Volume 1 Number 1

JCS (1) 1-135

March 2004

The Camel Applied Research and Development Network

(CARDN)

Journal of Camel Science 1

Published by The Camel Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN).

The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
2440 Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic  963115743039-5743087 Fax 5743063
E. Mail animalwealth@acsad.org http://www.acsad.org
 I

Table of Contents

Page
Classification of the Dromedary Camels.
M. F. Wardeh …………………………………………………………………………… 1
Camel Breeds of India.
N.D. Khanna, A.K. Rai and S.N. Tandon ………………………………………………… 8
Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special Reference to Cystic and
Inactive Ovaries.
A.A. Hegazy, A.Ali, M. Al-Eknah and S. Ismail …………………………………………… 16
Physical and Biochemical Attributes of Camel Semen.
V.K. Agrawal, L. Ram, A. K. Rai, N. D. Khanna and S. P. Agarwal …………………… 25
Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel
Speramatozoa Frozen in Ampouls.
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen …………………………… 31
The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel.
M. F. Wardeh …………………………………………………………………………… 37
Maintenance Energy Requirements and Energy Utilization by Dromedary at Rest.
A. Guerouali, R.Zine Filali, M.Vermore, and M.F. Wardeh …………………………… 46
Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels and Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay.
D. Cianci, L. Gio, A. M.Hashi, S.Pastoreli, M. Kamoun, G. B. Liponi, and M. Orlandi … 52
Two Transferases and Four Electrolytes in Normal One-Humped Camel Serum.
A. Sarwar, M.A. Majeed, G. Hur and l.R. Khan ………………………………………… 57
Seasonal Variations in Haematological and Serum Biochemical Parameters in Racing
Camels.
R. Salman and M. Afzal …………………………………………….…………………… 62
Water Balance in the Camel (Camelus dromedarius).
R. Zine Filali and R. Shaw ……………………………………………………………… 66
Biochemical Adaptation of Camelids During Fasting.
J. Wensvoort, D.J. Kyle, E.R. 0rskov and D.A. Bourke …………………………………… 71
Effect of Dietary Zinc Supplementation on Wound Healing in Camels.
L. S. Fahmy, E. A. Berbish, H. M. Teleb and A. A. Hegazy ….…………………………… 76
Functional Anatomy of the Renal Pelvis in the One-Humped Camel.
H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine ……………………………………………………………… 81
Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat.
A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed ………………………………………….…… 86
Studies on Mastitis in Female Camels with Special Reference to Brucellosis.
A. A. Hegazy, A.El Dughaym, M.Alaknah, F. M.T. Housawi and M.E. Hatem ……… 96
Pathology in Camel Lungs.
R. Zubair, A. Ahmed, M. Z. Khan and M. A. Sabri ……………………………………… 103
Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies.
A.A. Hegazy, Lotfia. S. Fahmy, M.A. Aiad and A.A. Shamaa ……………………………… 107
Editor in Chief ……………………………………………………………………………..… 114
 II

The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
ACSAD was established in September 1971 within the framework of the specialized organizations of
the League of the Arab States. ACSAD's main objectives include conducting regional research, studies
and integrated development programmes in arid zones and dry lands. In addition, emphasis is directed
towards training and the exchange of knowledge and experiences. ACSAD has active cooperation with
many regional and international organizations and research institutions with similar activities.

The Camel Applied Research and Development Network

(CARDN)
CARDN was established in February 1991 with financial support by the International Fund for
Agricultural Development, The Islamic Development Bank, ACSAD and member countries. The scope
of CARDN includes countries in Asia and Africa where the camel is of economical or of special
importance. The main objectives of CARDN are:

1. To assist national research systems to improve and generate (and assist in the adoption of)
appropriate technologies in order to ensure sustainable resource use and enable long-term of
camel-based production systems;
2. to assist with the identification of problem areas;
3. to promote networking where appropriate and seek financial support for its successful operations;
4. to ensure that results from research are applied where applicable; and
5. to document and disseminate research results.

The Journal of Camel Science

The basic purpose of the Journal of Camel Science is to increase knowledge and understanding of camel
and to improve the care and productivity of camels both in commercial production and research. The
Journal of Camel Science accepts manuscripts for publication with this purpose in mind. This is a
specialized scientific journal on camels. Each paper is refereed by at least three experts in the field.

Correspondences

Dr. Muhammad F. Wardeh

Editor in Chief
ACSAD,
2440 Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
℡ 963-11-5743039-5743087 Direct 5746892 Fax 5743063
E. Mail animalwealth@acsad.org http:\www.acsad.org

Editors of Volume 1 Number 1
Dr. Muhammad F. Wardeh
Prof. Solieman Salhab
Dr. Moutaz Zarkawi
Dr. R.T. Wilson
Dr. Andre Hjort af Ornas
Professor Said Basmail
Professor Murray Fowler
Professor Lotfia Fahmy
Professor Ali A. El-Wishy
Professor Babakir E. Musa
Dr. Hadhoum Zguigal
Professor Abdalla Zaied
Dr. Abdel Wahid Jasra
Dr. Khanna N. D.
Dr. Nabil Hassan
Ms. Fayzeh Al Midani
Miss Linda Wardeh
Mr. Mazen Shehabi
III
Coordinator, CARDN. Director, Department of Studies of
Animal Wealth. The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones
and Dry Lands. P.O. Box 2440, ACSAD.
(Reproduction) Faculty of Agriculture, University of Damascus,
Syria.
(Physiology) Head, Division of Animal Production, Atomic
Energy Commission, P.O. Box 6091, Damascus, Syria.
(General) Bartidge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX 9A,
U.K.
(Socio-economics) Environmental Policy and Society, Uppsala
University, Sweden.
(Nutrition) Head, Camel Research Unit, King Saoud University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
(Surgery) Department of Medicine, School of Veterinary
Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 96516, U.S.A.
(Surgery) Department of Surgery, College of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Cairo, Giza, Egypt.
(Reproductive Physiology) Department of Physiology, College
of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cairo, Giza, Egypt.
(Reproductive Physiology) Diwan of Royal Court, Sultanate of
Oman.
(Anatomy) Department of Anatomy. Institut Agronomique et
Veterinaire Hassan II. B.P. 6206 Rabat, Morocco.
(Reproductive Physiology) Department of Reproductive
Physiology, Omar Mukhtar University, Al-Baydha, Libya.
(Range Management) Director, Range Management and Forestry,
Natural Resource Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
(PARC) Box 1031 G-5/1 Islamabad, Pakistan.
(Breeding) 9/901 Malviya Nagar Jaipur-30201 7, India.
(Nutrition) The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and
Dry Lands, (ACSAD).
(Secretary) The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and
Dry Lands. P.O. Box 2440, ACSAD.
(English) Volunteer.
(French, English) The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones
and Dry Lands (ACSAD).
 IV

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 VI

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 Classification of the Dromedary Camels

M. F. Wardeh

The Camel Applied Research and Development Network

ACSAD P.O. Box 2440 Damascus, Syria

ABSTRACT
Camels were classified into two major classes: ride and pack camels. This classification was suitable to
satisfy the needs of caravans, transport and army purposes during the first half of the 20th century. A
new system of classification is proposed based on the fact that the camel is a major component of the
agro-pastoral systems in vast pastoral areas in Asia and Africa. Camels might be classified into four
major classes: Meat, Dairy, Dual Purpose and Race camels.

Meat breed types include Jandaweel in Mauritania, Nabul in Tunisia, Kasabat in North-West Libya,
Fellahi in Southern Egypt, Delta in the Nile Delta of Egypt, and Arabi in Sudan. Dairy breed types
include the Hoor in Somalia, Fakhriya and Sirtawi in Libya, Oulad Sidi AL-Sheikh in Algeria, and
Shallageea in Sudan. Dual purpose breed types include Magribi in North Africa, Sifdar and Edimo in
Somalia, AL Rashaidi in Sudan, AL-Shameya in Syria, and AL Majaheem and Lourak in Arabia. Race
camels include the Mehari in the Sahara from Mauritania in the west to the eastern boarders of Sudan in
the east; the Anafi and Bishari in Sudan; the Rukby in Ain Safra between Mauritania, Morocco and
Algeria; Hogar in the Middle hills of Algeria; Oulad Bou Sayf in the Western Oasis of Libya and Al
Hojon in Arabia.

The main objectives of this paper include the establishment of the basis for the classification of the breed
types of the dromedary camels according to their production potentialities within the different
agro-pastoral systems.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Breed Types, CARDN).

Introduction deserts of southern areas of the former Soviet

The family camelidae is divided into two genera.
The genus camelus includes two species: Camelus
dromedarius, the dromedary, one-humped or
Arabian camel; and the Camelus bactrianus, the
bactrian or the two- humped camel. The second
genus is the llama comprising four species: llama
glama, the llama and llama pacos, the Alpaca
which are domesticated; and llama guanacoe, the
guanaco and llama vicugna, the vicuna which are
wild (Mason, 1979; Simpson, 1945).
The habitat of the dromedary is the dry hot zones
of North Africa, Ethiopia, the Near East and West
Central Asia. Bactrian camel occupies the cold
Union, Mongolia, East-Central Asia and China
(Wilson, 1984). The limeades exist in the cold
heights of Latin America.
It is believed that the dromedary camel was first
domesticated in Southern Arabia (Zeuner, 1963)
or in the Northern steppe and deserts of Arabia
(Bullet, 1975; Mikesell, 1955). Khanna (1990)
and Kohler (1982) reported that the dromedary
camels might have been separately domesticated
in India.
The camel plays vital socio-economic roles and
supports the survival of millions of people in the
semi dry and arid zones of Asia and Africa. Camel
 M. F. Wardeh
milk is the sole nourishment for the Pastoralists
for prolonged periods each year. The camel
proved it is the fit domestic animal during severe
drought periods. The camel not only survived such
droughts, but continued producing and
reproducing (Wardeh, 1989a).
From about 19.4 million camels worldwide (FAO,
2003), the dromedary accounts for 95%. The Near
East, North Africa and the Sahel region have
about 70% (12.5 million) of the world's
dromedary population. Somalia and the Sudan
together own more than half of this figure. Camels
contribute more than 26% of the animal biomass
in Mauritania, 42% in Somalia and 37% in the
United Arab Emirates. In the former two
countries, camels have retained their important
socio-economic role and constitute a large share of
animal exports. In the latter, camels have become
insignificant when compared with the oil sector,
but remain prominent in social terms. Camels
comprise 10% of the animal biomass in the Niger,
11% in the Sudan, 16% in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, and 9% in Tunisia. The biomass of the
camel in the other countries is below 10%
nevertheless it plays a considerable role in the
provision of subsistence, transport and draught
power.
The camel possesses unique qualities which make
it superior to other domesticated animals in the hot
and arid desert ecosystems. These attributes of the
camel are reinforced by its ability to traverse
considerable distances with much less effort than
other species, moving from one patch of
short-lived vegetation to another.
The future role of camels will lie in their capacity
to produce milk and meat and, to a lesser extent in
the provision of draught power and transport. If
the camel is to retain its unique position, then its
capacity to utilize low quality feed resources and
convert them into animal protein, power and other
products, must not be lost. Its physiology and
special features are therefore not only of a
scientific interest, but are the basic sustenance for
people who live in marginal dry land areas.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7
2
A New System for
Classification of Camels
The dromedary camels adapted themselves to the
ecosystems of dry and arid zones where they are
subject to harsh conditions in addition to the
severe fluctuations in the nutritional status, which
in turn affect their performance in general.
Moreover, the dromedary camels were not subject
to modern studies and improvement.
Selection to perform certain physiological
functions such as milk or meat production was not
practiced on camels. They were selected to
perform certain types of work and burden, and
were classified into two basic classes (Wilson,
1984). The two classes were the Ride and the Pack
camels. The Ride camels were subdivided into
Ride and Race camels, while the Pack camels
were subdivided into Plain and Hill camels
(Lesse, 1927). Moreover, camels were named
after tribal or territorial names (Wardeh, 1988a,
1989a; Mason, 1979; Hartly, 1979).
The new classification system aims at establishing
the foundation for selection of camels on the basis
of their performance as Meat, Dairy, Dual purpose
and Race animals. Such system of classification
will fit the requirements for the development of
camel production and the improvement of the
standard of their herders.
Meat Camels
Are characterized by the development of the
hindquarters, large hump, rigid body, relatively
short neck and large head, and heavy bones and
muscles (Wilson, 1984; Wardeh et al. 1990).
Examples of Meat camels are:
Al-Arabi: Which is referred to most pack camels
in Sudan regardless of the source (Wilson, 1984).
However, Al-Arabi is subdivided into three breed
types, the Light Pack which is found west of the
Nile and in the area of the Red Sea, where the
Hendiweneda, Beni Amer and AL-Omara tribes
keep it, and the big Arabi in the area of Bitana
where the three tribes of Shokreya, Battahin, and
Lahaween exist. The third is the Heavy Arabi
camel which is characterized by its heavy
 Classification of the Dromedary Camels
weight (over 500 kg), big hump, long neck, big
head, Roman nose, heavy bones, and sandy grey
or fawn color, usually with long hair on the hump
and the shoulders (Khouri, 2000).
Al-Jandaweel (Gandoil): Found in Southern
Mauritania along the Senegal river, but are not
typical lowland reverine camels and vary in
origin. However, they are big, well built, dark in
color and heavy animals that are mainly used for
draft (Wardeh, 1989b). The good feed of Senegal
river valley might have resulted in the
development of heavy camels.
Nabul: Found in Nabul area at the coastal zone
North Tunisia and are heavier than the other
coastal camels and have larger humps.
Al-Delta: Found in the Egyptian Delta and are
used mainly for agricultural draft and transport.
The Delta camel is not a distinctive breed in the
real sense, but a general-purpose camel that was
developed under sufficient supply of green feeds
and water and, hence attained a large size and
well-developed quarters and muscles. It can carry
heavy loads and is used to perform agricultural
functions (Wardeh et al. 1990).
Al-Fellahi: This camel breed type is kept by
farmers from whom it derived its name along the
Nile in upper (Southern) Egypt. Al-Fellahi camel
is characterized by its heavy bones and muscles,
big size and its slow pace. It is generally used in
agricultural work and transport. It also responds
well to fattening.
Dairy Camels
Are characterized by high milk production which
is not less than 2500 kg/head/season under natural
grazing conditions (Wardeh et al. 1990), the
development of the udder and milk veins, small
hump, less beefy body conformation and
relatively big abdomen. Examples are:
Hoor Camels: They are the most numerous and
widely distributed in Boucle, Herein, Galgadud,
Metage, Middle Shabbily and some parts of Gedo
regions of Somalia (Hussein, 1987). They are
characterized by their small size, short legs, and
white color.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7
3
Hoor camels are adapted to the more arid regions
of Somalia. They mature between 3-5 years of
age, but practically breed at 5-6. They lose weight
during the dry season, but have fast compensatory
growth and are very susceptible to biting flies.
The average daily milk production is 7-8 kg (2-20
kg). Milk production is about 2050 kg (800-2800
kg) during a period of 8 to 16 months.
Rashaida: Found in the Kasala area of eastern
Sudan and raised by the well-known Rashaida
tribe. They are medium sized camels, hardy, red
colored and produce sufficient amounts of milk
(2000-3000 kg/head/season) (Kohler-Rollefson et
al. 1990; Wardeh, 1989a; Khouri, 2000).
Shallageea: The Shallageea camels are found at
the coastal strip of the Red Sea in North-East
Sudan. They are sturdy and mainly browse on the
salty adlib (Suaeda fruticosa) and the similar, but
smaller (HADMAL) supplemented with the
leaves and fruits of mangrove. The Shallageea are
very skilful at walking into the sea and nipping the
lemon-like fruits from the mangrove stands (Hjort
and Dahl, 1991). Frequently, they wade so deeply
that only the head and hump are visible above
water.
The Shallageea are very good milkers, especially
during November, March and July, when the adlib
is in fruit. At the early night milking, one camel
may give up to 6 kg. Three hours later it may give
another 3.5 kg. The morning milk could then
amount to 6-7 kg (Hjort and Dahl, 1991). With
three milkings per day each animal gives a daily
yield of 15-18 kg. During good rains and excellent
pasture on the adlib side, an animal gives about
18-21 kg of milk daily.
Sirtawi: Found mainly in Sirt area in the middle
coastal zone in Libya (Wardeh, 1989b). They vary
in color from light or dark brown, medium in size,
hump is not well developed, and udder is fairly
developed. Selected females in certain private
farms and herds respond to feeding by producing
high amounts of milk (3000-4000 kg/305 days).
 M. F. Wardeh
Ould Sidi Al-Sheikh: Found in Ain Safra area
among the north-eastern boarders of Mauritania,
the south-eastern boarders of Morocco and
south-western boarders of Algeria. They are light
in color, well built with good body conformation
measuring 180 cm at the elbow. They have fairly
developed udder and are well bred by the tribe of
the same name. They produce about 2000 kg per
annum under natural range condition and respond
well to feeding in the breeding station for camel
husbandry in the same area. Milk production
might go up to 3500 kg/305 days under good
feeding conditions.
Fakhreya: Are well known for their milk
production (3500 kg/y) under natural grazing
conditions in the southern and western areas from
Benghazi in Libya (Wardeh et al. 1991b).
Dual-purpose Camels
Are characterized by medium body size, average
milk production (1000-1500 kg/ head), relatively
high rate of gain when feed is available and
medium hump (Wardeh, 1988a, b). Most of the
pack and riding camels may fit into this category
(Wardeh et al. 1990). Examples are:
Sifdar: Found in lower Shabbily river belt in
Somalia. They are tall, light, and grey to reddish
in color. They reach maturity at 5-6 years, but
breed at 6-7 years. They slowly lose weight during
the dry season and are relatively resistant to biting
flies (Hussein, 1987). Sifdar camels produce about
4 kg milk daily (2-6 kg) and about 1000 kg during
6-10 months.
Eyddimo: Camels are distributed in Bay, Gedo
and Juga regions of Somalia. They are
characterized by being very tall, heavily built, big
humped, long necked, white colored and have
Roman nose.
Eyddimo camels have a slow rate of gain during
the wet season and slow rate of weight loss during
the dry season. They mature at 7-8 years of age,
produce about 1000 kg milk during 6-10 months
(4 kg /day) and are very susceptible to biting flies
(Hussein, 1987).
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7
4
The Maghrebi: Found in most coastal zones of the
North African territories that extend from Egypt to
Morocco. The Maghrebi is a camel of several
strains that vary in size, body conformation and
color. It is believed to be a mixture of the Sudani,
Egyptian, Libyan and Tunisian camels (Wilson,
1984; Wardeh, 1989a).
The Maghrebi camel is medium in size with small
but pointed hump. Besides pack use, the Maghrebi
camel is used for all kinds of agricultural,
industrial and draft purposes. A number of types
are locally developed serve certain functions. The
Maghrebi camel generally responds to feeding and
might gain about 700-1000 grams per day during
the first year under intensive conditions.
Aririt: Found in the vast plateau west of the Red
Sea hills of Aulib in Sudan. Their main advantage
is their endurance as transport animals, they can
cover long distances at a steady pace without
water. The Aririt are also fair milk producers.
Well kept animals give 2.5-5 kg milk at the
midday and evening milking, and 3.5-5 kg in the
morning (Hjort and Dahl, 1991). The volume of
milk production depends heavily on the quality of
pasture.
Ayat Al-Khabbash: They are well-developed pack
animals and respond to fattening. They are found
about the same areas as the Chambi Bani-Abbas
camels, but raised by another tribe in Southern
Algeria.
Al-Qerawan: Found in the Qerawan district in the
middle of Tunisia. They are medium in size, well
built, have developed humps and muscles and
respond well to fattening. This camel is well
trained to perform all kinds of draft work in
agriculture and transport.
Oulad Bou Sayf, Orfella and Fezzan: Are breed
types of the Mehari and its hybrids that are found
in the western Libyan Oases. They are medium in
size, light in color and mainly utilized for riding,
pack purpose and milk production.
Tibisti: Found in southern areas of Libya and
northern Chad. They are small riding camels that
fit stony deserts.
 Classification of the Dromedary Camels 5

