D
NPSHAVAIL = HA  HS  HF  HVP
NPSH AVAIL = Net Positive Suction Available at Pump (feet)

NPSH REQ’D = Net Positive Suction Required at Pump (feet)
HA = Pressure at Liquid Surface (Feet – 34 feet for Water at Atmospheric Pressure)
HS = Height of Liquid Surface Above () or Below (–) Pump (feet)
HF = Friction Loss between Pump and Source (feet)
HVP = Absolute Pressure of Water Vapor at Liquid Temperature (feet – ASHRAE
Fundamentals or Part 45)
Note: Calculations may also be performed in psig, provided that all values are in psig.
3.13 Mixed Air Temperature
 CFM RA   CFM OA 
TMA = TROOM × + T ×
 CFM SA   OA CFM SA 
 CFM RA   CFM OA 
TMA = TRA ×  + TOA ×
 CFM SA   CFM SA 
CFMSA = Supply Air CFM

CFMRA = Return Air CFM
CFMOA = Outside Air CFM
TMA = Mixed Air Temperature (F)
TROOM = Room Design Temperature (F)
TRA = Return Air Temperature (F)
TOA = Outside Air Temperature (F)
3.14 Psychrometric Equations
PW
w = 0.622 ×
P − PW
WACTUAL
RH ≅ × 100%
WSAT

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Equations
Equations 27
PW
RH = × 100%
PSAT
HS = m × cP × T
HL = Lv × m × W
HT = m × h
W=
(2501 − 2.381 T )(W ) − (T − T )
WB SAT WB DB WB
(2501 + 1..805 T − 4.186 T )

DB WB
W=
(1093 − 0.556 T )(W ) − (0.240)(T − T )
WB SAT WB DB WB
(1093 + 0.444 T − T ) DB WB
W = Specific Humidity, lbs.H2O/lbs.DA or Gr.H2O/lbs.DA

WACTUAL = Actual Specific Humidity, lbs.H2O/lbs.DA or Gr.H2O/lbs.DA
WSAT = Saturation Specific Humidity at the Dry Bulb Temperature
WSAT WB = Saturation Specific Humidity at the Wet Bulb Temperature
PW = Partial Pressure of Water Vapor, lb./sq.ft.
P = Total Absolute Pressure of Air/Water Vapor Mixture, lb./sq.ft.
PSAT = Saturation Partial Pressure of Water Vapor at the Dry Bulb Temperature,
lb./sq.ft.
RH = Relative Humidity, %
HS = Sensible Heat, Btu/hr.
HL = Latent Heat, Btu/hr.
HT = Total Heat, Btu/hr.
m = Mass Flow Rate, lbs.DA/hr. or lbs.H2O/hr.
cP = Specific Heat, Air––0.24 Btu/lbs.DA, Water––1.0 Btu/lbs.H2O
TDB = Dry Bulb Temperature, F
TWB = Wet Bulb Temperature, F
T = Temperature Difference, F
W = Specific Humidity Difference, lbs.H2O/lbs.DA or Gr.H2O/lbs.DA
h = Enthalpy Difference, Btu/lbs.DA
L V = Latent Heat of Vaporization, Btu/lbs.H2O
3.15 Ductwork Equations
TP = SP  VP
 V 
VP = 
2
=
(V ) 2

 4005  (4005)
2
Q Q × 144
V= =
A W ×H
1.3 × (A × B)
0.625
DEQ =
(A + B)
0.25

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Equations
28 Pa rt 3
TP = Total Pressure
SP = Static Pressure, Friction Losses
VP = Velocity Pressure, Dynamic Losses
V = Velocity, ft./min.
Q = Flow through Duct, CFM
A = Area of Duct, sq.ft.
W = Width of Duct, in.
H = Height of Duct, in.
DEQ = Equivalent Round Duct Size for Rectangular Duct, in.
A = One Dimension of Rectangular Duct, in.
B = Adjacent Side of Rectangular Duct, in.
3.16 Equations for Flat Oval Ductwork

FLAT SPAN
MINOR AXIS
MAJOR AXIS
FS = MAJOR  MINOR
(FS × MINOR) +
(π × MINOR )
2
A= 4
144
P=
(π × MINOR) + (2 × FS)
12
1.55 × (A)
0.625
DEQ =
(P)
0.25
FS = Flat Span Dimension in Inches