Al Majaheem: Found in Najd and AL Dawaser These camel are characterized by their fast growth
valley in North and North East Saudi Arabia. and fair milk production. The average mature
They are big, rigid and black in color. They are weight reaches 660-780 kg for males and 570-680
known to be good dairy animals under range kg for females (Wardeh, 1989a; ACSAD, 1983a).
conditions. They also respond to better feeding Average milk production ranges from 2550 to
and management practices where they produce an 5400 kg in 300 days (ACSAD, 1983b).
average of 3550 kg of consumable milk annually
Al-Khawar: Found in northern steppes of Syria
(AL-Motairy and Hashimi, 1988).
and western steppes of Iraq. The average mature
weights reache about 665 kg in males and 540 kg
Al Majaheem are also fast growing camels. The
in females (ACSAD, 1983b). Average milk
average birth weight is 42 kg. They reach 300 kg
production ranges from 1800 kg to 2000 kg in 15
at one year of age and about 750 kg when five
to 18 months.
years old (Wardeh, 1989a).
Lourak: Found in most parts in Arabia, but there
Race Camels
are two distinctive breed types within this group
Race camels are characterized by small heads and
of camels each of which that breeds alike:
ears; alert eyes; fine and supple neck that is joined
low down to the trunk, long and fine shoulders;
(1) Al-Maghateer: (AL Wadh or ALbeedh):
very deep chest with well sprung ribs right to the
Found mainly in North Saudi Arabia and may be
back and terminating not far from pelvic bone,
found in Syria, Iraq, Jordan and Kuwait. They are
straight and fairly close forelegs; straight and well
medium to large animals and have pure white
spaced hindlegs; well muscled quarters; medium
color (Wardeh, 1989a). Al-Maghateer are known
feet; fine and supple skin, and easy and tireless
to be good dairy camels and people liked them
pace. Race camels are also used in the police force
and have been proud of owing them through
in many countries (Wilson, 1984; Wardeh, 1989a)
history. They produce about 3500 kg of
examples are:
consumable milk per year. They vary much in
milk production within the group (AL Motairy
The Mehari or Mehri: The Mehari is a
and Hashimi, 1988).
thoroughbred race camel that descended from the
Murrah camels in the Sultanate of Oman. They are
Al Maghateer camels grow well under natural
beautiful, light colored and very famous race
range conditions and grow fast under improved
camels in the Sahara.
feeding and management practices. Average birth
weight is 40 kg. They reach 250 kg at one year of
The colonial French troops formed the Meharist
age and about 550 kg at maturity.
corp. They used the Mehari camels for riding
troop and divided them into three categories
(2) Al Homr: They are red colored camels found
according to height at withers. Camels that were
in many parts of Saudi Arabia and maintain their
190-200 cm high were used by officers, while
red color when bred together or with other breed
those of 185 cm high, were used by ranks and
types. AL Homr are fair milking animals. They
files. Any other camels with less but with a
produce about 2650 kg of consumable milk a year.
minimum of 180 cm were used as pack animals
Some individuals produced 3592 kg a year under
(Wilson, 1984).
improved conditions (AL Motairy and Hashimi,
1988). The average birth weight is 37 kg. They
The Regbi: A breed type of the Mehari that is
reach about 220 kg at one year of age and about
finely built, with a light colored coat and about
420 kg at maturity. They are also used as riding
200 cm high at the withers, found in the extreme
and pack animals.
south of Ain Safra south of Algeria and the
Al-Shameya: Found in the Syrian steppe, north of extreme north of east of Mauritania and north west
Jordan, north of Saudi Arabia and west of Iraq. of Mali.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7

 M. F. Wardeh
The Touareg or Al Tarqi: They are breed types of
the Mehari that are raised by the Touareg tribes in
the Sahara. They are also called ldrar and AL
Azwad camels.
Al Anafi: Are characterized by long legs; slender
and light body; short back; small, long head; small
narrow, upright ears; large, sharp eyes; fine, thin
skin; and white color. They are bred by
Juhayneya, AL Refaa, Kenana, Shukreya and
Kawahla tribes east of Atbara river in eastern
Sudan. AL Anafi camels are race and ride camels
which are famous for speed (7-12 km/h),
especially for the first 10 km.
Al Bishari: Are bred by Bisharian, AL Omara and
Hendiwenda of the Beja tribe in Kassala and the
Red Sea regions. They are very famous for their
racing ability and won many prizes in Saudi
Arabia (Wardeh, 1989a).
Al Bishari are small; strong; have small head with
large alert eyes; small and upright ears; Roman
nose; short and strong legs; fine and thin skin; and
white to yellow color (Khouri, 2000).
References
ACSAD. 1983a. Hamad Basin Studies. l. Natural
and human resources. Annexes 4-7. Animal
Wealth in Hamad of Syria. The Arab Center
for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry lands.
ACSAD/Hamad/Final Report-31, Damascus.
ACSAD. 1983b. Hamad Basin Studies. l. Natural
and human resources, Annexes 3-7, Animal
Wealth in Iraq. The Arab Center for the
Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands.
ACSAD/Hamad/Final report-30, Damascus.
AL- Motairy, S. and A. Hashimi. 1988. Studies on
milk production and growth rate of camels in
Saudi Arabia. In: FAO Proc. the Camel:
Development Research. Kuwait Seminar
20-23 October, 1985. MlNEADEP, FAO,
Rome. pp 53-70.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7
6
Bullet, R.W. 1975. The camel and the wheel.
Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.
327 pp.
Epstein, H. 1971. The origin of the domestic
animals of Africa. Vol. 2, African Publ. Corp.
NY.
FAO. 2003. Production Yearbook. Vol. 56 Rome.
Hartley, B.J. 1979. The dromedary of the horn of
Africa. In: Cockrill, R.W. (ed). The Camelid
an All Purpose Animal. Vol. 1: 77-97.
Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Uppsala, Sweden.
Hjort, A. and G. Dahl. 1991. Responsible man.
The Attman Beja of north-eastern Sudan.
Stockholm studies in social anthropology,
SA cooperation with Nordiska African
Institute, Uppsala, Sweden. 196 pp.
Hussein, A.M. 1987. Emir notes on camel breeds
in Somalia. Camel forum. Working paper No.
17. Somali Academy of Sciences and Arts,
Mogadishu and the Scandinavian Institute for
African Studies, Sweden.
Khanna, N.D. 1990. camels in India from
photo-historic to the present times. Ind. J.
Anim. Sci., 60: 1093-1101.
Khouri, F. 2000. Camels in Sudan: Ecology,
Production Systems, Characterization and
Herd Dynamics. The Camel Applied Research
and Development Network (CARDN). The
Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and
Dry Lands (ACSAD). CARDN/ACSAD/
Camel/ P 96/2000. 137 pp.
Kohler, I. 1982. Camel Domestication. Ph. D
dissertation. Vet. Med. ed. Druch die
tierarztliche hochschule. Hannover, Germany.
168 pp.
Kohler-Rollefson, I., B.E. Musa and M.F. Fadl.
1990. Camel breeding and management of
eastern Sudan. Camel Newsletter 6:5-8. The
Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and
Dry Lands, ACSAD, Damascus.
 Classification of the Dromedary Camels 7

Leese, A.S. 1927. A treatise on the one-humped Wilson, R.T. 1984. The camel. Longman. London
camel in health and disease. Haines and Sons and New York.
Stanford, England. 382 pp.
Zeuner, F.E. 1963. History of domesticated
Mason, I. 1979. Origins, evaluation and animals. Hutchinson, London.
distribution of domestic camels. In: Cockrill,
R.W. (ed). The Camelid an All-Purpose
Animal. Vol. 1:16-35. Scandinavian Institute
of African Studies. Uppsala, Sweden.

Mikesell, M.K. 1955. Notes on the dispersal of the

dromedary south-western. J. Anthropology,
11: 231- 245.

Simpson, G.G. 1945. The principles of

classification and a classification of mammals.
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. His., 85: 1-350.

Wardeh, M.F. 1988a. Camels in Somalia.

Agricultural and Water 7: 79-85. ACSAD,
Damascus.

Wardeh, M.F.1988b. Camel in Libya. Agricultural

and Water. 8: 56-60. ACSAD, Damascus.

Wardeh, M.F. 1989a. Arabian camels: Origin,

breeds and husbandry. Al Mallah Publ.,
Damascus. 500 pp.

Wardeh, M.F. 1989b. Camel production in the

Islamic Republic of Mauritania. Camel
Newsletter 5: 67-71. ACSAD, Damascus.

Wardeh, M.F. and M. Ould AL-Mustafa. 1990.

Camel breed types in the Arab Countries
North and West Africa. In: Arab Symp. Camel
Husbandry and Diseases and Methods of Their
Control. March 24-26,1990. Alger, Algeria.
ACSAD /AS/ p105/ 1990, Damascus.

Wardeh, M.F., A.A. Zaied and H.S. Horier. 1991.

Camel breed types (Camelus dromedarius) in
Arab Africa. In: Wardeh, M.F.; R.T. Wilson
and A. A. Zaied (eds.) proc. International
Conference on Camel Production and
improvement. Tobruk, Libya. Dec. 10-13,190.
ACSAD/ Camel /p1/ 1991. pp 78-86.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:1-7

 Camel Breeds of India
N.D. Khanna, A.K. Rai and S.N. Tandon
National Research Centre on Camel
P.O. Box 07, Bikaner 330001, India

ABSTRACT
The Indian camel population presently is 1.4 m mostly confined to north western dry part of the country.
Ten breeds/strains of Indian camels having specific characteristics inhabiting different breeding tracts,
are discussed. The Indian camels did not have contact with exogenous camels from other parts of the
world for very long time and therefore various breeds have evolved through selective breeding. In this
country, camels are mostly used for draught and riding purposes, though camel milk is also utilized as a
by-product. The Bikaneri breed is the most famous and most widely distributed camel breed, mainly
developed for draught and baggage. The Jaisalmeri is very fast and gracious riding camel breed. The
animals of Kachchhi breed are heavy set and good milkers. These animals are also very good draught
animals, though comparatively slow. Mewari camels are of comparatively short stature and have been
developed as hill camels. Heavy riverain camels are available in the areas heavy good rainfall and these
animals are mostly used for hauling heavy cart loads. The other breeds/strains are Mewari, Mewati,
Shekhawati and Sindhi. Evaluation of three camel breeds (Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi) with
respect to certain productive and reproductive traits is described.

(Key words: Dromedary Camels, Breeds, India).

Introduction Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab states was 0.37,

The Indian camel population has been estimated at
1.4 m out of 19 m world population (FAO,
1989). This is the third highest, after Somalia and
Sudan. The camel population more than doubled
between 1945 (0.654 m) and 1989 (1.4 m).
The camels in India are single humped (Camelus
dromedarius). They are utilized for various
purposes since very ancient time (Khanna, 1990).
The Indian camel is a multipurpose animal, the
principal uses being draught, transport and
agricultural operations. Other production
functions are milk, hair and hide.
Distribution
The distribution of camels in India is in the arid
and semi arid zones. As per the livestock census
(base 1982), Rajasthan state accounted for 70.1%
of Indian camel population followed by
Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab (Table 1). The
camel density in the whole country and Rajasthan,
2.25, 2.78, 0.38 and 1.27 per sq km, respectively
(Khanna et al. 1990). Highest camel density
(3.0/sq km and 475 per 1000 persons) was present
in 11 arid districts of western Rajasthan which
accounted for almost 60% of total Indian camel
population and contributed 9.9% towards total
domestic herbivore livestock biomass.
About 50-55 double humped camels are also
present in the Nubra valley of lithic district in
Jammu and Kashmir state (Khanna et al. 1990).
Breeds
Based on their utility, two main classes of Indian
camels were distinguished namely baggage and
riding (Nanda, 1957). Earlier, Leese (1927)
classified camels into (i) Hill camel (ii) Plain
camel and (iii) intermediate between Hill and
Plain camel. The plain camels were further
classified into Desert and Riverain camels.
Similar broad classification was adopted by Kaura
(1961). Camel breeds/strains have also been

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15

 N. D. Khanna, A. K. Rai and S. N. Tandon
defined on the basis of locality, body
characteristics and size. There are groups of
camels with district characteristics by which these
are classified into distinct types, yet, locally, these
are recognized as breeds. Of various camel breeds,
the Bikaneri breed is the principal breed, which
has been defined by a committee appointed by the
Government. Distinct breeds/strains of camels
identified are (1) Bikaneri (2) Jaisalmeri (3)
Kachchhi, (4) Marwari, (5) Mewari (6) Sindhi (7)
Shekhawati (8) Riverain (9) Mewati (10) Double
humped camels. Rathore (1986) believed that
there are only four distinct camel breeds in India
viz. Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Mewari and Kachchhi.
There are other strains which are perhaps
crossbreds of different major breeds or
nondescript types. The Indian camels did not
have any contact with camels of other countries
for long time and thus have developed into breeds/
strains through selective breeding.
The following breed description provides salient
characteristics of some breeds and breed
evaluation of three major breeds: Bikaneri,
Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi.
Bikaneri
Bikaneri is a popular multi-purpose camel breed
having home tract in the Bikaner district of
Rajasthan state. Where temperatures from 48° C
to 1° C. These animals are docile and easy to train
and manage. The Bikaneri camels have heavy
strong built and large body frame (Table 2). The
coat color varies from light sandy to dark blackish
brown with short coarse hair. Reddish brown
colored animals are preferred by local people.
Bikaneri camels have symmetrical body with
dome shaped head. The Jhipra strain have an
abundance of heavy tufts of hair around eyes, ears,
neck, under jaw and have thick eye lashes. The
head is heavy looking, medium sized with a well
defined "stop- a hollow above eyes" causing nose
to tilt upwards. The neck is medium sized with
marked curve giving graceful carriage of head.
Eyes are bright, round with alert look and are
protruding. Nostrils are slit with small muzzle and
chin, tight and moist lower lip. Ears are small
erect with blunt taps. Shoulders are strong broad
and well set to the chest. Hump is very well
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15
9
developed in males and is placed in the center
of the back. The chest pad is well developed and
its touching ground evenly is a good
confirmation. Forelegs are long, strong bony and
well separated so that legs do not rub while
walking. Ribs long arched and broad based long
cylindrical shaped trunk. The pin bones are
prominent and quadrangular shaped. Hind legs
are slightly weaker than forelegs and are inward
curved. The foot pads are medium sized and soft.
Tail is medium to small tapering at tip with tufts
of long hair at the end. Sheath is small, well
tucked up and triangular. Testicles are well
developed placed high in the groin. In the
females, udder is medium developed, firmly
suspended having four teats, each having two
orifices. The milk vein is straight and prominent.
Rathore (1986) believed that the Bikaneri camels
have been developed through selective breeding
having blood of Afghan, Tharparker and local
strains.
Jaisalmeri
Jaisalmeri camels have home tract in Jaisalmer
district of Rajasthan state having most extreme
arid climate. These animals are fine fast gracious
looking Indian riding camels. It is believed that
these have been developed from Tharparker
camels having their home tract in Sindh district of
Pakistan (Rathore, 1986). It is estimated that these
animals can cover 100 to 125 km a day at high
speed of 20-25 km per hour. The Jaisalmeri
animals are also used for light load carrying.
These animals are lightly built, medium sized and
having small head which is carried on lean long
neck in a majestic posture. The mouth is small.
Ears are small, prominent round intelligent
looking eyes, narrow muzzle. There is no distinct
"stop" on the forehead. The legs are thin and well
shaped, muscular with small foot pad. The coat
color varies from light sandy to dark reddish
brown. Camels in Jaisalmer area are important in
folk culture and social status. There is saying that
one who has no pangal (Camel, in local dialect) to
ride, it is useless for him to live in this world.
Kachchhi
Kachchhi breed has home tract in Kachch
district of Guijarat state. The area is dry having
 Camel Breeds of India
salt bushes and at some places marshy. The
Kachchhi animals have heavy body and dull
appearance. The neck is long and thick. The
forehead does not have "stop" and nose is
comparatively longer. The muzzle has slanting
shape. Ears are small and projecting outside.
The front legs are comparatively muscular and
heavier than the hind legs. The Kachchhi
camels are good milkers with well developed
udder and milk vein. The coat is hairy. There
are no heavy tufts of hair on eye lashes, neck and
face. The color varies from dark sandy to blackish
brown. Hump is well developed. The trunk is
heavy and cylindrical. Testicles are well
developed and placed high up. These animals
are believed to have been developed from the
Sindhi camel breed (Rathore, 1986).
Marwari
Marwari camels are found in the Jodhpur, Jalore,
Barmer area of Rajasthan state. These animals are
heavy built and muscular. The Marwaris have
thick set muscular long limbs and capable of
performing heavy agricultural work and can carry
heavy loads. These animals are also used for
riding. There is no "stop” on the forehead. The
neck is thick and long. The trunk is long and
heavy. These are differentiated from Bikaneri in
the facial formation. The strain found in Jalore is
called Jalori. These are mixture of Marwari and
Jaisalmeri. Jalori animals are comparatively
smaller than Marwari but are good quick draught
animals and are also good transport animals.
Mewar
This breed has home tract in Mewar area
consisting of Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Kota and
Cotagious Arawali mountainous range in the
Rajasthan state. The Mewari camels are short
statured, short and light in weight. These have
been developed from hill camels and can
climb small hills. Mewaris have strong hind
quarter, heavy legs, hard thick foot pads. The
hair coat is coarse and thick, which protects
animals from insect bites. The head is thickest
with thick neck. The ears are also short and
thick. The tail is longer and thicker. Animals are
used for baggage. Unlike Bikaneri, the head has
no "stop", the muzzle is loose and lower lip often
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15
10
droops exhibiting teeth. This breed has also
spread into adjoining Madhya Pradesh and
Guijarat states.
Sindhi Camels
This breed has home tract in the Sindh area of
Pakistan, however few animals are also found in
some adjoining areas of Joodhpur division of
Rajasthan. These camels are very good milkers.
They are relatively short with small curved thick
neck. Two distinct varieties viz. riding camel
called Mahri and baggage camel called laddu are
available. The Mahri camels look like
Jaisalmeri and heavier laddu variety looks like
Riverain type. The heavy Sindhi camels graze
in the swamps and could walk in the marshy
land without slipping. These animals are sure
footed. Their hair coat is long and generally dark
brown in color.
Sheckawati/ bagri
These camels are bred in Siker and Jhunjhunu
districts of Rajasthan and resemble Bikaneri
breed. They have big frame but have lesser
endurance than Bikaneris. These animals are
mostly used for agricultural operations, pack
animals, cart pulling and occasionally for riding.
Riverain Camels
Riverain camels have home tract in areas with
good rain fall, plenty of water supply and
good pasture with abundance of vegetation.
These are found in areas of Uttar, Pradesh, Punjab
states and around both banks of Indus river.
These animals are very heavy set and have big
structure. The neck and legs are long heavy and
strong. The hind quarters are comparatively less
developed. The foot pads are oval and soft. Body
coat short, thick and rough. They have Roman
nose. These animals are good baggage animals
but slow and sluggish. Riverain camels thrive
very well in the semi arid areas.
Mewati
Mewati camels are prevalent in Alwar and
Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan. The animals are
strong and heavy in body built-up. The endurance
and draught capacity of the Mewati camel are
good, therefore these animals are utilized for
 N. D. Khanna, A. K. Rai and S. N. Tandon
loading, riding and ploughing. The general
appearance of these animals indicates that this
strain has been developed through selective
breeding of Riverain camels from adjacent areas.
Breed Evaluation
At the National Research Center on Camel
(NRCC), Bikaner, three camels breeds viz.
Bikaneri, Kachchhi and Jaisalmeri are presently
maintained under semi- intensive management
system. Few crossbred animals, Arabi x Bikaneri
are also available. Detailed information on
breeding parameters of Bikaneri has been
published by Khanna et al (1990). Breed
evaluation with respect to body weights, body
measurements, growth patterns, reproduction,
production traits and hair production are presented
in Tables 2 to 5. Variation with respect to age at
first calving, hair production, milk production,
and body measurements was observed between
four genetic groups presently studied. It may be
mentioned here that Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi
breeds were introduced recently at the NRCC and
therefore elaborate data were not available in these
breeds to arrive at some conclusive results.
Body Weights
The average birth weight of male and female
Bikaneri calves were 42.15 ± 0.773 and 38.82 ±
0.641 kg, respectively. Kachchhi calves were born
lightest, while Jaisalmeri occupied inter-mediate
position.
The birth weight of Arabi x Bikaneri, crossbreds
was though lower but quite close to the Bikaneri
calves (Table 2). Statistical analysis indicated
significant variation in the birth weight between
different genetic groups attained mature weight
is 600, 550, 570 and 550 kg for the 4 groups in
(Table 2). The average adult body weight was
highest in the Bikaneri breed 617.33 ± 17.02 kg in
males and 577.83 ± 9.79 in females, while body
weights of other genetic groups were comparable.
The adult Bikaneri animals were heaviest and
Jaisal-meri animals were lightest (Table 3).
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15
11
Body Measurements
Body measurements are presented in Table 3. The
leg length of both fore and hind legs were
comparable in all the four groups. The length of
the hind limb was 8-10 cm more than the
forelimb. The body length, heart girth and height
at withers were more in the Bikaneri animals as
compared to other three groups. The neck length
and circumference of neck at base was also more
in the Bikaneri breed. The circumference of neck
at base was also more in the Bikaneri breed. These
observations indicated that the Bikaneri animals
had bigger and massive body frame. The
circumference of foot pad were more in the fore
limb than the hind limb. larger foot pads were
present in Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi male as
compared to Bikaneri and crossbred males. The
Kachchhi animals had longest face length
whereas crossbreds had smallest face length.
Body Weight Gain
The body weight gain varied from 702 ± 7.37
gm/day (Jaisalmeri) to 789.21±7.33 gm/day
(Bikaneri) from birth to 3 months of age. The rate
of body weight gain per day progressively
declined as the age increased. At 1-2 years of age
it was 177 ± 13.42 g/day to 238 ± 1.00 g/day
(Table 4). The difference in the body weight gain
from birth to 3 months of age was statistically
significant between all the genetic groups except
Jaisalmeri and crossbreds. This parameter also
exhibited significant variability from three months
to two years of age.
Reproductive and Productive Parameters
Reproductive and productive traits of four genetic
groups are presented in Table 5. Kachchhi animals
were best milkers yielding on an average 5.2 to
14.6 liters per day with peak yield of 18 liters/day.
Limited data indicated that crossbred, were more
efficient in the reproductive behavior. Annual
clipping done once a year at the NRCC breeding
farm indicated that hair production ranged from
1089.13 ± 0.390 to 1240 ± 1.25g.
Studies in respect to evaluation of work
performance draught and riding potentials of
Indian camels have been conducted (Khanna,
1991). The effect of work stress on various
 Camel Breeds of India
physical, biochemical and hematological
parameters have been studied.
Draught Potential
Bikaneri camels carrying payloads varying from
1200-1800 kg on two wheel carts generated
90-120 kg draught at an average speed of 5
km per hr working continuously for 4 hours. The
draught produced amounted to 17.2% of body
weight. Studies on breed differences in
draughtability of the adult camels at 3 kg/kg pay
load on a two wheel cart at the speed of 5 km/hr as
per the changes in physiological responses
indicated Bikaneri (Rai and Khanna, 1991).
Test for endurance of different breeds was
conducted at 20% body weight as fixed draught in
a loading car. Bikaneri camels worked for a
period of 54. 3 ± 2.33 min and converted a
distance of 3.43 ± 0.13 km before exhaustion.
The horsepower generated was 1.67 ± 0.09. This
was followed by the performance of Kachchhi and
Jaisalmeri convening 3.3 km in 53.3 ± 1.67 and
58.3 ± 1.67 min generating 1.58 and 1.46 horse
power respectively. Positive correlation of body
length with tractive force has been observed
during ploughing stress.
Speed and Strides
The speed of Bikaneri (5.87 km/h) was more than
Jaisalmeri (5.52 km/h) during walk while during
trot and gallop the speed of Jaisalmeri was higher
(13.37 and 26.57 km/h) than Kachchhi (12.34 and
24.06 km/h) and Bikaneri (11.82 and 24.05 km/h).
In general the observations on duration of
strides/strides per second and speed during trot
and gallop indicated Jaisalmeri camels to be more
efficient followed by Kachchhi for speed.
However, during walk, Bikaneri was found to be
superior (Rai et al. 1992).
Ploughing Capacity
The results of preliminary experiment on
ploughing capacity of different breeds of camel
showed that the average draught produced per 100
km body weight during ploughing was 11.29,
13.93 and 16.80, respectively in Bikaneri,
Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi breeds. The area
ploughed per hour was highest in Kachchhi (774
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15
12
m²) followed by Jaisalmeri (729 m²) and Bikaneri
(717 m²). The Bikaneri camels exhibited better
endurance and could plough for 4.88 hrs
continuously, while Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi
camels displayed fatigue symptoms comparatively
earlier i.e. at 4.25 and 3.63 hr, respectively (Roy et
al. 1992).
Bikaneri animals are very good draught and
transport animals having excellent endurance.
Jaisalmeri is good light weight versatile breed
having potential for fast work and good speed.
Kachchhi animals are dual purpose animals
having good milk potential.
References
FAO, 1989. Production Year Book. Vol. 43.
Rome.
Kaura, R.l. 1961. Indian Breeds of Livestock.
Perm Publishers, Lucknow. 97 pp.
Khanna, N.D., A.K. Rai and S.N. Tandon. 1990.
Population trends and distribution of camel
population in India. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 60:
331-337.
Khanna, N.D. 1990. Camels in India from the
protohistoric to the present times. Ind. J. Anim.
Sci., 60: 1093-1101.
Khanna, N.D. 1991. Overview of work
performance of camel as draught and riding
animal. In. Wardeh M.F., R. T. Wilson and
A.A. Zaied (eds). Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Prod.
and Improvement. Dec.10-13, 1990 Tobruk,
Libya. ACSAD/CARDN/P1/1991. Damascus.
pp 191-201.
Khanna, N.D., S.N. Tandon and A.K. Rai. 1990.
Breeding parameters of Indian camels. Ind.
J. Anim. Sci., 60: 1347-1354.
Leese, A.S. 1927. A treatise on the one-humped
camel in health and disease. Haynes and Sons,
Stanford. 382 pp.
Nanda, P.N. 1957. Camels and their management.
Review Series No. 6, 17 pp.
 N. D. Khanna, A. K. Rai and S. N. Tandon 13

Rai, A.K., A.K. Roy and N.D. Khanna. 1992. A
note on speed and strides of different breeds of
camel. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 62 (1).
Rai, A.K. and N.D. Khanna. 1991. Effect of load
pulling on physiological responses of camel.
In: Wardeh, M.F., R.T. Wilson and A.A. Zaied
(eds). Proc. Int. Conf. Camel Prod. and
Improvement. Dec. 10 -13,1990, Tobruk,
Libya. ACSAD/ CARDN /P1 /1991. pp
207-220.
Rathore, G.S. 1986. Camels and their
management. Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi. 228 pp.
Roy, A.K., A.K. Rai and N.D. Khanna. 1992.
Draught capacity and fatigue symptoms under
ploughing stress in camel. Ind. J. Anim. Sci.,
62 (4).

Table 1. One humped camel population of India (more than 1000).

States Population(1000) % Indian Camel Population
Gujarat 75 7.0
Haryana 121 11.2
Himachal Pradesh 01 0.1
Jammu and Kashmir 04 0.4
Madhya Pradesh 16 1.5
Maharashtra 01 0.1
Punjab 64 5.9
Rajasthan 756 70.1
Uttar Pradesh 40 3.7

Table 2. Body weight at different age groups of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri
crosses (1985-90).
Weight/Breed Bikaneri Jaisalmeri Kachchhi Cross breeds) (Arabri x Bikaneri
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Birth Weight 42.15 38.82 36.86 34.69 33.95 31.47 39.80 36.60
±0.77 ±0.64 ±1.18 ±1.88 ±0.96 ±1.33 ±1.07 ±1.88
Weight at 6 170.13 176.67 183.00 170.00 181.20 169.14 178.50 175.00
Months ±4.26 ±5.54 ±7.02 ±5.40 ±5.22 ±8.31 ±6.51 ±5.01
Weight at 1 229.18 223.00 226.00 201.20 202.00 201.83 250.00 121.00
Year ±4.03 ±7.41 ±23.80 ±13.50 ±4.71 ±7.25 ±15.04 4.01
Weight at 2 273.25 263.33 264.00 225.75 293.60 279.16 309.00 293.33
Years ±5.82 ±14.55 ±30.12 ±17.68 ±26.77 ±5.22 ±19.06 ±17.66
Weight 3 391.50 340.00 NA 341.43 378.25 NA 379.00 340.00
Years ±12.38 ±11.15 NA ±9.12 ±8.64 NA ±8.94 ±4.16
Adult Weight 617.33 577.983 574.80 537.00 576.75 563.74 NA 545.00
4 years and above ±17.02 ±0.79 ±12.73 ±11.61 ±44.73 ±14.73 NA ±54.80
NA = not available.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15

 Camel Breeds of India 14

Table 3. Body measurements of adult camels of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri
crosses.
Bikaneri Jaisalmeri Kachchhi Cross breeds (Arabri x
Bikaneri)
Breed Measurements Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Leg Length (cm)
Fore 151.44 140.60 150.60 140.28 150.33 138.20 148.00 136.00
±1.78 ±4.12 ±3.12 ±2.68 ±2.48 ±1.38 ±4.00 ±1.00
Hind 160.55 149.60 162.00 150.28 161.50 145.80 155.00 149.50
±2.08 ±3.29 ±1.99 ±2.62 ±1.61 ±1.52 ±5.01 ±0.50
Body length (cm) 165.70 158.20 156.40 157.28 156.33 158.00 157.00 137.50
±2.06 ±4.32 ±1.62 ±1.38 ±6.76 ±4.93 - ±2.50
Heart girth (cm) 223.11 215.00 210.00 211.28 206.33 214.30 219.50 192.50
±2.55 ±4.22 ±3.06 ±2.34 ±5.78 ±2.99 ±4.51 ±2.50
Height at withers (cm) 209.22 195.60 206.40 191.85 195.83 189.80 202.00 186.00
±2.55 ±5.45 ±2.37 ±2.12 ±4.09 ±3.29 - ±9.02
Neck length 129.77 120.00 119.60 115.28 111.66 115.40 125.00 104.00
±3.27 ±3.56 ±2.93 ±2.20 ±5.27 ±1.61 ±5.01 ±2.00
Circumference of foot pad (cm)
Fore 73.89 67.40 75.60 66.42 75.66 68.20 66.00 66.00
±1.77 ±1.20 ±1.02 ±1.11 ±1.83 ±0.81 ±7.02 ±1.00
Hind 62.44 59.20 64.60 56.85 66.50 59.90 58.00 57.00
±0.89 ±1.15 ±0.89 ±0.88 ±1.28 ±0.99 ±6.01 ±2.01
Circumference of neck (cm)
At base 113.44 92.60 98.00 92.85 97.33 94.30 119.50 83.50
±5.48 ±2.35 ±2.99 ±1.85 ±6.88 ±2.14 ±3.51 ±1.50
At head 74.00 57.80 64.00 56.71 66.61 54.90 77.50 51.00
±1.64 ±1.35 ±1.81 ±0.97 ±3.49 ±0.99 ±2.50 ±1.00
Face length (cm) 56.25 54.67 58.25 54.33 61.00 57.00 55.50 50.00
±2.86 ±1.20 ±1.87 ±1.20 ±1.08 ±0.58 ±3.61 ±0.67

Table 4. Average weight gain (g/day) of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi x Bikaneri crosses.
Age group Bikaneri Kachchhi Jaisalmeri Arabi X Bikaneri
0-3 months 789.21±7.33 748±5.48 702±7.37 708±6.15
(91) (38) (31) (20)
3-6 months 703.1±6.62 636±16.66 411±4.40 692±19.22
(72) (21) (05) (09)
6-12 months 337.80±5.82 281±11.14 298±13.66 393±6.87
(90) (22) (07) (09)
1-2 years 227.60±8.71 194±26.95 238±1.00 177±13.42
(75) (07) (02) (08)
Figures in parenthesis indicate number of observations.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15

 N. D. Khanna, A. K. Rai and S. N. Tandon 15

Table 5. Reproductive and productive parameters of three Indian camel breeds and Arabi X
Bikaneri.
Traits Bikaneri Jaisalmeri Kachchhi Arabi X Bikaneri
Gestation length (days 381.85 ±1.17 (4) 384.72 ±3.88 (111) 381.67 ± 5.69 (18) 379.75 ± 6.93 (27)
Age at first service (days) 1424.97±41.41 (66) 1412.00±16.50 (2) 1094.50 ±3.42 (6) 1198.87+76.08 (2)
Age at first calving (days) 1855.51±40.18 (75) NA NA 643.75±179.29
Calving interval (days) 741.89±9.83 (91) 676.00 ±19.36 (5) 738.40 ±10.69 (10) NA
Milk Yield
Lit/d 3.8-11.0 3.0-8.0 5.2-14.6 3.5-10.0
Lit/d (at peak) 14.0 NA 18 NA
Figures in parentheses indicate number of observations.
NA = Not available.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1:8-15

 Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel
with Special Reference to Cystic and Inactive Ovaries

A.A. Hegazy1, A.Ali2, M. Al-Eknah3 and S. Ismail4

1
Dept. of Pathology, Faculty of Vet.,Med., Cairo Univ., Giza12211, Egypt.
2
Dept. of Anatomy, College of Vet. Med., King Faisal Univ., KSA.
3&4
Dept.of Clinical Studies, College of Vet. Med. King Faisal Univ.,
P.O. Box 1757, Al-Hasa 31982, Saudi Arabia.