MAJOR = Major Axis Dimension in Inches (Larger Dimension)
MINOR = Minor Axis Dimension in Inches (Smaller Dimension)
A = Cross-sectional Area in Square Feet
P = Perimeter or Surface Area in Square Feet per Lineal Feet
DEQ = Equivalent Round Duct Diameter
3.17 Steel Pipe Equations
A = 0.785 × ID 2
WP = 10.6802 × T × (OD  T)

Bell_ch03.indd 28 8/17/07 6:51:30 PM

Equations
Equations 29
WW = 0.3405 × ID 2
OSA = 0.2618 × OD
ISA = 0.2618 × ID
AM = 0.785 × (OD 2  ID 2)
A = Cross Sectional Area (sq.in.)

WP = Weight of Pipe per Foot (lbs.)
WW = Weight of Water per Foot (lbs.)
T = Pipe Wall Thickness (in.)
ID = Inside Diameter (in.)
OD = Outside Diameter (in.)
OSA = Outside Surface Area per Foot (sq.ft.)
ISA = Inside Surface Area per Foot (sq.ft.)
AM = Area of the Metal (sq.in.)
3.18 Steam and Steam Condensate Pipe Sizing Equations
A. Steam Pipe Sizing Equations
(0.01306) × W 2 × 1 + 3ID.6

∆P =
3600 × D × ID5
∆P × D × ID5
W = 60 ×
 3.6
0.01306 × 1 + 
 ID 
W = 0.41667 × V × AINCHES × D = 60 × V × AFEET × D
2.4 × W W
V= =
AINCHES × D 60 × AFEET × D
P = Pressure Drop per 100 ft. of Pipe, psig/100 ft.

W = Steam Flow Rate, lbs./hr.
ID = Actual Inside Diameter of Pipe, in.
D = Average Density of Steam at System Pressure, lbs./cu.ft.
V = Velocity of Steam in Pipe, ft./min.
AINCHES = Actual Cross Sectional Area of Pipe, sq.in.
AFEET = Actual Cross Sectional Area of Pipe, sq.ft.
B. Steam Condensate Pipe Sizing Equations
HS − HS
FS = SS CR
× 100
HL
CR
FS
WCR = ×W
100
FS = Flash Steam, Percentage %

HSSS = Sensible Heat at Steam Supply Pressure, Btu/lbs.
HSCR = Sensible Heat at Condensate Return Pressure, Btu/lbs.
HLCR = Latent Heat at Condensate Return Pressure, Btu/lbs.

Bell_ch03.indd 29 8/17/07 6:51:30 PM

Equations
30 Pa rt 3
W = Steam Flow Rate, lbs./hr.

WCR = Condensate Flow based on percentage of Flash Steam created during condensing
process, lbs/hr. Use this flow rate in the preceding steam equations to determine
the condensate return pipe size.
3.19 Air Conditioning Condensate
CFM × ∆WLB.
GPM AC COND =
SpV × 8.33
CFM × ∆WGR.
GPM AC COND =
SpV × 8.33 × 7000
GPMAC COND = Air Conditioning Condensate Flow (gal./min.)

CFM = Air Flow Rate (cu.ft./min.)
SpV = Specific Volume of Air (cu.ft./lbs.DA)
WLB. = Specific Humidity (lbs.H2O/lbs.DA)
WGR. = Specific Humidity (Gr.H2O/lbs.DA)
3.20 Humidification
W  W 
GRAINSREQ'D =  GR.  −  GR. 
 SpV ROOM AIR  SpV SUPPLY AIR
W  W 
POUNDSREQ'D =  LB.  −  LB. 
 SpV ROOM AIR  SpV SUPPLY AIR
CFM × GRAINSREQ ' D × 60
LBS.STM . / HR = = CFM × POUNDSREQ ' D × 60
7000
GRAINSREQ’D = Grains of Moisture Required (Gr.H2O/cu.ft.)

POUNDSREQ’D = Pounds of Moisture Required (lbs.H2O/cu.ft.)
CFM = Air Flow Rate (cu.ft./min.)
SpV = Specific Volume of Air (cu.ft./lbs.DA)
WGR. = Specific Humidity (Gr.H2O/lbs.DA)
WLB. = Specific Humidity (lbs.H2O/lbs.DA)
3.21 Humidifier Sensible Heat Gain
HS = (0.244 × Q × T)  (L × 380)
HS = Sensible Heat Gain (Btu/hr.)

Q = Steam Flow (lbs. steam/hr.)
T = Steam Temperature – Supply Air Temperature (F)
L = Length of Humidifier Manifold (ft.)

Bell_ch03.indd 30 8/17/07 6:51:34 PM

Equations
Equations 31
3.22 Expansion Tanks
 v 2  
  − 1 − 3α∆T
 v1  
CLOSED VT = VS × 
 PA PA 
P − P 
 1 2 
  v   
OPEN VT = 2 × VS ×  2  − 1 − 3α∆T
T
  v1   
 v 2  
  − 1 − 3α∆T
 v1  
DIAPHRAGM VT = VS × 
P 
1−  1
 P2 
VT = Volume of Expansion Tank (Gallons)

VS = Volume of Water in Piping System (Gallons)
T = T2  T1 (F)
T1 = Lower System Temperature (F)
Heating Water T1 = 45–50F Temperature at Fill Condition
Chilled Water T1 = Supply Water Temperature
Dual Temperature T1 = Chilled Water Supply Temperature
T2 = Higher System Temperature (F)
Heating Water T2 = Supply Water Temperature
Chilled Water T2 = 95F Ambient Temperature (Design Weather Data)
Dual Temperature T2 = Heating Water Supply Temperature
PA = Atmospheric Pressure (14.7 psia)
P1 = System Fill Pressure/Minimum System Pressure (psia)
P2 = System Operating Pressure/Maximum Operating Pressure (psia)
v1 = SpV of H2O at T1 (cu.ft./lbs.H2O) ASHRAE Fundamentals or Part 45
v2 = SpV of H2O at T2 (cu.ft./lbs.H2O) ASHRAE Fundamentals or Part 45
 = Linear Coefficient of Expansion
STEEL = 6.5 × 106
COPPER = 9.5 × 106
System Volume Estimate:
12 gal./ton
35 gal./BHP
System Fill Pressure/Minimum System Pressure Estimate:
Height of System  5 to 10 psi OR 5–10 psi, whichever is greater.
System Operating Pressure/Maximum Operating Pressure Estimate:
150 lbs. Systems 45–125 psi
250 lbs. Systems 125–225 psi
3.23 Air Balance Equations
SA = Supply Air
RA = Return Air
OA = Outside Air
EA = Exhaust Air
RFA = Relief Air
SA = RA  OA = RA  EA  RFA

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Equations
32 Pa rt 3
If minimum OA (ventilation air) is greater than EA, then
OA = EA  RFA
If EA is greater than minimum OA (ventilation air), then
OA = EA RFA = 0
For Economizer Cycle:
OA = SA = EA  RFA RA = 0
3.24 Efficiencies
BTU OUTPUT EER

COP = =
BTU INPUT 3.413
BTU OUTPUT
EER =
WATTS INPUT
12,000 BTU / HR TON
KW / TON =
COP × 3, 517 BTU / HR KW
Turndown Ratio = Maximum Firing Rate: Minimum Firing Rate (e.g., 5:1, 10:1, 25:1)
GROSS BTU OUTPUT

OVERALL THERMAL EFF . = × 100%
GROSS BTU INPUT
BTU INPUT − BTU STACK LOSS

COMBUSTION EFF . = × 100%
BTU INPUT
Overall Thermal Efficiency Range 75–90%
Combustion Efficiency Range 85–95%
3.25 Cooling Towers and Heat Exchangers
APPROACHCT'S = LWT  AWB

APPROACHHE'S = EWTHS  LWTCS
RANGE = EWT  LWT
EWT = Entering Water Temperature (F)

LWT = Leaving Water Temperature (F)
AWB = Ambient Wet Bulb Temperature (Design WB – F)
HS = Hot Side
CS = Cold Side
3.26 Cooling Tower/Evaporative Cooler Blowdown Equations
C=
(E + D + B)
(D + B)
E − (C − 1) × D
B=
(C − 1)
Bell_ch03.indd 32 8/17/07 6:51:41 PM