ABSTRACT
The present investigation was performed on 190 female camel slaughtered at Al-Ahsa modern
slaughterhouse throughout one year. Blood samples, pituitary glands and ovaries were collected. FSH,
LH, E2 and progesterone hormones were determined in cases of cystic and inactive ovaries as well as
follicular ovarian wave. The ovarian examination revealed the increase incidence of inactive ovaries
during summer and cystic ovaries during spring and autumn.

Histological and histochemical pictures of pituitary gland during inactive, cystic and ovarian follicular
wave were described and discussed.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Pituitary Gland, Cystic Ovary, Reproductive Hormones).

Introduction FSH and LH from the pituitary is under a

She-camel is seasonally polyoestrus and induced
ovulators. Follicular growth occurs in regular
waves during the breeding season (Musa et al.
1993) where waves of follicular growth,
maturation and atresia occur constantly in both
ovaries (Musa and Abu-Sineina, 1976; El-
Wishy and Hemeida, 1984). Al-Eknah et al
(1993) recorded four distinct uterine phases cor-
responding to ovarian activity (follicular, atretic
follicular, non-follicular and growing follicular
stages). FSH and LH control growth and
reproductive activities of the gonadal tissue
(Franchimont, 1973; Daughadny, 1985). The
gonadotrophic cells of pituitary secrete both
FSH and LH in response to gonadotrophic
releasing hormone (LHRH or Gn-RH) from the
medial basal hypothalamus. Release of both
negative feedback control by the gonads
(Bonnar, 1973).
The incidence of cystic and inactive ovaries
among Saudi camel females increases in
summer (Hegazy et al. 2001). The actual cause
has not been elucidated. Ovarian cysts are
believed to be due to deficient LH surge (Jubb
and Kennedy, 1993) however inactive ovaries
were attributed to the adverse body condition
(Tibary and Anouassi, 1997). No previous
studies could be detected to explain and discuss
this phenomenon, which initiated the idea of this
work.
The present study aimed to investigate the
cellular activity of pituitary gland in cases of
 Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special
Reference to Cystic and Inactive Ovaries
active, inactive and cystic ovaries and to
determine FSH, LH, E2 and progesterone
concentrations in relation to cellular activity of
pars distalis and ovarian changes.
Materials and Methods
This investigation was performed on 190 female
camel slaughtered in Al-Ahsa modern
slaughterhouse throughout one year (January –
December 2001).
Blood Samples
10 ml blood was collected from each animal
before slaughtering in silicon-coated tubes. Sera
were separated and marked according to ovarian
picture and stored at –40 oC for further
hormonal analysis.
Ovaries
Ovaries of each animal were grossly examined
and ovarian structure was recorded.
Pituitary Glands
A total of 100 pituitary glands were collected
randomly representing the different ovarian
cases. The glands were immediately dissected
from the animals just after slaughtering and
fixed directly in a 10% neutral formaline. Tissue
samples were collected and processed by
paraffin embedding method. Serial sections at 4
µ in thickness were performed and stained by
H&E (Harris, 1898), Orange-Fuchsine Green
(Slidder, 1961; Halmi, 1952), PFA, AB, PAS,
Orange G (Adams, 1956).
The Cell Count of Anterior Pituitary
The count of different cells of the anterior
pituitary gland was performed using the
technique adopted by Kandil (1975). Three
fields in the anterior pituitary were chosen. The
first field was adjacent to the cleft, the second
field in the core while the third one was in the
posterior part.
Hormonal Analysis
Evaluation of LH, FSH, E2 , and progesterone
were performed on 51 serum samples (20 active
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24
17
ovaries, 16 active ovaries and 15 cystic ovaries
(11 follicular and 4 luteal).
Hormonal evaluation was performed using
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
method using kits of Abbot laboratories (USA).
Results
Ovaries
The incidence of ovarian activity, inactivity and
cystic ovaries in the 190 female camels during
the different seasons of the year (January –
December 2001) is presented in Table 1 and in
Figures 1-3.
The total incidence of the ovarian changes
among examined cases per year (January –
December 2001) is presented in Table 2.
The study on the ovarian changes revealed that
the incidence of inactive ovaries occupied the
highest percentage of ovarian abnormalities and
reached its peak in summer season. While
follicular cysts occupied the second place and
reached its peak in summer followed by spring
and autumn.
Hormonal Analysis
The mean values of FSH, LH, E2 and
progesterone in relation to ovarian changes are
illustrated in Table 3.
The hormonal analysis in case of cystic ovaries
(follicular cysts) revealed decrease of FSH and
LH concomitant with increase of E2 and
progesterone levels in comparison with that of
active follicular wave.
In case of inactive ovaries, there was a marked
increase in E2, progesterone and decrease in
FSH in comparison to the hormonal level in
cases of active ovary (follicular wave), while the
level of LH was comparable to that in case of
active ovary.
In case of luteal cyst, there was an increase in
the levels of LH progesterone and E2 levels than
in case of active ovaries with a decrease in FSH
level.
 A.A. Hegazy, A.Ali, M. Al-Eknah and S. Ismail
Pituitary Gland
The histological study indicated that pituitary
glands of the female camels were subdivided
into adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.
The adenohypophysis consisted of three
portions, pars distalis, pars tuberales and pars
intermedia. The pars distalis and pars intermedia
were separated from each other by
interglandular cleft. A fibrous capsule of
collagenous fibers continuous with the stromal
fibers covers it. The parenchyma consisted of
cords, clusters or pseudofollicles.
The cells of pars distalis were divided into
acidophilic, basophilic and chromophobe cells.
The acidophilic cells are localized at the central
and posterior parts of anterior pituitary glands.
Two types of acidophilic cells, the
somatotrophic cells (STH) and lactotrophic cells
(LTH) could be recognized. The somatotrophic
cells were large polyhedral and mostly localized
in posterior parts. The cells contained coarse
intra cytoplasmic granules yellow in colour. The
lactotrophic cells were mostly located in the
center of the gland. They are variable in shape,
oval, rounded or elongated with eccentric
vesicular nuclei and cytoplasmic glands stained
orange red.
The number of basophilic cells were lesser than
acidophilic ones. The cells were located mostly
in the peripheral parts of pars distalis, next to
hypophysical cleft and the boundaries of blood
vessels. The basophiles were differentiated into
gonadotrophic cells, which were more abundant
than thyrotrophic cells (Table 4).
Thyrotrophic cells appeared polygonal
containing coarse cytoplasmic granules stained
magenta red by PAS after oxidation with
performic acid and blue by Sleder stain.
Gonadotrophic cells were arranged mostly at the
boundaries and near by sinusoids. They were
smaller in size and contain fine granules stained
blue by alcian blue after oxidation with
performic acid and red (LH) or purple (FSH) by
PAS.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24
18
In case of cystic ovary the adenohypophysis
revealed that great number of basophilic cells
were stuffed with basophilic granules (purple or
red by PAS). The cells appeared larger in size
swollen and their nucleous were vesicular in
appearance. Degranulation and vacuolization of
some basophilic cells were observed. It was
noticed that most of these cells were located
near by blood vessels and faintly stained.
Acidophilic cells showed no significant
variation in number. However many cells show
homogenous eosinophilic cytoplasm and
pyknotic nuclei. These cells were identified as
lactotrophic cells. Adenolypophysis in case of
inactive ovaries showed that the basophilic cells
were smaller in size with lesser amount of
basophilic granules, which was clearly seen by
Slidder and PFAAB. PAS Orange G stains.
Many gonadotrophic cells (FSH and LH) were
degranulated and vacuolated and some of them
resemble chromophobe cells. Some of these
cells appeared degenerated with pyknotic nuclei
and vacuolated cytoplasm. Acidophils appeared
also smaller in size with decrease in its
cytoplasmic granules. The LTH cells were faint
staining by acidic dye. Excessive amounts of
colloid substances were observed in the acinar
like structure.
In case of luteal cyst the gonadotrophic cells
appeared large containing coarse basophilic
granules stained purple or red. The LTH cells
were also large with well distinct acidic
cytoplasmic granules stained orange red, while
the STH appeared large with eccentric nuclei
and yellow cytoplasmic granules. The
thyrotrophs appeared large with cytoplasmic
bluish granules.
Concerning the count of different pituitary cells,
the results are presented in Table 4.
It is clear from Table 4, that the number of
gonadotrophic and thyrotrophic cells decreased
in case of inactive ovaries concomitant with
increase in the number of acidophils in
comparison to that observed in case of active
 Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special
Reference to Cystic and Inactive Ovaries
ovaries. In luteal cysts the number of
gonadotrophs and thyrotrophic and lactotrophic
cells increased in comparison with that of active
ovaries. In case of follicular cyst the number of
gonadotrophs and thyrotrophs were comparable
to that of active ovaries with minimum increase
in number of lactotrophic cells.
Discussion
The available literature indicates the absence of
any previous study on pituitary ovarian axis in
female camels. However the pituitary gland of
male camel and the effect of seasonal variation
on pituitary -testicular axis were studied by few
authors (Fahmy and Nasr, 1963; Ismail et al
1985).
The present study revealed that the ovarian
activity was observed throughout the different
seasons with a maximum activity during winter,
which corresponds to the breeding season.
Shalash (1965), Ismail (1987) and Akral et al
(1995) reported similar results in Egypt and
Pakistan, respectively. In Saudi Arabia, Arthur
and Al-Rahim (1982) and Arthur et al (1985)
reported that breeding of she camel occurs
throughout the year provided a good nutritional
condition.
The incidence of inactive ovaries in the present
study reached its peak in the summer, which
may be responsible for the failure of conception
during May, August and October as reported by
Arthur et al (1985); Abdel Rahim and El Nazier
(1992). This may be attributed to the higher
temperature associated with adverse nutritional
status of the animals during the summer season
(Tibary and Anouassi, 1997).
In the present study, it was clear that in case of
inactive ovaries, the activity of pituitary gland
was lesser in comparison with that of active
ovaries. Moreover, the FSH level in the plasma
was lower than that of active ovaries which may
give an explanation for the increase of the
ovarian inactivity in summer.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24
19
The cystic ovaries were observed throughout the
whole year with variable percentage varied
between 10.76% in summer and 5% in autumn.
Similar results were obtained in Saudi Arabia
(Hegazy et al. 2001). It seems that the incidence
of cystic ovaries increase in summer and
autumn. It is believed that the problem of cystic
ovaries is the deficiency of LH surge, which
confirmed by the present results of hormonal
analysis, which indicated the low level of LH in
cases of cystic ovaries in comparison with that
of normal cyclic ovaries.
No base line data could be traced for FSH and
LH levels, while few studies were performed to
determine E2 and progesterone in pregnant and
non-pregnant she-camel.
The hormonal analysis of E2 , progesterone, LH
and FSH in case of follicular ovarian wave
indicate a large individual variation. Such
variation has been observed in E2 to be between
9 and 110 pg/ml during the different follicular
ovarian waves (Elias, 1984a; Xu et al. 1985). In
case of pregnancy, oestrogen concentration
increased progressively from basal level of 20
pg/ml at early stages of gestation to about 450
pg/ml at advanced gestation (Agarwal et al.
1987). Our results revealed that the level of E2 -
varied from 1.24 to 67.23 pg/ml with a mean
value of 14.7 pg/ml.
In the present study, the progesterone level in
non-pregnant female camel was between 0.0 and
4.7 ng/ml (Table 3), with a mean value of 1.11
ng/ml. Similar results were reported by Elias et
al (1984); Xu et al (1985); Agarwal et al (1992),
where the level of progesterone in non-pregnant
female camel varied between 0.28 and 1.73
ng/ml. During pregnancy, the progesterone level
fluctuated between 2 and 5 ng/ml (Hassan et al.
1996).
Also progesterone levels ranged between 1.01
and 6.34 ng/ml on day one post parturition
(Zhao and Chen, 1995) then gradually decreased
to reach undetectable level after 12 days.
 A.A. Hegazy, A.Ali, M. Al-Eknah and S. Ismail
However a sharp decline in progesterone level
during postpartum to reach the non-pregnant
values within 2 weeks has been reported by
Agarwal et al (1992) and Hassan et al (1996).
No available data could be detected for FSH and
LH levels. It was noticed that these hormones
could cross-react with those of human being
using ELISA technique, however, the results
needs further investigation.
The hormonal level in case of cystic ovaries
revealed the decrease in LH level in comparison
with that of normal cyclic animal. This may give
an explanation for the cystic follicle formation.
The increase of E2 and progesterone levels is
considered a sequel of cyst, which may secrete
progesterone or E2 depending on the degree of
granulose cells luteinization (Jubb and Kennedy,
1993).
In case of inactive ovaries, there was a decrease
in FSH level, which may explain the failure of
ovary to develop follicles. The decrease of FSH
may be due to the increase of ovarian steroid
hormones (E2 and progesterone) as a
consequence of the feedback mechanism. The
increase of progesterone and E2 levels in case of
inactive ovaries can’t be explained. However, it
may denote exogenous source of secretion of
these hormones other than ovaries, which needs
further investigation.
In case of luteal cyst, there was increase in the
levels of LH, progesterone and E2 than in case
of active ovaries. This was concomitant with
decrease in FSH level. The increase of E2 may
be due to growing follicles.
Previous investigations on the histological and
histochemical investigation of the pituitary
gland of female camel could not be traced in the
available literature. The present study indicates
the decrease in number of gonadotrophic cells in
addition to evidence of exhausted secretion
characterized by degeneration and vacuolization
of gonadotrophic cells in case if inactive
ovaries. This picture was associated with
decrease the FSH level in the blood as well as
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24
20
increase of progesterone and E2. The low
activity of the gonadotrophic cells may be due to
the deficiency of gonadotrophic releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus (Bonnar, 1973)
and/or increase of the ovarian steroid hormones
which leads to decrease the secretion of FSH by
feedback mechanism. Somatotrophic cells
showed no abnormalities.
In case of cystic ovaries, the gonadotrophic cells
were similar in number to that of active ovaries,
while the cells appeared overfilled with
basophilic granules. The hormonal analysis
revealed high E2 and progesterone levels, which
inhibit the secretion of FSH by feedback
mechanism and in turn the accumulation of the
granules in the gonadotrophic cells. The
acidophilic cells either the lactotrophic or
somatotrophic cells appeared comparable in
number to active ovaries while increase
accumulation of the acidic granules in LTH
cells.
In case of the luteal cyst, the pituitary gland
showed that the gonadotrophic cells as well as
the lactotrophic cells were filled with basophilic
and acidophilic granules, respectively.
Conclusions
It could be concluded that:
1. The maximum ovarian activity occurs in
winter.
2. The maximum ovaries inactivity occurs in
summer.
3. Cystic ovaries observed all over the year
with tendency to be increased in summer
and autumn.
4. There is a great demand to establish a base
line data for the hormonal level during the
different phases.
5. The pituitary glands showed inactivity in
association with inactive ovary and it may
be the cause of this condition during
summer season.
 Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special
Reference to Cystic and Inactive Ovaries
6. Deficiency of LH surge may be considered
the main cause of cystic ovaries and the
changes of the pituitary are related to the
feedback mechanism from the high levels of
the ovarian steroids.
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Jubb, K. V. F. and P. C. Kennedy. 1993.
Shalash, M. R. 1965. Some reproductive aspects
Pathology of domestic animals, vol 111. The
in the female camel. Vet. Int. Cong. In
female genital system. 3rd edition Academic
Anim. Reprod., 2: 263-273.
Press New York.
Kandil, M. H. 1975. Histologicaland Zhao, X. X. and B. X. Chen. 1995. Peripheral
histochemical studies of the adenohy- endocrine changes in camel (Camelus
pophysis of the buffalo with special bactrianus). J. Camel Practice Res., 2 (2)
reference to the changes in the estrus cycle. :123-124.
Ph.D. Thesis Faculty of Vet. Med. Cairo
Univ. Egypt.
Table 1. The incidence of ovarian changes in different seasons.
Ovarian Picture Autumn Summer Spring Winter
No P/S No P/S No P/S No P/S
Follicular wave 28 56% 10 28.57% 46 70.76% 34 85.0%
Cystic ovary:
A-Follicular 5 10% 5 14.25% 7 10.76% 3 7.5%
B-Luteal 3 6% 1 2.85% 5 7.69% 1 2.50%
Inactive ovaries 14 28% 19 54.28% 7 10.76% 2 5.0%
Total 50 100% 35 100% 65 100% 40 100%
P/S = Percentage per season.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24