Equations
Equations 33
E = GPMCOND. × R × 0.0008
D = GPMCOND. × 0.0002
R = EWT  LWT
B = Blowdown, GPM
C = Cycles of Concentration
D = Drift, GPM
E = Evaporation, GPM
EWT = Entering Water Temperature, F
LWT = Leaving Water Temperature, F
R = Range, F
3.27 Electricity
A. General
KVA = KW  KVAR
B. Single-Phase Power
V × A × PF
KW1φ =
1000
V×A
KVA1φ =
1000
V × A × PF × DEVICE EFF.
BHP1φ =
746
BHP1φ
MHP1φ =
M / DEFF.
C. Three-Phase Power
3 × V × A × PF
KW3φ =
1000
3 ×V × A
KVA3φ =
1000
3 × V × A × PF × DEVICE EFF.
BHP3φ =
746
BHP3φ
MHP3φ =
M / DEFF.
KVA = Total Power (Kilovolt Amps)

KW = Real Power, Electrical Energy (Kilowatts)
KVAR = Reactive Power or “Imaginary” Power (Kilovolt Amps Reactive)
V = Voltage (Volts)
A = Current (Amps)
PF = Power Factor (0.75–0.95)
BHP = Break Horsepower
MHP = Motor Horsepower

Bell_ch03.indd 33 8/17/07 6:51:41 PM

Equations
34 Pa rt 3
EFF = Efficiency
M/D = Motor Drive
3.28 Moisture Condensation on Glass
 R 
TGLASS = TROOM −  IA × (TROOM − TOA )
 RGLASS 
U 
TGLASS = TROOM −  GLASS × (TROOM − TOA )
U
 IA 
If TGLASS < DPROOM condensation occurs
T = Temperature (F)
R = R-Value (hr. sq.ft. F/Btu)
U = U-Value (Btu./hr. sq.ft. F)
IA = Inside Airfilm
OA = Design Outside Air Temperature
DP = Dewpoint
3.29 Calculating Heating Loads for Loading Docks,

Heavily Used Vestibules and Similar Spaces
A. Find volume of space to be heated (cu.ft.).
B. Determine acceptable warm-up time for space (min.).
C. Divide volume by time (CFM).
D. Determine inside and outside design temperatures––assume inside space tem-

perature has dropped to the outside design temperature because doors have
been open for an extended period of time.
E. Use sensible heat equation to determine heating requirement using CFM and
inside and outside design temperatures determined earlier in this Part.
3.30 Ventilation of Mechanical Rooms with

Refrigeration Equipment
A. For a more detailed description of ventilation requirements for mechanical rooms

with refrigeration equipment, see ASHRAE Standard 15 and Part 8.
B. Completely Enclosed Equipment Rooms

CFM = 100 × G 0.5
CFM = Exhaust Air Flow Rate Required (cu.ft./minute)
G = Mass of Refrigerant of Largest System (pounds)
C. Partially Enclosed Equipment Rooms

FA = G 0.5
FA = Ventilation Free Opening Area (sq.ft.)
G = Mass of Refrigerant of Largest System (Pounds)

Bell_ch03.indd 34 8/17/07 6:51:44 PM

Equations
Equations 35
3.31 Pipe Expansion Equations
A. L-Bends
L = 6.225 × ∆D
F = 500 LB. / PIPE DIA. × PIPE DIA.
L = Length of Leg Required to Accommodate Thermal Expansion or Contraction, Feet

 = Thermal Expansion or Contraction of Long Leg, Inches
D = Pipe Outside Diameter, Inches
F = Force Exerted by Pipe Expansion or Contraction on Anchors and Supports, lbs. See Tables
in Part 18 for solved equations.
B. Z-Bends
L = 4 × ∆D
F = 200  500 LB. / PIPE DIA. × PIPE DIA.
L = Length of Offset Leg Required to Accommodate Thermal Expansion or Contraction, Feet

 = Anchor to Anchor Expansion or Contraction, Inches
D = Pipe Outside Diameter, Inches
F = Force Exerted by Pipe Expansion or Contraction on Anchors and Supports, lbs. See Tables
in Part 18 for solved equations.
C. U-Bends or Expansion Loops