 Studies on Pituitary-Ovarian Axis in the Female Camel with Special
Reference to Cystic and Inactive Ovaries 23

Table 2. The incidence of ovarian changes among examined cases per year (January – December
2001).
Ovarian Picture Autumn Summer Spring Winter Total %
Ovarian follicular activity 28 10 46 34 118 62.33
Cystic ovary:
A. Follicular 5 5 7 3 20 10.46
B. Luteal 3 1 5 1 10 5.23
Inactive ovary 14 19 7 2 42 21.98

Table 3. Mean values of the FSH, LH, E2 and progesterone in different ovarian changes.
Hormone Active ovaries Inactive ovaries Follicular cystic ovaries Luteal cyst
FSH 0.2135 0.1515 0.039 0.1175
0.0 – 1.2 0.0 - 0.01 0.0 – 0.15 0.01 – 0.22
LH 0.0643 0.065 0.0127 0.0975
0.0– 0.32 0.0 – 0.55 0.0 – 0.08 0.3 – 0.19
Progesterone 1.1165 4.483 3.27 1.657
0.0 – 4.7 1.0 – 21.4 0.33 – 10.3 0.57 – 3.4
E2 14.72 69.79 34.48 31.1
1.24– 67.23 24.7– 117.0 13.4 – 64.2 10.4 – 41.9

Table 4. The percentage of different cells in the pituitary in different ovarian status.
Ovarian Status Acidophils Basophils Chromo phobs
STH LTH Total GT TH Total
Active 30.1 33.2 63.3 24.3 10.28 34.58 2.19
ovaries
Inactive 36.2 34.1 70.3 18.7 8.26 26.96 2.74
ovaries
Cystic ovaries 28.4 34.3 62.7 24.35 10.4 34.45 2.93
Luteal cyst 23.39 32.3 55.39 30.0 12.61 42.11 2.5
STH : Somatotrophic cells
LTH: Lactotrophic cells
GT: Gonadotrophic cells
TH: Thyrotrophic cells

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24

 A.A. Hegazy, A.Ali, M. Al-Eknah and S. Ismail 24

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 16-24

 Physical and Biochemical Attributes
of Camel Semen
V. K. Agarwal1, L. Ram2, A. K. Rai3, N. D. Khanna4 and S. P. Agarwal5
1,2&5
Dept. of Vet. Physiology. Haryana Agr. Univ. Hisar-125005 India
3&4
National Research Center on Camel. Bijaner, India

ABSTRACT
Six adult male camels (Camelus dromedarius) were used during breeding season (Nov. to Feb.) for
quantitative assessment of physical and biochemical attributes of semen. Six observations on each camel
bull were recorded at weekly intervals.

Data revealed considerable animal to animal and week to week variations with regard to seminal
attributes. The percentage of creamy white, milkly white and white colour of seminal ejaculate was
found to be 44, 36 and 20%, respectively, whereas the values for thick viscid, thick and watery
consistency of semen were 50, 39 and 11%, respectively. The average volume/ ejaculate, pH and sperm
concentration was found to be 6.7 ± 0.03 ml, 7.3 ± 0.03 and 566.4 ± 19.4 millions/ml, respectively. The
sperm concentration gradually increased on successive weekly collections. Paradoxically, no motility
was observed.

In seminal plasma, the mean concentration of fructose, glucose, cholesterol, total proteins and citric acid
were found to be 479.5 ± 19.1, 4.41 ± 0.28, 19.46 ± 0.72, 920 ± 114 and 36.26 ± 1.16 mg/dl,
respectively. The mean concentration of sodium and potassium was 158.6 ± 1.6 and 16.68 ± 0.72 meg/L,
respectively. All these constituents except protein and potassium varied significantly among the bulls.
The levels of fructose, cholesterol and citric acid showed a rising trend from 1st to 6th week.

The results provided normal values for camel semen characteristics as a step forward to attempt semen
dilution and preservation for artificial insemination to improve reproduction and production in camel.
However, absence of sperm motility remains an enigma to be investigated.

(Key Words: Camel, Dromedary, Semen Characteristics).

Introduction domestic animals, came is still deprived of this

India has variable geoclimatic conditions and
the distribution of camel is mainly localized in
arid and semi-arid zone of Rajasthan followed
by Hariana and Gujarat. There are no organized
camel farms in public or private sector, except
the one located in Bikaner. This appears to be
the main hindrance in persuing scientific studies
in this species. While artificial insemination has
revolutionized the breeding programme in other
important tool as the studies on camel semen are
limited (Khan and Kohli, 1972; Chen and Yuen,
1979). In this study an attempt was made to
evaluate the camel semen for certain physical
and biochemical attributes.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted on six adult single
humped male camels (Camelus dromedarius) of
Bikaner breed belonging to the National
 V. K. Agarwal, L. Ram, A. K. Rai, N. D. Khanna and S. P. Agarwal
Research Center on Camel, Bikaner. The
animals were apparently healthy and were
maintained under standard conditions of feeding
and management. They were also watered twice
daily and allowed to go for browsing from 9.00
a.m. to 4.00 p.m. The study was conducted
during rutting season extending from Nov. to
Feb. Semen was collected in artificial vagina
used for cattle over a she-camel secured in
sitting position. From each animal, six
collections were made at weekly interval for six
weeks. Immediately after collection, the semen
was evaluated for various physical characters
like colour, consistency, volume, pH, sperm
concentration, percentage of live spermatozoa
and motility using standard techniques as
described by Salisbury et al (1978). The
biochemical constituents were determined in
seminal plasma which was obtained by
centrifugation of semen in the cold. Among
biochemical constituents, fructose was estimated
by the method of Mann (1948); glucose by
using spinchem’s Beckaman computerized
analyzer, cholesterol and total proteins by using
clinical kits supplied by J. Mitra and Brothers
Private Limited, New Delhi; and Citric acid by
following the procedure of Taussky (1949). The
electrolytes determined included sodium
(Wooten, 1964) and potassium (Merck and
Darm-stadt, 1964). Data were statistically
analyzed by analysis of variance using Micro-32
computer in the Department. Of Mathematics
and Statistics, Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar, India.
Results and Discussion
Colour and Consistency
The colour and consistency of semen varied
from camel to camel and ejaculate to ejaculate
of the same animal. Coagulum was not always
present in the semen. In general, 44% of the
semen samples were creamy white, 36% milky
white and 20% white in colour. Similarly, 50%
of the total samples had thick viscid consistency,
39% thick and 11% thin watery consistency
(Table 1). Other workers (Khan and Kohli,
1973; Chen and Yuen, 1979) have reported
camel semen to be white or milky white in
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 25-30
26
colour with thick viscid consistency. However,
the frequency distribution of different colours
and consistencies was not reported.
Volume
There existed considerable variations in the
ejaculate volume between camels and between
ejaculates (Fig. 1). The average volume in this
study was found to be 6.74 ± 0.03 ml with a
range of 5.5 to 9.2 ml per ejaculate. Khan and
Kohli (1972) reported a still wider range varying
from 1 to 10 ml with an average of 3.1 ml per
ejaculate. Chen and Yuen (1979) found the
average seminal volume of 7.7 ml per ejaculate
in Bactrian camel. It was observed that the
volume and the percentage of live spermatozoa
progressively improved on successive collection
at weekly intervals (Fig. 1). Probably, the sexual
stimulation may be the cause behind this
improvement.
PH
The seminal pH was fairly constant between
various seminal ejaculates within a narrow range
of 7.2 to 7.4 (Fig. 1). Close to these findings, an
average pH of 7.0 has been reported by Khan
and Kohli (1972). Similarly, Chen and Yuen
(1979) found an average pH of 7.0 with a range
of 6.8 to 7.4. The buffering capacity of seminal
plasma of camel semen seems to be fairly good
to resist wide variations in different ejaculates at
different occasions.
Mass Motility
All the semen samples were examined for mass
motility, but no motility was observed in any of
the samples (Fig.1). Keeping in view the role of
temperature and sugar, the slide was warmed at
37 ºC on a thermostatic movable stage
microscope and a small pinch of pure glucose or
fructose was added to semen but no success was
achieved.
In this study, neither mass motility nor
progressive motility of spermatozoa was
observed. In general, poor initial motility of
spermatozoa in camel semen has been reported.
Khan and Kohli (1973) in their subjective
grading of camel semen found the mass motility
vary from 0 to . Supporting our observations,
 Physical and Biochemical Attributes of Camel Semen
these workers also reported that initial motility
up to third ejaculation was zero or just
oscillating movements were present but gradual
improvement was recorded after third
ejaculation. The factors inhibiting or arresting
motility in camel semen need to be identified so
that proper evaluation of the semen may be
carried out.
Sperm Concentration
The overall sperm concentration was found to
be 566.38 ± 19.46 with a range of 521.16 ±
129.42 to 585.83 ± 172.05 millions/ ml semen.
The concentrations were not significantly
different among camels except for one animal
(No. 59) in which it was significantly higher
(Fig.1). The sperm concentration in semen
samples collected at weekly intervals varied
from 420.0 ± 59.5 to 654 ± 132.7 millions/ml
with a progressive tendency (Fig.1) . Khan and
Kohli (1972) reported a lower concentration of
189 millions/ml in the semen of Bikaneri camel.
On the other hand, Chen and Yuen (1979) found
the sperm concentration in the Bactrian camel as
high as 615 millions/ml with a range of 220 to
1250 millions/ml. The sperm concentration in
the semen is affected by multitude of factors
such as virility of the bull, frequency of services,
season of the year and the intensity of sexual
excitement. Some of these factors might have
been responsible for the disparity in the findings
of this investigation and those of other workers.
Fructose
The fructose concentration in seminal plasma of
camel was found to vary from 360 to 621 mg/dl
(Fig.2). The concentration varied significantly
(P<0.01) among different camels. The presence
of fructose in the semen of a large number of
species have been reported by Mann (1974), but
it lacks the mention of camel and also there is a
wide variation between various species ranging
from highest value of 1000 mg/dl in the bull and
buck to a value less than 50 mg/dl in the boar.
Stallion semen has been reported to be
extremely poor in fructose concentration and
this constituent found are lower than those in
cattle and buffaloes. Higher fructose level in
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 25-30
27
camel semen have been reported by El-Manna et
al (1986). The fructose originates in the male
accessory glands particularly the seminal
vesicles which are absent in camel. This may be
one of the contributing factors to the low value
of fructose as compared to cattle and buffaloes.
Glucose
In addition to fructose, glucose in seminal
plasma was also found in concentrations
between 3.1 and 6.5 mg/dl with significant
differences between bulls (Fig. 2). Although,
most of the domestic animals contain fructose as
the principal sugar, there are species in which
glucose is also present in the semen e.g. rabbit
semen contains an appreciable amount of
glucose in addition to fructose (Mann and
Parsons, 1950). Stallion semen which is poor in
fructose also contains a small quantity of
glucose (Mann, 1964a). It seems that in camel,
like other species, glucose is the principal sugar
which is concerted into fructose either by
phosphorylated pathway or by monophospho
sphorylated pathway such as sorbitol
dehydrogenase and addose reductase. It is likely
that a small fraction of glucose passed out into
the grandular secretion and thus appears in the
semen. The nutritive role of glucose for the
energy of spermatozoa is not known but might
be serving as an alternative source of energy for
spermatozoa particularly under critical
circumstances.
Cholesterol
The cholesterol levels varied significantly
between camels with lowest and highest mean
values of 15.3 mg/dl and 25.9 mg/dl
respectively with an overall average for 19.5
mg.dl (Fig. 2). There was also week to week
variation as the concentration increased in
ascending order from the lowest value of 16.9
mg/dl in the first week to 21.0 mg/dl in the sixth
week of collection (Fig. 2). Cholesterol is an
important constituent in forming reasonably
permeable and comprehensive membrane
structure which withstands environmental stress
(Tria and Scanu, 1969). The cholesterol value
 V. K. Agarwal, L. Ram, A. K. Rai, N. D. Khanna and S. P. Agarwal
reported in this study are lower than those
reported in cattle and buffalos (Iqbal et al.
1984). The lower concentration of cholesterol
may be one of the reasons that camel
spermatozoa are very susceptible to
environmental changes. It may also be the
reason for poor preservability of camel semen.
Total Proteins
The total protein levels in seminal plasma of
camel were found to vary from 0.51 to 1.35
gm/dl in different camel bulls with an overall
average of 0.92 ± 0.11 gm/dl (Fig. 2). However,
animal to animal variation was not statistically
significant. Protein and non-protein nitrogenous
compounds are the normal constituents of
seminal plasma. A vast variation in the
concentration of biuret reacting material has
been reported in different species of animals. It
is least in fowl measuring about 0.8 to 0.9 gm/dl
with increasing value in dog, ram, man and bull
(Wales et al. 1961). The main function of
proteins appears to be that of maintaining
osmolarity of the seminal plasma and to
maintain pH by their buffering action.
Citric Acid
The citric acid concentration in seminal plasma
of different camels varied between 23.4 mg/dl
and 41.0 mg/dl. The over mean was 36.20 ± 16
mg/dl (Fig. 2). The levels were somewhat low in
the first week of collection followed by an
increasing trend till sixth week (Fig. 2). The
statistical analysis showed significant
differences between animals as well as between
weeks (P<0.01). The citric acid concentration in
camel is evidently much lower than those in
bulls (510-1100 mg/dl), boars and rams (130-
200 mg/dl) and stallallions (110-260 mg%)
indicating vast species differences. However;
these value are closer to those of Polworth ram
in which the concentration in the range of 47 to
59 mg/dl has been reported (Gonalez and Neues,
1984). The exact physiological role of citric acid
in the semen is not known as it does not
influence markedly the aerobic and anaerobic
metabolism of spermatozoa (Humphery and
Mann, 1949). It has been suggested that citric
acid is connected with coagulation and
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 25-30
28
liquefaction of semen and also with calcium
binding capacity of seminal plasma (Huggins,
1945). Lundquist (1947) suggested that citrate
may act as an activator of the prostatic acid
phosphatase. Another significance of citric acid
has been shown to be in the maintenance of
osmotic equilibrium in semen with sodium and
potassium ions.
Sodium and Potassium
The sodium contents in camels semen were
found to vary within a range of 153 to 168 mg/L
with significant differences between camels bull
(Fig. 2), However, value were not different
significantly between ejaculates collected during
different weeks, These values are comparable
with those found in man but lower than boar and
higher than bull, ram and equine semen (Mann,
1967, 1964b, 1971). The potassium content inc
amel semen was around 15 to 20 meg/l amongst
different camel bulls and on different occasions
of semen collection. The values are in close
proximity with those of station, ram and man
but lower than those of bull and boar (Mann,
1963, 1964b, 1971). It may be observed that
concentration of sodium and potassium is
similar to those found in blood plasma and
seems to serve the same function of a
maintaining electrolyte equilibrium between
sperm cells and surrounding media. In addition,
they also develop proper osmolarity of the
seminal plasma to provide the proper
environment for the integrity and survival of
sperm cells.
References
Chen, B.X. and Z.X. Yuen. 1979. Reproductive
pattern of the bactrian Camel. In IFS Int.
Symp. Camels, Sudan. 251 pp.
El-Manna, M.M., M.D. Tingari, and A.K.
Ahmed. 1986. Studies on camel semen. II.
Biochemical characteristics. Anim. Reprod.
Sci., 12:223-231.
Gonalez, C.I.M. and J.P. Neues. 1984.
Biological evaluation and determination of
concentrations of fructose and citric acid in
 Physical and Biochemical Attributes of Camel Semen 29

ram seminal plasma after different times of Mann, T. and U. Parsons. 1950. Studies on the
incubation at 37 ºC. Revista Brasileria de metabolism of semen, Role of hormones,
Reproducao Animal, 8: 166-171. Effect of castration, Hypophysectomy and
diabetes. Relation between blood glucose
Humphrey, G.F. and T. Mann. 1949. Studies on
and seminal fructose. Biochem. J., 46: 440-
the metabolism of semen and citric acid in
450.
semen. Biochem. J., 44: 97-103.
Huggins, C. 1945. Physiology of the prostate Merck, E., and A.G. Darmstadt. 1964. Chemical
gland. Physiol. Rev., 25 P.281. Methods of Medical Investigation. 61 pp.
Iqbal, M., H.A. Samad, M. Yaqub and Najib-ur-
Salisbury, G.W., N.L. Van Demark, and J.R.
Rehman. 1984. Comparative study of
Lodge. 1978. Physiology of reproduction
cholesterol and total lipids in semen of Nili-
and artificial insemination of cattle. 2nd edn.
Ravi buffalo bulls and sahiwal bulls.
Freemen and Company, San Francisco,
Paki.Vet. J., 4: 158-160.
U.S.A.
Khan, A.A. and I.S. Kohli. 1972. A study on
sexual behaviour of male camel. Indian Vet. Taussky, C. 1949. Determination of citric acid
J., 49: 1007-1012. in biological fluids. J. Biol. Chem., 175: 745.
Khan, A.K., and I.S. Kohli. 1973. A note on
Tria, E., and A.M. Scanu. 1969. Structure and
sexual behaviour of male camel. Indian J.
fundamental aspects of lipoproteins in living
Anim. Sci., 43: 1092-1094.
systems. Academic Press, London. 661 pp.
Lundquist, F. 1947. Studies on the biochemistry
of human semen. II some properties of Wales, R.G., T.W. Scott., and I.G. White. 1961.
prostatic phosphatase. Acta Physiol. Scand., Biuret reactive materials in semen. Aust. J.
14: 263-275. Expt. Biol. Med. Sci., 39: 455-461.
Mann, T. 1949. Determination of citric acid in
Wootton, I.D.P. 1964. Micro-analysis in
biological fluids. J. Biol, chem., 175:745.
Medical Biochemistry 4th edn. J.A. Churchill
Mann, T. 1963. In biology of the prostate and Ltd. 10 Gloucester Place, London.
related tissues. Nat. Concer. Ins.
Monograph., 12 :235.
Mann, T. 1964a. The biochemistry of semen and
of the male reproductive tract. Methuen &
Co. Ltd. London. 241 pp.
Mann, T. 1964b. The biochemistry of semen
and of the male reproductive tract. Methuen
& Co. Ltd. London. 89 pp.
Mann, T. 1971. Biochemical appraisal of human
semen. In fertility disturbances in men and
women, Joel, C. (ed), Kanger, Basel. 146 pp.

Mann, T. 1974. Secretary function of the

prostate, seminal vesicle and other male
accessory organs of reproduction. J. Reprod.
Fertil., 37: 179-188.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 25-30

 V. K. Agarwal, L. Ram, A. K. Rai, N. D. Khanna and S. P. Agarwal 30

Table 1. Frequency of colour and consistency variations in camel semen.

Camel No. No. of Colour Consistency
Observations White Milky White Creamy White Thin Watery Thick Thick Viscid
179 6 0 0 6)100%) 0 1(17%) 5(83%)
180 6 0 0 6(100%) 0 0 6(100%)
53 6 2(3.3%) 4(67%) 0 0 5(83%) 1(17%)
59 6 0 3(50%) 3(50%) 0 1(17%) 5(83%)
52 6 1(17%) 4(66%) 1(17%) 1(17%) 4(66%) 1(17%)
67 6 4(67%) 2(33%) 0 3(50%) 3(50%) -
Total 36 7(19.5%) 13(36%) 16(44%) 4(11.1%) 14(38%) 18(50%)

Fig. 1. Mean values of physical characteristics of camel bull semen.

Fig. 2. Mean values of biochemical constituents in camel bull semen.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 25-30

 Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival
and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel Spermatozoa Frozen
in Ampoules
X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen

Dept. of Veterinary Medicine,

Gansu Agricultural University Lanzhou, Gansu 730070 and Anxi
Veterinary Service Station Anxi Gansu 736100 People's Republic of China

ABSTRACT
Split samples from the ejaculates of seven male bactrian camels with proven fertility were tested with
eight different extenders used for farm animals. Semen was frozen in 2.0 ml glass ampoules in liquid
nitrogen vapour and thawed in a water bath of 45-50 ºC and incubated at 37 ºC and 4 ºC to evaluate the
percentage of motile spermatozoa (% mot) percentage of total spermatozoa with intact acrosome (PlA)
and percentage of spermatozoa with intact health acrosome (PlHA) after 0, 1, 3 and 5h of incubation at
37 ºC. The initial motility of camel semen was 81.86 ± 2.34, and the percentages of intact acrosomes and
intact healthy acrosome were 91.85 ± 2.49 and 76.71± 2.90. Differences were significant among the
extenders for all the parameters and the extender SYG-2 was found to be superior to other extenders.

(Key Words: Bactrian Camel, Semen, Cryopreservation, Extenders).

Introduction fertility was achieved using it (Zhao et al. 1991).

Successful artificial insemination with deep-
frozen semen in cattle by Pole and Rowson (1952)
gave a new horizon in animal industry resulting in
widespread use of this technique for rapid genetic
improvement, disease control and economic
aspects. This revolutionary biotechnique has since
been used in various domestic species with
variable degrees of success. In Camelidae, it has
not met with the same success as in cattle. Thus
there is a need to evolve suitable semen freezing
and handling techniques consistent with
attainment of an acceptable level of fertility
through Al in this species.
Reports on processing of camel semen using
different extenders, glycerol levels, equilibration
and freezing times are available (Chen et al.
1990). Earlier we have found that extender SYG-
2 was superior to other extenders and a high
However information is laking on the sperm
behaviour patterns in different extenders. The
objective of the present work was to study the
comparative efficiency of eight ampoule freezing
extenders on post-thawing motility, survival and
acrosomal integrity of spermatozoa of bactrian
camel.
Materials and Methods
Collection of Semen
Seven healthy bactrian camels of 5 to 15 years of
age maintained as natural service sires were used
in the present study. All the camels were year-
round grazing and located in the desert area with
the altitude of 1400 to 1700 meters. The lowest
and the highest temperature of the area in January
and in July were -10 to –20 ºC, respectively.
During the experiment, the camels were fed
individually with hay, supplemented with
concentrates (2.5 kg/day). Semen was collected

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 31-36

 X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen
once every other day using an artificial vagina of
bull type (41 to 42 ºC). After recording the
physical characteristics (volume, colour,
consistency and pH), the semen was evaluated for
mass activity, percent motile spermatozoa and
sperm concentration. Split ejaculates from each
camel were used to determine the best conditions
for the cryopreservation of semen.
Extension, Cryopreservation and Thawing of
Semen
All extenders used in the study were summarized
in Table 1. Split semen samples with similar
original motility were extended in a bath at 37ºC
and gradually cooled to 4 ºC (37 ºC for 0.5h, 4 ºC
for 4h), packaged in 2.0 ml ampoules (equilibrated
for a further 10 mins for SYG-2 extended semen)
and frozen.
The freezing steps are shown in Table 2. Freezing
was done by arranging a wire frame with a
cooperating in a casket, which was filled with
liquid nitrogen. The ampoules were put on the
netting which could be adjusted to three different
levels above the nitrogen vapour.
Ampoules were thawed in water bath at 45 to 50
ºC. Each sample was evaluated for percentage or
progressively motile spermatozoa (%MOT)
immediately after thawing and at hourly intervals
of incubation at 37 ºC and 4 ºC, respectively until
no sperm remained motile (post-thawing sperm
survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC). The percentage of
spermatozoa with intact acrosome (PIA) and the
percentage intact health acrosome (PIHA) were
estimated after 0,1,3 and 5 hours of incubation
from fixed smears stained with Giemsa stain. The
PIA were the total sperm with intact apical ridges,
while PlHA were the PlA without showing signs
of acrosomal damage. Samples were evaluated by
a single observer and were coded to minimise
observe bias. Absolute index of post-thaw sperm
survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC was constructed using
the formula of Miloevaanof (1962) Ia= (TxR).
Where:
Ia = absolute index of survival.
T = time interval between motility evaluation
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 31-36
32
R = average of every two consecutive motility
Evaluations
A randomized block design was used and the
overall evaluation means of each variable were
analysed after arc sine transformation by analysis
of variance (Snedecor and Cochram, 1980).
Results
The average seminal volume for 105 ejaculates
from seven bull camels was 4.71 ± 1.98 ml with
81.86 ± 2.34% motility and 5.82 ± 0.92x10
sperm/ml. The percentage of intact acrosome and
percentage of intact health acrosome were 91.85 ±
2.49 and 78.71 ± 2.29, respectively.
Summary tables of effect of different extenders on
% MOT immediately post-thaw and at hourly
interval for 5 h and 8 h of incubation at 37 ºC and
4 ºC, respectively, post-thaw sperm survival at 37
ºC and 4 ºC and absolute index of sperm survival
were presented in Tables 3, 5 and on PIA and
PLHA in Table 4.
The results showed that the highest rating of %
MOT, post thaw sperm survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC
and the absolute index of sperm survival at 37 ºC
and 4 ºC were obtained by using extender SYG-2.
Extenders different for % MOT, at 0h (P<0.05),
hourly evaluation and overall means (p<0.01),
post-thaw sperm survival at 37 ºC and 4 ºC (all
p<0.01) and absolute index of sperm survival (all
(p<0.05).
The acrosomal integrity (percentage of
spermatozoa with intact acrosomes after 0,1,3, and
5 h of incubation at 37 ºC) was also higher for the
extension of extender SYG-2. The incidence of
acrosomal injuries following freezing varied
among extenders, but for SYG-2, it was the
lowest.
Discussion
The scores obtained in this study with different
extenders proved that extender SYG-2 was
 Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel Spermatozoa Frozen
in Ampoules
suitable for the routine cryopreservation of camel
semen. SYG-2 was found to be the best with
respect of improved motility and survival, and
acorsomal integrity as compared to other
extenders.
The first published work on deep-frozen
preservation of the sperm of camelidae dates to
the late 1970s (Graham and Schemehl, 1978)
using zoo camels and electroejaculated semen
frozen in pellets. The results achieved however,
were unsatisfactory. A series of experiments with
bactrian camel semen was carried out in the
author's laboratory (Chen et al. 1990; Zhao et al.
1991), the extender SYG-2 was successfully used
for cryopreservation and insemination of 104
camels with a conception rate of 96.22% which
was 30% higher than that in natural mating. The
results confirmed that semen in ampoules diluted
extender SYG-2 is suitable for freezing and might
be used for routine artificial insemination work.
Glycerol is used almost universally as the
cryoprotective agent for freezing semen. The
amount and the method of adding glycerol vary.
Depending upon the extenders, freezing methods
species and the recipes developed by individual
laboratory. In the present study the best sperm
behaviour pattern was achieved when glycerol
was added just before freezing with the final
amount of 7% in extender SYG-2, our
observations were in agreement with the previous
fertility trials. However, much more detailed
studies on the response of camel semen to deep-
freezing such as ultrastructure changes and
differences among bulls, remain to be studied.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported partially by the In-
ternational Foundation for Science, Stockholm
(Grant B/1725-1) and the International Atomic
Energy Agency, Vienna (Research Contract
6301/RB).
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 31-36
33
References
Brans G. and C. Maxwell. 1987. Salaman's
artificial insemination of sheep and goat.
Butterworth, Sydney.
Chen, B.X., X.X. Zhao, and Y.M. Huang. 1990.
Freezing semen and Al in the bactrian camel
(Camelus bactrianus). Paper presented at the
workshop "Is it possible to improve the
reproductive performance of the camel? 10 -
12 September 1990, Paris, France.
Dong, V. 1980. Reproduction in farm animals.
Agricultural Press, Beijin, China. pp 138-175.
Graham, E.F. and D.S. Schmehl, 1978. Semen
preservation in non-domestic mammals.
Symposium of the Zoological Society of
London, 43:153-157.
Milovaanof, V.K. 1962. In biology of
reproduction. 1st ed, Publ. for Agric. lit. J.
Pamph, Moscow, 451 pp.
Pole, C. and I.E.A. Rowson. 1952. Fertility
capacity of bull spermatozoa after freezing at
-79º C. Nature, 109: 626-627.
Snedecor, G.W. and E.G. Cochram. 1980.
Statistical Methods. 7th ed. Iowa State Univ.
Press. IA. pp 359-364.
San, C., Z.Y. Xuw, and X.S. Su. 1989. Artificial
insemination of bactrian camel. Acta
veterinaria et Zootechia, Supple 2: 50-51 (in
China).
Zhao, X.X., Y.M. Huan, and B.X. Chen.
1991.Artificial insemination and pregnancy
diagnosis in the bactrian camel (Camelus
bactrianus). Report of the meeting of FAO
/IAEA interregional network for improving
the productivity of camelids. Rabat. Morocco.
pp 101-107.
 X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen 34

Table 1. The composition of the extenders used in the studies.

Extender Ingredients Reference
SYG-1 12% sucrose 86.5% Sun et al (1990)
egg-yolk 10%
glycerol 3.5%
SYG-2 12% sucrose 73% Zhao et al (1991)
egg-yolk 20%
glycerol 7%
penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
Tris-bull extender Tris 30.28g Rodriguez et al (1989)
Fructose 17.0 g
citric acid monohydrate 12.50g
distilled water to 100 ml
egg-yolk 20%
glycerol 7%
penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
SCIDE sodium citrate dihydrate 23.2g Foote et al ( 1984)
egg yolk 200 ml
glycerol 70 ml
penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
distilled water to 1000 ml
Stallion extender 11% sucrose 82% Dong et al (1980)
egg-yolk 13%
glycerol 5%
penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
Swine extender 80% glucose 77% Dong et al (1980)
egg-yolk 20%
glycerol 3%
Penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
Ram extener Tris 4.361 g Brans & Maxwell (1987)
citric acid monohydrate 2.388g
egg-yolk 18 ml
glycerol 6 ml
penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
distilled water to 100 ml
Buck extender Tris 4.354 g Ibid
citric acid monohydrate 2.605g
egg-yolk 3.0 ml
glycerol 6 ml
penicillin 1000 u/ml
streptomycin 1000 ug/ml
distilled water to 100 ml

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 31-36

 Effect of Different Extenders on Motility Survival and Acrosomal Integrity of Camel Spermatozoa Frozen 35
in Ampoules

Table 2. Freezing sequence of ampoule semen.

steps Distance from netting
to LN surface (cm)
1 2
2 2
3 1
4 In LN
Duration Temp (Cº)
(min)
3 -5
2 -75
1 -175
3 -196

Table 3. Effect of different extenders on percentage of motile spermatozoa, sperm survival at 37 ºC

and absolute index of sperm survival of camel semen frozen.
Criteria SY6-1 SY6-2 TRIS SCDE Stallion Swine Ram Buck
% mot after dilution 82.4±5.3 81.5±3.2 71.6±2.7 72.4±3.6 73.2±3.7 82.4±2.9 70.4±5.1 60.6±3.7
After equilibration 75.2±5.3 77.4±7.1 35.2±5.2 30.4±3.7 50.8±4.6 70.9±5.4 45.6±5.3 35.4±5.7
Post-thaw immediately 42.6±4.1 61.5±4.9 22.4±3.9 24.8±2.6 41.8±2.7 45.4±2.7 25.8±2.6 23.2±2.7
incubated at 37 oC for
1h 33.1±3.2 59.4±7.3 20.2±7.5 18.2±4.5 38.3±7.2 37.3±1.7 14.8±3.2 11.4±2.8
2h 12.2±1.9 57.4±3.3 17.9±3.2 16.2±2.7 30.2±7.4 17.3±2.9 6.4±1.3 5.3±1.7
3h 5.7±2.3 51.6±7.2 15.1±5.5 15.2±6.4 17.3±3.9 15.3±3.1 3.2±1.1 2.4±0.8
4h 3.1±1.1 41.2±6.7 10.4±7.2 12.2±2.7 8.4±3.1 6.4±1.3 1.2±0.7 0.48±0.5
5h 1.2±1.1 39.3±3.2 8.5±1.7 10.5±2.6 4.3±1.4 4.2±1.3 0.3±0.1 0.14±0.2
Over mean 37.4 61.3 31.2 30.8 38.25 39.9 27.5 24.3
Survival at 37 oC 4.12±0.37 8.47±0.32 3.25±0.73 3.1±0.11 4.06±0.27 4.31±0.17 3.15±0.39 3.13±0.4
La 75.97±14.95 267±7.1 78.9±4.78 77.83±3.3 117.1±14.1 117.9±14.4 38.55±7.9 31.5±6.3

Table 4. Effect of different extenders on precentage of intact and intact healthy acrosomes of
camel spermatozoa frozen in ampoules.
Criteria SYG-1 SYG-2 TRIS SCDE Stallion Swine Rame Buck
% of intact acrosome of 92.7 94.6 95.4 90.6 89.4 93.1 88.4 90.6
original incubated at 37ºC for
0h 79.3 86.2 78.0 77.2 78.4 80.3 72.3 68.1
1h 74.3 80.4 71.6 64.5 68.7 72.3 68.5 60.2
3h 70.2 78.4 67.2 58.4 65.3 65.2 60.4 58.1
5h 58.4 68.1 52.3 50.4 58.6 52.7 49.8 43.2
Overall mean 70.6 78.3 67.3 62.6 67.8 67.8 62.8 57.4
% of intact health acrosomes of 79.4 80.3 79.6 75.4 74.6 76.2 73.4 75.8
original incubated at 37ºC for
0h 65.7 65.3 53.1 50.4 53.1 54.2 48.3 40.7
1h 60.4 62.7 47.8 43.2 47.6 44.3 40.2 37.2
3h 52.6 55.6 40.3 37.2 42.3 36.4 32.1 30.2
5h 44.3 50.4 38.2 30.1 38.2 38.2 28.7 22.5
Overall mean 56.5 58.5 44.9 40.2 45.3 40.8 37.3 32.7

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 31-36

 X.X. Zhao, Y.M. Huang, Q.C. Nie, Y.K. Zhang and B.X. Chen 36

Table 5. Effect of different extenders on the percetage of motile spermatozoa sperm survival at 4
ºC and absolute index of sperm survival of camel semen frozen in ampoules.
Criteria Sy6-1 Sy6-2 TRIS SCDE Extenders Swine Ram Buck
stallion
% mot after post-thaw incubation at 4 oC for
oh 43.4±7.4 63.7±8.4 21.6±3.3 24.3±3.8 43.2±7.8 45.6±6.9 27.4±7.1 22.0±2.8
1h 41.6±5.4 61.2±3.0 21.6±3.2 21.6±4.7 41.5±5.3 43.6±5.5 24.5±6.2 21.5±3.3
2h 38.7±4.4 55.4±1.8 15.7±4.2 15.4±4.1 30.6±3.7 38.3±4.4 17.6±4.9 12.3±5.4
3h 35.4±3.4 53.2±2.8 13.6±1.9 14.1±3.7 28.5±3.1 3604±3.7 15.8±3.1 11.4±3.2
4h 32.6±1.2 52.1±3.2 12.7±3.7 13.4±5.3 27.6±5.4 32.7±3.3 15.7±5.8 11.6±3.2
5h 28.5±6.4 48.3±3.1 10.8±3.1 11.7±5.2 24.7±5.4 28.6±3.1 13.4±5.4 7.4±1.8
6h 25.3±4.1 45.4±4.1 8.4±3.4 7.6±2.9 21.6±4.9 25.4±3.7 11.3±4.0 5.3±3.7
7h 21.4±3.8 43.7±4.1 6.3±4.2 4.3±1.7 19.3±4.4 24.3±4.8 10.1±2.1 3.1±1.6
8h 18.9±4.1 40.2±5.3 4.2±3.2 2.7±1.6 12.1±3.2 20.6±5.4 7.9±3.8 2.7±1.3
overall mean 31.7±2.7 51.9±8.1 12.4±7.7 13.1±7.4 28.8±10.5 3301±9.2 16.5±4.8 11.5±7.9
Post-thaw sperm
survival at 4 ºC 48.3±1.8 76.3±2.1 16.1±1.9 16.3±2.7 56.4±3.2 56.9±1.9 32.3±1.6 24.3±1.5
La 254.6±7.3 415.7±8.1 108.2±5.9 104.2±6.5 254.4±7.3 266.2±8.3 130.7±5.9 91.8±5.4

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 31-36

 The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel
M. F. Wardeh
The Camel Applied Research Network
ACSAD, P.O. Box 2440 Damascus, Syria

ABSTRACT
The dromedary camels were not subject to modern studies as it was the case with other domestic
animals. Nutrition studies were least conducted with camels. The nutrient requirements were
speculated by military observers and desert ventures in most cases.