Bell_ch03.indd 35 8/17/07 6:51:45 PM

Equations
36 Pa rt 3
L = 6.225 × ∆D
F = 200 LB. / PIPE DIA. × PIPE DIA.
L = 2H  W
H = 2W
L = 5W
L = L
ength of Loop Required to Accommodate Thermal Expansion or Contraction, ft.
 = Anchor to Anchor Expansion or Contraction, in.
D = Pipe Outside Diameter, in.
F = Force Exerted by Pipe Expansion or Contraction on Anchors and Supports, lbs.
3.32 Relief Valve Vent Line Maximum Length
9 × P 12 × D5 9 × P 22 × D5
L= =
C2 16 × C 2
P1 = 0.25 × (PRESSURE SETTING × 1.1) + 14.7
P2 = (PRESSURE SETTING × 1.1) + 14.7
L = Maximum Length of Relief Vent Line in Feet

D = Inside Diameter of Pipe in Inches
C = Minimum Discharge of Air in lbs./min.
3.33 Relief Valve Sizing
A. Liquid System Relief Valves––Spring-Style Relief Valves
GPM × G
A=
28.14 × KB × K V × ∆P
B. Liquid System Relief Valves––Pilot-Operated Relief Valves
GPM × G
A=
36.81 × K V × ∆P
C. Steam System Relief Valves

W
A=
51.5 × K × P × KSH × K N × KB
D. Gas and Vapor System Relief Valves––lbs./hr.
W × TZ
A=
C × K × P × KB × M
E. Gas and Vapor System Relief Valves––SCFM
SCFM × TGZ
A=
1.175 × C × K × P × K B

Bell_ch03.indd 36 8/17/07 6:51:49 PM

Equations
Equations 37
F. Relief Valve Equation Definitions

1. A = Minimum required effective relief valve discharge area (sq.in.)
2. GPM = Required relieving capacity at flow conditions (gal./min.)
3. W = Required relieving capacity at flow conditions (lbs./hr.)
4. SCFM = Required relieving capacity at flow conditions (standard cu.ft./min.)
5. G = Specific gravity of liquid, gas, or vapor at flow conditions
Water = 1.0 for most HVAC applications
Air = 1.0
6. C = Coefficient determined from expression of ratio of specific heats
C = 315 if value is unknown
7. K = Effective coefficient of discharge
K = 0.975
8. KB = Capacity correction factor due to back pressure
KB = 1.0 for atmospheric discharge systems
9. KV = Flow correction factor due to viscosity
KV = 0.9 to 1.0 for most HVAC applications with water
10. KN = Capacity correction factor for dry saturated steam at set pressures above
1500 psia and up to 3200 psia
KN = 1.0 for most HVAC applications
11. KSH = Capacity correction factor due to the degree of superheat
KSH = 1.0 for saturated steam
12. Z = Compressibility factor
Z = 1.0 if value is unknown
13. P = Relieving pressure (psia)
P = Set pressure (psig)  over pressure (10% psig)  atmospheric pressure
(14.7 psia)
14. P = Differential pressure (psig)
P = Set pressure (psig)  over pressure (10% psig)  back pressure (psig)
15. T = Absolute temperature (R = F  460)
16. M = Molecular weight of the gas or vapor
G. Relief Valve Sizing Notes

1. When multiple relief valves are used, one valve shall be set at or below the maximum
allowable working pressure, and the remaining valves may be set up to 5 percent over the
maximum allowable working pressure.
2. When sizing multiple relief valves, the total area required is calculated on an over pres-
sure of 16 percent or 4 psi, whichever is greater.
3. For superheated steam, the following correction factor values may be used:
a. Superheat up to 400F: 0.97 (range 0.979–0.998)
b. Superheat up to 450F: 0.95 (range 0.957–0.977)
c. Superheat up to 500F: 0.93 (range 0.930–0.968)
d. Superheat up to 550F: 0.90 (range 0.905–0.974)
e. Superheat up to 600F: 0.88 (range 0.882–0.993)
f. Superheat up to 650F: 0.86 (range 0.861–0.988)
g. Superheat up to 700F: 0.84 (range 0.841–0.963)
h. Superheat up to 750F: 0.82 (range 0.823–0.903)
i. Superheat up to 800F: 0.80 (range 0.805–0.863)
j. Superheat up to 850F: 0.78 (range 0.786–0.836)
k. Superheat up to 900F: 0.75 (range 0.753–0.813)
l. Superheat up to 950F: 0.72 (range 0.726–0.792)
m. Superheat up to 1000F: 0.70 (range 0.704–0.774)
4. Gas and vapor properties:

Bell_ch03.indd 37 8/17/07 6:51:49 PM

Equations
38 Pa rt 3
Gas and vapor properties

Molecular Ratio of Specific Coefficient Specific
Gas or Vapor
Weight Heats C Gravity
Acetylene 26.04 1.25 342 0.899
Air 28.97 1.40 356 1.000
Ammonia (R-717) 17.03 1.30 347 0.588
Argon 39.94 1.66 377 1.379
Benzene 78.11 1.12 329 2.696
N-Butane 58.12 1.18 335 2.006
Iso-Butane 58.12 1.19 336 2.006
Carbon Dioxide 44.01 1.29 346 1.519
Carbon Disulphide 76.13 1.21 338 2.628
Carbon Monoxide 28.01 1.40 356 0.967
Chlorine 70.90 1.35 352 2.447
Cyclohexane 84.16 1.08 325 2.905
Ethane 30.07 1.19 336 1.038
Ethyl Alcohol 46.07 1.13 330 1.590
Ethyl Chloride 64.52 1.19 336 2.227
Ethylene 28.03 1.24 341 0.968
Helium 4.02 1.66 377 0.139
N-Heptane 100.20 1.05 321 3.459
Hexane 86.17 1.06 322 2.974
Hydrochloric Acid 36.47 1.41 357 1.259
Hydrogen 2.02 1.41 357 0.070
Hydrogen Chloride 36.47 1.41 357 1.259
Hydrogen Sulphide 34.08 1.32 349 1.176
Methane 16.04 1.31 348 0.554
Methyl Alcohol 32.04 1.20 337 1.106
Methyl Butane 72.15 1.08 325 2.491
Methyl Chloride 50.49 1.20 337 1.743
Natural Gas 19.00 1.27 344 0.656
Nitric Oxide 30.00 1.40 356 1.036
Nitrogen 28.02 1.40 356 0.967
Nitrous Oxide 44.02 1.31 348 1.520
N-Octane 114.22 1.05 321 3.943
Oxygen 32.00 1.40 356 1.105
N-Pentane 72.15 1.08 325 2.491
Iso-Pentane 72.15 1.08 325 2.491
Propane 44.09 1.13 330 1.522
R-11 137.37 1.14 331 4.742
R-12 120.92 1.14 331 4.174
R-22 86.48 1.18 335 2.985
R-114 170.93 1.09 326 5.900
R-123 152.93 1.10 327 5.279
R-134a 102.03 1.20 337 3.522
Sulfur Dioxide 64.04 1.27 344 2.211
Toluene 92.13 1.09 326 3.180
3.34 Motor Drive Formulas
DFP × RPMFP = DMP × RPMMP

BL = [(DFP + DMP) × 1.5708] + (2 × L)
DFP = Fan Pulley Diameter

DMP = Motor Pulley Diameter
RPMFP = Fan Pulley RPM
RPMMP = Motor Pulley RPM
BL = Belt Length
L = Center to Center Distance of Fan and Motor Pulleys

Bell_ch03.indd 38 8/17/07 6:51:53 PM

Equations
Equations 39
3.35 Domestic Water Heater Sizing
H OUTPUT = GPH × 8.34 LBS. / GAL. × ∆T × 1.0

GPH × 8.34 LBS. / GAL. × ∆T
H INPUT =
%EFFICIENCY
H INPUT × %EFFICIENCY KW × 3413 BTU / KW
GPH = =
∆T × 8.34 LBS. / GAL. ∆T × 8.34 LBS. / GAL.
H INPUT × % EFFICIENCY KW × 3413 BTU / KW
∆T = =
GPH × 8.34 LBS. / GAL. GPH × 8.34 LBS. / GAL.
GPH × 8.34 LBS. / GAL. × ∆T × 1.0
KW =
3413 BTU / KW
THOT − TMIX
%COLD WATER =
THOT − TCOLD
TMIX − TCOLD
%HOT WATER =
THOT − TCOLD
HOUTPUT = Heating Capacity – Output