Data used for this study were mainly generated from studies conducted to determine the botanical and
chemical composition of the diets selected by the dromedary under natural rangeland conditions east of
the Mediterranean where growth pattern and milk production were measured in the Syrian steppe lands.
Moreover, data were generated from digestibility and adaptability studies in Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
Whenever data were not sufficient to determine the nutrient requirements for certain functions, the
requirements of cattle in hot climates were used.

This study lays the basic foundation for the nutrient requirements of the dromedary to perform different
physiological functions.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Nutrition, Requirements, CARDN).

Introduction A continuous separation of solid feed particles

Inspite of the fact that the camel ruminates, its
ingested feeds are subject to microbial digestion
and the final metabolic products are similar to
those in true ruminants, it is classified as
pseudoruminant, but this classification is mainly
due to the significant differences in the structure
and function of the digestive system of the
camelids (Tylo-pods) and the true ruminants
(Ruminatiae) (Bhattacharya, 1986).
The rumen (first compartment) of the camel is
characterized by its unique exterior glandular sacs
which secret a mucus-like substance that differs in
composition from rumen liquid. The third
compartment is absent from the honey comb-like
structure which is not distinctively separated from
the fourth compartment. The camel does not have
a gall bladder.
The motility pattern of the compound stomach of
the camel differs from that of the true ruminants.
from fluids and solutes seems to occur through the
motility cycle, thereby retaining larger feed
particles in the rumen (Engelhardt et al. 1988). In
true ruminants total digesta in the reticulo rumen
are mixed and transported within the organ a few
hours after feed ingestion rather homogeneously.
The retention of large feed particles in the camel
rumen allows microbial digestion of such particles
for longer times.
Camels digest dry matter and crude fibre of range
plants (El-Shami, 1985), alfalfa (Bhattacharya et
al. 1985), straw and trifolium (Gihad et al. 1988)
better than ruminants. This high dry matter and
crude fibre digestibility was attributed to the
unique movement of the forestomach and the
longer retention time of the large feed particles in
the forestomach of the camel (Engelhardt et al.
1988).
Digestibility of proteins of feedstuffs was found
lower in camels than in sheep. However, camels
utilize proteins better than sheep or goats in case
 M. F. Wardeh
of poor feeds such as straw, mainly due to urea
recycling. Camels retain higher amounts of
nitrogen (19.87%) than sheep (15.14%) and goats
(12.68%) from the same diet. The proportion of
retained nitrogen to digestible protein were
42.17% in camels, 32.63% in sheep and 27.98%
in goats (Gihad et al. 1988).
Preference for certain plant species and feed
intake mainly depend on the ecosystem, presence
and intensity of other plant species, stage of
maturity, season (Cook and Harris, 1968), range
condition and water availability within the annual
feed cycle (Wardeh, 1989). Hence, diet
composition varies within and among seasons and
sites. The nutritive values of such diets vary
accordingly and in relation to the plant species
they include (Wardeh, 1981).
The high and constant water content of salty
plants makes them preferred species for camels to
ensure a good portion of their water requirements
in areas where water is the most limiting factor for
animals. Water content of lush leaves and twigs of
trees and shrubs is as high as 80%
(Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). This high
water content of plants might furnish 40 to 50% of
water requirements of camels which will be able
to survive from a few days to several weeks
without drinking (Macfarlane, 1964).
The protein content of plant species consumed by
camels ranged from 8.54 to 14.89% (Wardeh et al.
1991). Such a relatively high protein content
would satisfy most of the protein requirements of
camels to perform their various physiological
functions (Wardeh, 1990a; Wardeh and Farid,
1990). The contents of energy releasing entities
(crude fibre, nitrogen free extracts and ether
extracts) of such plants were high enough to
ensure the maintenance and certain production
requirements (Wardeh, 1990a) if camels can
ingest enough dry matter from the small amounts
of feed available in the area (Wardeh, 1990b).
Camels, when managed extensively, are economic
utilizers of rangelands. They usually do not
browse on one individual plant, but take a few
bites and move to another (Wilson, 1984). They
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37-45
38
move among watering points and do not stay long
around them like cattle and sheep. These merits
would not hold true under higher numbers per unit
area (Wardeh, 1989).
Data
Data were mainly generated from studies
conducted to determine the botanical and chemical
composition of diets selected by dromedary
camels during three different seasons each year for
four years under natural range conditions east of
the Mediterranean. Growth pattern and milk
production of the camels was measured (Naser et
al. 1986; Wardeh, 1989).
More data were used from digestibility and
adaptation studies at maintenance, sub-
maintenance and slightly above maintenance
levels in Egypt (Farid et al. 1985). Other camel
feeding studies (Al-Motairy, 1991) were also
used.
Results obtained from the above mentioned
studies were checked with the nutrient
requirements of sheep and cattle in hot climates
(Kearl, 1982). Nutrient requirements of the
dromedary camel were found similar to those
reported by Kearl (1982) for cattle in hot climates
and were used whenever original data were
missing.
Results and Discussion
Nutrient Requirements for Maintenance
Dry Matter
The dromedary spends 6-12 hours grazing daily
under natural range conditions. The plant matter
intake varies from 5 to 55 kg/d depending on the
season and feed availability (Gauthier- Pilters
1979; Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981; Wardeh,
1989). The amount of dry matter was estimated at
1.2-12 kg/d which represented 2.45% of the
body weight of a 500 kg camel or 104 g DM/kg0.75
(Wardeh, 1989; Wardeh and Farid, 1990).
When camels were given fibrous diets at the
maintenance level they rejected the coarse and
selected the more concentrated components of the
 The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel
diet with a value of 8.37 MJ ME/kg DM. The dry
matter intake was 46.8-52.8 g/kg 0.75 which was
about 1.02% of the average body weight (Farid et
al. 1985). This average was lower in the camel
than in the other ruminant animals. When camels
were fed berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay
and barley straw at the maintenance level for
cattle they consumed 32.4 g/kg0.75 or about 0.68%
of the live body weight, but they were losing
weight.
Young growing camels (326.6 kg) consumed
1.33% DM (3.35 kg/head/day) of their body
weight or 56.6 g/kg 0.75. This amount consisted of
1.88 kg DM concentrate while the rest came from
wheat straw (Al-Motairy, 1991). The animals
were growing at a slow rate of 137.5 g/head/day.
High atmospheric temperature in northeastern
Saudi Arabia might have caused the slow growth
rate.
Lactating camels consumed higher (9.3 kg/
head/day) amounts of dry matter than dry ones
(6.7 kg/head/day). Moreover, individual feeding
of dry camels decreased intake to 5.9 kg/head/day
in Saudi Arabia (Basmail, 1989). Similar rations
of alfalfa hay, straw and concentrate were fed to
all groups of camels.
Hence, the daily dry matter requirements of the
dromedary for maintenance were estimated at
2.5% of the body weight with 10.88 MJ ME/kg
DM. This ME value should not be less than 8.39
Mj/kg DM (Table 1).
Energy
When 579 kg nouks (dromedary females) were
fed a maintenance ration for cattle, they obtained
467.0 KJ ME/kg 0.75 and grew 200 g/d (Farid et al.
1985). Slightly higher (488.4 MJ ME/kg 0.75)
values were obtained under range conditions east
of the Mediterranean (Wardeh, 1989). Kearl
(1982) reported an average value (493.7 KJ) for
cattle in hot climate. When a high value was
excluded, the average became 468.5 KJ ME/ kg
0.75
. Wilson (1984) reported a higher value (510.4
KJ) depending on the nutrient requirements for
British cattle breeds.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37-45
39
Growing young camels obtained 8.98 Kcal/h/d out
of which 3.88 Kcal ME (43.2%) came from straw.
The concentration of ME in the ration was 2.06
Mcal/Kg DM (Al-Motairy, 1991). The animals
were growing at a very slow rate. These values
were in agreement with those of Wardeh (1990 a)
and not far from values reported by Wilson
(1984).
An average value of 435.1 KJ ME/kg 0.75 was
used to estimate the energy requirements for
maintenance (Table 1).
Protein
When camels obtained 2.73 g DP/ kg 0.75 from
natural rangelands east of the Mediterranean
(Wardeh, 1989), and 2.60 g DP/ kg 0.75 in
confinement in Egypt (Farid et al. 1985) they were
growing at a very low rate and had a positive
nitrogen balance. Kearl (1982) and Ranjhan
(1980) reported higher figures (2.86 and 2.84 g
DP/kg 0.75, respectively) for cattle in hot
climates. An amount of 443.4 g CP/h/d (236.9 g
DP; 3.02 DP/ kg 0.75) was enough for slightly
above maintenance requirements for growing
camels in Saudi Arabia (Al-Motairy, 1991).
An average figure (2.70 g DP/ kg 0.75) was used to
estimate the protein requirements for maintenance
in the dromedary (Table 1).
Nutrient Requirements for Pregnancy
Energy
Pregnancy lasts from 12 to 13 months in the
dromedary. It was assumed that the energy
requirements of pregnant nouks increase faster
during the last third in a fashion similar to those of
cattle and sheep. An extra 20% of the energy
requirements for maintenance was added during
the ninth and tenth months and 50% from the start
of the eleventh month to delivery (Table 2).
Values reported in Table 2 are lower than those
(95.3 MJ) of Basmail (1989) in Saudi Arabia.
Protein
The ratio of digestible protein to metabolizable
energy remains constant during pregnancy in
cattle. This ratio was 21- 28 g DP/4.18 MJ ME for
cattle in hot climates (Kearl, 1982). An average
value of 26 g DP/4.18 MJ ME was used to
estimate the protein requirements of the pregnant
 M. F. Wardeh
nouks (Table 2). An extra 200-250 g DP/d should
be added to growing pregnant nouks. (Wardeh,
1989).
Nutrient Requirements for Lactation
Energy
Camel milk contains 13.0-13.4% total solids,
4.15-4.33% fats, 3.4-4% proteins, 4.2-4.5%
lactose and 0.7-0.8% ash (Wardeh, 1989; Wilson,
1984). The requirements for producing one kg
4.2% milk will be 5.02 MJ ME, 55.0 g DP, 2.7 g
Ca and 2.09 P (Wardeh, 1989).
The energy requirements increase by about 12%
for lactating farm animals. Hence, the
metabolizable energy for a lactating naga (a
female camel) which produces 5 kg milk daily is
487.4 KJ (Table 3). An extra 20% ME of the
requirements for maintenance was suggested to be
added for the growing lactating nouks during their
first lactation and 10% during their second one
(Wardeh, 1989).
Protein
The protein requirements for maintenance do not
change during lactation in farm animals. The
protein requirements for lactating nouks was
based on a value of 55 g DP/kg milk (Table 3).
However, 20% of the maintenance requirements
was added to the growing lactating nouks during
their first lactation and 10% during their second
one (Wardeh, 1989).
Nutrient Requirements for Growth
Energy
The daily growth of 200-220 g of 570 kg camels
required 48.1- 50.2 KJ/g growth (Farid et al.
1985). Similar results were obtained when daily
growth was 185-200 g under natural range
conditions east of the Mediterranean (Wardeh,
1989). These findings agreed with those of
Al-Motairy (1991) who reported that camels
(326.6 kg) growing at an average daily gain of
137.5 g required 8.98 Mcal/d. This value is only
0.56 Mcal higher than that reported by Wardeh
(1990a). Kearl (1982) and Ranjhan (1980)
reported the growth requirements 36.5 KJ/g of 200
kg cattle in hot climates. These requirements
increase to 62.3 KJ/g for 500 kg cattle.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37-45
40
Energy requirements for growth increase as the
growth rate and fat deposition increase. The
changes in growth composition according to age,
weight and growth rate were considered in Table
4.
Protein
Growing camels (326.6 kg) consumed 433.4 g
CP and grew at a rate of 137.5 g/h/d (Al-Motairy,
1991). Kamoun et al (1989) reported CP values of
227 and 478 g/h/d depending on the nature of diet.
Higher values (882.6 g CP/h/d) were reported by
Ismail and Al-Motairy (1990) when high
concentrated rations were fed to camels.
Gentsch et al (1975) developed the following
regression equation to predict the protein
requirements for cattle in hot climates according
to animal weight and its rate of growth. Even
though this equation overestimates the
requirements it was used for predicting protein
requirements for the dromedary camels since it is
the only reference at this stage (Table 4).
Daily requirements (g DP)= 0.2180 growth rate
(g/d) + 0.6631 body weight (kg)-0.001142 (body
weight)² (kg).
Mineral Requirements
Moty et al (1986) reported similar mineral
composition of the body liquids of the
dromedary camels to other farm animals except
for slightly higher chloride and phosphate levels
(Ayoub et al. 1960). However, it seems that the
dromedary requires high quantities of sodium
chloride which might be about 6-8 times that of
the other farm animals (Wilson, 1984). Camels
which get 30-60 g salt/d might show lameness,
skin necrosis and bone fracture. Such symptoms
disappeared when affected camels were given
about 140 g salt/d (Peck, 1938). Moreover, it was
reported that when camels graze salty plants such
as Atriplex spp. and Salvadora spp. or drink
saline water they might obtain about 120g salt/d
and do not develop sickness symptoms.
The major problem encountered is the extremely
low calcium to phosphorus ratio which was 26:1
in dry and 15:1 in wet seasons (Elmi, 1989).
 The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel
These ratios are far below that generally
recommended (2:1) for domestic animals
(McDowell et al. 1983) and lower than those
reported by le Houerou (1980) in Capparodacae
(15:1) or in leguminous plants (5:1).
Camels usually chew bones and eat snail shells
during the dry seasons (Elmi, 1989; Wilson, 1984)
in order to obtain part of their phosphorus
requirements.
Copper and zinc deficiencies were observed in
camels during certain seasons in Djibouti (Fay and
Saint Martin, 1992).
The Ca and P requirements of the dromedary to
perform the different physiological functions are
presented in Tables 1,2,3 and 4.
Vitamin Requirements
Vitamins are a group of nutrients essential for
normal body processes. Typical range or pasture
diets should contain adequate levels of vitamins or
vitamin precursors to maintain normal health of
camels. When range or pasture is poor or when
animals are kept under restricted pen feeding they
may need vitamin supplementation (Kearl, 1982).
Camels and true ruminants, due to microbial
activity within the rumen are able to synthesize
most of the essential vitamins. The exceptions
are vitamins A, D, E and C.
The requirements of vitamins A and D are adapted
for the dromedary camels from those of cattle in
hot climate as reported by Kearl (1982) and are
presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4.
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 The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel 43

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and New York.

Table 1. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for
maintenance.
Requirements*
Body Weight Kg0.75 Dry Metabolizable Energy Digestible Ca P Vit A
Matter (Megajoules) Protein (g) (g) (g) (1000U)
(kg)
200 53.2 2.50 23.14 144 8 7 9
250 62.9 2.96 27.36 169 10 9 11
300 72.1 3.39 31.38 195 12 10 13
350 80.9 3.80 35.23 218 14 11 15
400 89.4 4.20 38.91 241 17 13 17
450 97.7 4.59 42.51 264 18 14 19
500 105.7 4.97 46.02 285 20 15 21
550 113.6 5.34 49.41 307 21 16 23
600 121.2 5.70 52.76 327 22 17 26
*
Calculations were based on the following:
(1) Energy concentration is not less than 8.79 KJ ME/kg dry matter.
(2) Energy requirements = 435.14 KJ ME/kg 0.75
(3) Protein requirements = 2.70 g DP/kg 0.75
Energy and protein requirements for maintenance increase by 25-40%, respectively when camel graze
or work for 2 to 4 hours/day.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37-45

 M. F. Wardeh 44

Table 2. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for
pregnancy.
Requirements*
Body Weight kg0.75 Dry Metabolizable Digestible Protein (g) Ca P Vit A
Matter Energy (g) (g) (1000U)
(kg) (Megajoules)
During the 9th and 10th Months:
300 72.1 4.29 37.66 234 16 14 25
350 80.9 4.81 40.18 263 21 16 27
400 89.4 5.31 48.53 290 23 18 30
450 97.7 5.80 50.67 317 26 20 34
500 105.7 6.29 55.23 343 29 22 38
550 113.6 6.75 59.29 368 31 24 42
600 121.2 7.20 63.30 393 34 26 46
From the 11th Month to Delivery:
300 72.1 5.36 45.21 292 26 20 34
350 80.9 6.10 52.84 328 29 22 38
400 89.4 6.64 58.37 363 31 24 42
450 97.7 7.26 63.76 396 34 26 46
500 105.7 7.86 69.04 429 36 28 50
550 113.6 8.44 74.14 462 39 30 53
600 121.2 9.00 76.03 492 42 32 57
* Calculations were based on the following:
(1) Energy concentration is not less than 8.44 megajoules ME/Kg DM.
(2) Energy requirements for pregnancy are 120% and 150% of the maintenance during the 9th and
10th and last 2.5 months of pregnancy, respectively.
(3) Digestible protein to metabolizable energy ratio is 26 grams to 4.18 megajoules.