HINPUT = Heating Capacity – Input
GPH = Recovery Rate – Gallons per Hour
T = Temperature Rise – F
kW = Kilowatts
TCOLD = Temperature – Cold Water – F
THOT = Temperature – Hot Water – F
TMIX = Temperature – Mixed Water – F
3.36 Domestic Hot Water Recirculation Pump/Supply Sizing
A. Determine the approximate total length of all hot water supply and return piping.
B. Multiply this total length by 30 Btu/ft. for insulated pipe and 60 Btu/ft. for uninsu-
lated pipe to obtain the approximate heat loss.
C. Divide the total heat loss by 10,000 to obtain the total pump capacity in GPM.
D. Select a circulating pump to provide the total required GPM and obtain the head
created at this flow.
E. Multiply the head by 100 and divide by the total length of the longest run of the hot
water return piping to determine the allowable friction loss per 100 feet of pipe.
F. Determine the required GPM in each circulating loop and size the hot water return
pipe based on this GPM and the allowable friction loss as determined earlier.
3.37 Swimming Pools
A. Sizing Outdoor Pool Heater

1. Determine pool capacity in gallons – obtain from Architect if available.
Length × Width × Depth × 7.5 gal./cu.ft. (If depth is not known, assume an average
depth of 5.5 feet.)

Bell_ch03.indd 39 8/17/07 6:51:54 PM

Equations
40 Pa rt 3
2. Determine heat pick-up time in hours from Owner.

3. Determine pool water temperature in degrees F from the Owner. If Owner does not
specify temperature, assume 80F.
4. Determine the average air temperature on the coldest month in which the pool will
be used.
5. Determine the average wind velocity in miles per hour. For pools less than 900 square
feet and where the pool is sheltered by nearby buildings, fences, shrubs, etc. from the
prevailing wind, an average wind velocity of less than 3.5 mph may be assumed. The
surface heat loss factor of 5.5 Btuh/sq.ft. F in the following equation assumes a wind
velocity of 3.5 mph. If a wind velocity of less than 3.5 mph is used, multiply the equa-
tion by 0.75; for 5.0 mph, multiply the equation by 1.25; and for 10 mph, multiply the
equation by 2.0.
6. Pool heater equations:
H POOLHEATER = H HEAT −UP + H SURFACE LOSS

GAL. × 8.34 LBS. / GAL. × ∆TWATER × 1.0 BTU / LBS.F
H HEAT −UP =
HEAT PICK − UP TIME
H SURFACE LOSS = 5.5 BTU / HR SQ. FT. F × ∆TWATER/ AIR × POOL AREA

∆TWATER = TFINAL − TINITIAL

TFINAL = POOL WATER TEMPERATURE

TINITIAL = 50 F

TWATER / AIR = TFINAL − TAVERAGE AIR

H = Heating capacity (Btu/hr.)
T = Temperature difference (F)

Bell_ch03.indd 40 8/17/07 6:51:57 PM

Equations: Bell - Ch03.indd 19 8/17/07 6:51:01 PM

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Source: HVAC Equations, Data, and Rules of Thumb

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

Bell_ch03.indd 19 8/17/07 6:51:01 PM

3.01 Airside System Equations and ­Derivations

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3.02 Waterside System Equations and ­Derivations

3.03 Air Change Rate ­Equations

AC/HR. = Air Change Rate per ­Hour

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3.04 English/Metric Airside System Equations ­Comparison

A. Sensible Heat ­Equations

B. Latent Heat ­Equations

C. Total Heat ­Equations

HS = Sensible Heat (Btu/hr.)

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H = Total Heat (Btu/hr.)

3.06 English/Metric Air Change Rate Equation ­Comparison

AC/HR. = Air Change Rate per Hour – ­English

3.07 English/Metric Temperature and Other ­Conversions

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

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3.08 Steam and Condensate ­Equations

B. Approximating Condensate ­Loads

3.09 Building Envelope Heating Equation

T = Temperature Difference (F)

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C = Conductance (Btu./hr. sq.ft. F): See Part 35 for ­Definitions.

3.10 Fan ­Laws

CFM = Cubic Feet/Minute Air Density = ­Constant

3.11 Pump ­L.ws

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Pump Size = ­Constant

3.12 Pump Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) ­Calculations

NPSH AVAIL = Net Positive Suction Available at Pump (feet)

3.13 Mixed Air ­Temperature

CFMSA = Supply Air ­CFM

3.14 Psychrometric ­Equations

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(2501 + 1..805 T − 4.186 T )

W = Specific Humidity, lbs.H2O/lbs.DA or ­Gr.H2O/lbs.DA

3.15 Ductwork ­Equations

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3.16 Equations for Flat Oval ­Ductwork

FS = Flat Span Dimension in ­Inches

3.17 Steel Pipe ­Equations

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A = Cross Sectional Area (sq.in.)

3.18 Steam and Steam Condensate Pipe Sizing ­Equations

A. Steam Pipe Sizing ­Equations

(0.01306) × W 2 × 1 + 3ID.6

P = Pressure Drop per 100 ft. of Pipe, psig/100 ­ft.

B. Steam Condensate Pipe Sizing ­Equations

FS = Flash Steam, Percentage %

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Bell_ch03.indd 29 8/17/07 6:51:30 PM

3.01 Airside System Equations and Derivations

3.02 Waterside System Equations and Derivations

3.03 Air Change Rate Equations

AC/HR. = Air Change Rate per Hour

3.04 English/Metric Airside System Equations Comparison

A. Sensible Heat Equations

B. Latent Heat Equations

C. Total Heat Equations

3.06 English/Metric Air Change Rate Equation Comparison

AC/HR. = Air Change Rate per Hour – English

3.07 English/Metric Temperature and Other Conversions

3.08 Steam and Condensate Equations

B. Approximating Condensate Loads

C = Conductance (Btu./hr. sq.ft. F): See Part 35 for Definitions.

3.10 Fan Laws

CFM = Cubic Feet/Minute Air Density = Constant

3.11 Pump L.ws

Pump Size = Constant

3.12 Pump Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Calculations

3.13 Mixed Air Temperature

CFMSA = Supply Air CFM

3.14 Psychrometric Equations

W = Specific Humidity, lbs.H2O/lbs.DA or Gr.H2O/lbs.DA

3.15 Ductwork Equations

3.16 Equations for Flat Oval Ductwork

FS = Flat Span Dimension in Inches

3.17 Steel Pipe Equations

3.18 Steam and Steam Condensate Pipe Sizing Equations

A. Steam Pipe Sizing Equations

P = Pressure Drop per 100 ft. of Pipe, psig/100 ft.

B. Steam Condensate Pipe Sizing Equations

W = Steam Flow Rate, lbs./hr.

3.19 Air Conditioning Condensate

3.21 Humidifier Sensible Heat Gain

3.22 Expansion Tanks

3.23 Air Balance Equations

If minimum OA (ventilation air) is greater than EA, then

3.25 Cooling Towers and Heat Exchangers

APPROACHCT'S = LWT  AWB

3.26 Cooling Tower/Evaporative Cooler Blowdown Equations

3.28 Moisture Condensation on Glass

B. Determine acceptable warm-up time for space (min.).

D. Determine inside and outside design temperatures––assume inside space tem-

A. For a more detailed description of ventilation requirements for mechanical rooms

B. Completely Enclosed Equipment Rooms

C. Partially Enclosed Equipment Rooms

3.31 Pipe Expansion Equations

L = Length of Leg Required to Accommodate Thermal Expansion or Contraction, Feet

L = Length of Offset Leg Required to Accommodate Thermal Expansion or Contraction, Feet

3.32 Relief Valve Vent Line Maximum Length

L = Maximum Length of Relief Vent Line in Feet

3.33 Relief Valve Sizing

A. Liquid System Relief Valves––Spring-Style Relief Valves

B. Liquid System Relief Valves––Pilot-Operated Relief Valves

C. Steam System Relief Valves

F. Relief Valve Equation Definitions

G. Relief Valve Sizing Notes

Gas and vapor properties

3.34 Motor Drive Formulas

DFP = Fan Pulley Diameter

3.35 Domestic Water Heater Sizing

HOUTPUT = Heating Capacity – Output

3.36 Domestic Hot Water Recirculation Pump/Supply Sizing