Table 3. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements for lactating dromedary camels.
Requirements*
Body kg0.75 Dry matter Metabolizable Energy Digestible Protein Ca P (g) Vit A
Weight (kg) (Megajoules) (g) (g) (1000U)
300 72.1 6.55 60.25 470 26 20 13
350 80.9 7.00 64.56 493 28 21 15
400 89.4 7.56 69.62 516 31 23 17
450 97.7 7.90 72.72 539 32 24 19
500 105.7 8.33 76.65 560 34 25 21
550 113.6 8.74 80.46 582 35 26 23
600 121.2 9.15 84.31 602 36 27 26
* Calculations were based on the following:
(1) Daily milk production is 5 kg (4.2% fat).
(2) Energy concentration should not be less than 9.20 megajoules/kg dry matter.
(3) Energy requirements increase by 12% during lactation (487.44 Megajoules ME/kg0.75).
(4) The daily requirements to produce one kg of milk (4.2% fat):
5.02 Megajoules ME + 55 grams digestible protein + 2.7 grams Ca + 2.0 grams Phosphorous.
(5) Energy and protein requirements of growing camels increase by 20% and 10% during the first
and the second lactation, respectively.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37-45

 The Nutrient Requirements of the Dromedary Camel 45

Table 4. Daily energy, protein, Ca, P and vitamin requirements of dromedary camels for growth.
Requirements*
kg kg 0.75 Gain/day DM ME ** ME DP Ca P Vit A
(g) (kg) Mjoules (Mjoules) (g) (g) (g) (1000U)
100 31.6 250 2.25 9.20 20.75 195 10 7 6
500 2.75 10.04 27.70 249 15 9 6
750 2.96 11.72 34.69 304 20 11 6
150 42.9 250 2.90 9.20 26.69 244 12 9 8
500 3.46 3.46 35.06 298 16 10 9
750 3.93 10.88 42.80 353 21 13 9
200 53.2 250 3.50 9.20 32.26 285 11 91 1
500 4.12 9.20 41.42 340 16 12 12
750 4.64 10.04 50.54 394 21 15 13
250 62.9 250 4.49 8.37 37.57 318 12 10 12
500 5.19 9.20 47.78 373 16 14 13
750 5.78 10.04 57.99 427 22 17 14
300 72.1 250 5.10 8.37 42.63 345 15 11 13
500 5.86 9.20 53.93 400 19 14 14
750 6.50 10.04 65.23 454 23 18 15
350 80.9 250 5.68 8.37 47.57 365 16 14 16
500 6.50 9.20 59.91 420 20 16 17
750 6.85 9.20 74.56 474 25 18 18
1000 8.43 10.04 84.68 528 30 21 19
400 89.4 250 6.26 8.37 52.34 378 16 15 15
500 7.15 8.37 65.81 433 21 18 17
750 8.61 9.20 79.24 488 26 21 18
1000 9.23 10.04 92.68 542 31 24 19
450 97.7 250 6.82 8.37 57.03 385 18 17 16
500 7.73 8.37 71.55 440 22 20 17
750 9.35 9.20 86.06 494 26 23 19
1000 10.02 10.04 100.58 549 29 26 20
500 105.7 250 7.36 8.37 61.59 386 19 18 17
500 8.38 9.20 77.19 440 23 21 19
750 10.08 9.20 92.80 495 27 24 21
1000 10.79 10.04 108.37 550 30 27 23
Calculation of the energy and protein requirements took into consideration the composition of the
growth and the rate of gain of the animal.
** ME concentration in the dry matter.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 37-45

 Maintenance Energy Requirements and Energy Utilization
by Dromedary at Rest
A. Guerouali,1 R.Zine Filali,2 M.Vermorel3, and M.F. Wardeh4
1&2
Dept. of Physiology,Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire
Hassan II. P.O. Box 6202, Rabat. Morocco
3
Unité de Recherche des Métabolismes Energétique et lipidique.
INRA. Centre de Recherches de Clermont Ferrand, Theix
63122 St Genes Champanelle. France
4
The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
CARDN, P. O. Box 2440, Damascus, Syria

ABSTRACT
Five female dromedary camels were fasted for four days to estimate the fasting heat production and then
fed three different levels of feeding during three successive periods. The dromedaries received 1 kg of
barley grains and 5 kg of wheat straw, in the first period (P1), twice and four times the amount consumed
in P1 during the second (P2) and the third period (P3), respectively. Digestive trails were conducted and
heat production of animals was estimated by indirect calorimetry during each period. All the feed offered
were consumed except about 25% of the straw in P3. Energy digestibility of the ration averaged 61% for
the three periods and was slightly higher in the third period due to straw refusals. Fasting heat production
averaged 52 kcal/kgW0.75 and all the dromedaries showed an increase in heat production with respect to
level of feeding. Retained energy was regressed against metabolizable energy (ME) intake and the
energy requirements for maintenance (MEm, zero energy gain) was estimated to average 73 kcal/kgW
0.75
. However, different estimates of the efficiency of utilization of ME above (kf) and below (km)
maintenance were obtained. Indicating that the dromedaries utilized ME below maintenance with an
efficiency of 73%, comparable to sheep and above MEm with an efficiency of 61%, better than sheep.
When the data of FHP were considered in the regression, different values of km were obtained
suggesting that the linearity of response below MEm is not obvious and at least two different slopes
could be obtained.

(Key Words: Dromedary, Digestibility, Heat Production, Maintenance, Efficiency, CARDN).

Introduction camel. The worst effects are encountered when the

The dromedary camel has a remarkable ability to
exploit the scanty feed and water in its natural
habitat. Long distances are covered in search of
feed and water. In extreme cases of limited natural
vegetation, the camel not only decreases its feed
intake, but also reduces its metabolic rate
(Dahlborn et al. 1992). In these circumstances,
production is adjusted to energy intake which, in
part, explains the supposed poor production of the
high demanding physiological stages coincide
with the dry season. To improve the overall camel
productivity, it is necessary first to estimate the
minimum nutritional requirements to keep the
animal’s body in stable energetic state. This basic
data would help in the establishment of the energy
requirements for growing, pregnant, lactating and
working camel. There have been few
investigations on feeding standards for camel and
assessment of its nutritional requirements remains
 A. Guerouali, R.Zine Filali, M.Vermorel, and M.F. Wardeh
very empirical and often extrapolated from cattle
data. The present study was designed to estimate
the nutrient requirements of the dromedary at
maintenance when using the regression method.
Coefficients for efficiency of utilization of ME for
maintenance (km) and fattening (kf) were also
computed.
Materials and Methods
Five healthy, 8 to 10 year old female camels were
used over four successive periods with different
levels of feeding in each (Table 1). The diet
consisted of 66% barley grains and 34% wheat
straw and was fed at 0 (FHP), 0.5 (P1), (MEm)
recommended for sheep by INRA (1978), which
is 95 kcal of ME intake per kgW 0.75.
Before the beginning of the study, animals were
adapted to fecal collection bags and to the indirect
calorimetry chamber for a period of one month.
During each period of the study, a pre-sacked diet
was offered to the animals 3 days prior and 7 days
during the digestive trials at 9 am daily. The
remaining feeds were weighed after 24h in order
to determine the amount of feed consumed. The
exact intake measurement started one day prior to
fecal collection and concluded one day before the
final daily fecal collection. Feces were removed
from the fecal collection bag daily during 7
consecutive days, weighed and 10% was dried and
added to composite dry aliquot fore each animal.
Fecal and diet dry matter were determined by
drying the samples at 105 oC for 24 h. The gross
energy contents of the feeds and faeces were
determined using one g pelleted samples in an
adiabatic bomb calorimeter (Parr 1241). The
digestible energy (DE) intake was determined by
substracting the fecal energy from the intake
energy while the ME intake was estimated from
the DE intake by using the following ME/DE
rations: 0.82, 0.83 and 0.88 in P1, P2 and P3,
respectively. These values were obtained in sheep
fed similar diets at comparable feeding levels
(Blaxter and Wainman, 1964; Vermorel et al.
1987).
An indirect calorimetry system of an open circuit
type was used to measure the oxygen consumption
during 24h per animal per period. Heat production
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 46-51
47
(HP) was estimated by using the equation of
McLean (1972):
HP (kcal/d) = 02 In-Out) X Flow (STPD) X 4.89
The (O2 In-Out) was the difference in percentage
of O2 between outside air and the exhausted air
while the flow (STPD) corresponded to the
amount of exhausted air flowing through the
flowmeter converted to standard conditions of
temperature, pressure and humidity. Fasting heat
production (FHP) was also estimated by
measuring gaseous exchanges of each dromedary
on day 4 of a fast. It should be noted that for
similar diets and feeding levels, heat production
was underestimated by 0.5% in P1, P2 and P3 by
the McLean’s (1972) equation compared to the
Brouwer’s equation (1965). However, during the
fourth day of fast, methane production was very
low and the underestimation of HP was about
2.3%.
Retained energy (RE) was determined by
subtracting HP from ME intake. Linear regression
equations were computed between RE and ME
intake in order to determine the MEm of the
animals. The regression equations gave several
estimates of MEm and efficiencies of ME
utilization above and below zero energy retention.
The effect of feeding level on diet digestibility and
heat production of animals was tested by the
paired t-test.
Results and Discussion
Mean body weight, gross energy intake and
digestibility variations with the feeding level are
presented in Table 2. The average body weight of
the dromedaries increased linearly with feeding
level from FHP (fast) to P3 (twice maintenance)
by 7.13 kg per kg of dry feed. A four day fast
reduced the body weight of the4 dromedaries by
3.16% compared to the weight measured in P1
when the animals were fed half the requirements
and by 5.85% compared to the weight measured in
P2 when the animals were fed to maintenance
requirements. In P3, when the ration was doubled,
body weight increased by 5.52% as compared to
the average weight measured in P2.
 Maintenance Energy Requirements and Energy Utilization
by Dromedary at Rest
In the first and the second periods, the amount of
feeds offered to the dromedaries was totally
consumed. However, in the third period all the
barley grains offered was consumed, but about
25% of the wheat straw was refused.
Consequently, barley grains constituted about
66% of the diet in P1 and P2 and 72% in P3. This
may explain the higher energy digestibility value
observed in P3 (63%) compared to value
determined in P1 and P2 (61%). Straw
digestibility was calculated in P1 and P2 assuming
that barley energy digestibility was 83% (INRA,
1988). In P3, the energy digestibility of the ration
was corrected to take account of reduced from
72% to 66%.
Metabolizable energy intake, total heat production
and retained energy variations with the level of
feeding are presented in Table 3. Fasting heat
production was estimated from the oxygen
consumption of the 3 animals on the forth day of
the fast and averaged 51 ± 3.55 kcal/kg W0.75/day.
In Dman sheep fasted for four days, HP averaged
58.5 kcal/kg W0.75, (Guerouali, 1990). The FHP of
dromedaries determined in the present study
compares more closely with the FHP of adult
sheep (57.4 kcal/kg W 0.75) (ARC, 1980) than of
adult cattle (76.3 kcal/kg W0.75) (Van Es, 1972).
All the dromedaries showed an increase in HP in
response to the increase in feed intake, with 38%
more heat produced from FHP to P2 and 28%
more from P2 to P3. When HP was regressed
against ME intake the following equation was
obtained:
HP= (0.29 ± 0.03) * ME + (52.71 ± 6>75);
R2=0.85.
This equation indicates that the FHP is 53 kcal/kg
W0.75 and an average of 29% of ME was
dissipated as heat for the different levels of
feeding. The increases in heat production in
response to the level of feeding were due to the
cost of eating (Young, 1966), the work of the4
gastro-intestinal tract in the processing of the feed
(Webster, 1972; Osuji, 1974), the high metabolic
rate induced by an increase of the metabolically
active organ mass (liver, intestine, heart and
kidney) when animals were fed above
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 46-51
48
maintenance requirements as suggested by Koong
et al (1985) and the utilization of digestion end-
products (volatile above maintenance. With the
same diet and under the same experimental
conditions. Guerouali (1990) showed that ewes
fed at maintenance produced 62% more heat than
when fasted for 4 days, whereas ewes fed at 2*
maintenance produced 50% more heat than ewes
fed at maintenance. Compare3d to sheep,
dromedaries produced less heat in response to
increasing feeding level and by this, are more
efficient in feed conversion.
Retained energy (RE) as the difference between
ME intake and HP, averaged a negative value in
P1 (half maintenance) and a positive value in P2
indicating that the dromedaries were fed above
maintenance. In P3, a positive retained energy was
obtained representing about 34% of the total ME
intake, while HP was about 66%.
Retained energy was regressed against ME intake
for different sets of data and the linear regression
equations obtained are presented in Table 4. These
equations indicate, when assuming RE= 0, that
MEm averaged 72.6 ± 3.8 kcal/kg W 0.75. This
value was higher than the only value found in the
literature for dromedaries (52 kcal/kg W 0.75)
reported by Schmidt-Nielsen et al (1967).
However, it should be noted that in the Schmidt-
Nielsen study, heat production was determined by
measuring respiratory gases with mask when the
animals were under heat stress conditions.
Engelhardt and Schneider (1977), using carbon-
nitrogen balance technique, estimated the MEm of
the llama to be 61.2 kcal/kg W 0.75, while Carmean
et al (1991), using respiration calorimetry
technique, estimated the MEm of the llama to be
84.5 kcal/kg W0.75. Most of the MEm values in the
literature for camelids are different from the value
reported in this study. More likely, this variation is
due to different techniques of determination, diet
and plane of nutrition effects. Estimates of MEm
requirement range from 72 to 107 kcal/kg W 0.75
for sheep depending on level of activity and ME
content of the diet (Van Es, 1972). A broad range
of MEm requirements, depending on diet ME
content and level of activity, would be expected
for dromedaries as well.
 A. Guerouali, R.Zine Filali, M.Vermorel, and M.F. Wardeh
Different values of the efficiency of utilization of
ME intake above and below maintenance
requirements were obtained through regression
equations, indicating that ME was used below
maintenance with an efficiency of utilization of
73% (km=.73) and above maintenance with an
efficiency of 61% (kf = .61). This km value is
close to those (Blaxter and Wainman, 1964; ARC,
1980) calculated from energy balance studies in
metabolizability. However, the kf value is higher
than most values (kf varied between 41% and
56%) found in the literature (Blaxter, 1974;
Garrett et al. 1976). With the high value of kf, it
seems likely that the dromedary utilizes nutrients
for body tissue gain better than other ruminants.
It should be noted in the present study that ME
efficiency below maintenance depended on the
nutritional status of the animal. Between FHP
(fourth day of fast) and P1 (half maintenance) km
was estimated to be 0.65, whereas between P1 and
P2 (maintenance) I was estimated to be 0.76. This
data may indicate that the dromedaries were using
ME with a lower efficiency from FHP to P1 than
from P1 to P2. Considering these results, it may be
suggested that in P1 the amount of feed offered to
the dromedaries (half maintenance) was not large
enough to supply all the glucose and amino acids
required for maintenance. Consequently, body
tissue proteins could be broken down to provide a
source of glucose precursors. Orskov and Ryle
(1990) reported that fasting metabolism is
associated with an increased level of ß-
hydroxybutyrate in the blood and an increased
level of nitrogen excreted in urine. Ku Vera et al
(1988) showed that, by infusing glucose into the
abomasums, fasting urinary nitrogen excretion
could be reduced to basal levels and blood levels
of ß-hydroxybutyrate also fell to normal levels.
Heat production sometimes decreased, while urea
and other nitrogenous compounds excreted in the
urine declined. In the feeding step from half MEm
to MEm, it is likely that the amount of feed
offered to dromedaries supplied all the metabolites
needed for the metabolism, especially glucose and
less protein mobilization may have occurred,
which may explain the higher efficiency observed
during this step.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 46-51
49
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support of this work by the Arab Center for the
Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD)
and the Institute Agronomique et Veterinaire
Hassan II (IAVHII). They also thank all the
technicians of the Physiology Department for their
care and good handling of the dromedaries.
References
ARC. 1980. The Nutrient Requirements of
Ruminant Livestock. Agricultural Research
Center, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.
Blaxter, K.L. 1974. Metabolizable energy and
feeding systems for ruminants. In: Proc.7th
Nutr.Conf. Feed Manufacturers. (eds. Swan
and D. Lewis). PP 3-25. Betterworths,
London.
Blaxter, K. I., and F.W. Wainman. 1964. The
utilization of energy of different rations by
sheep and cattle for maintenance and for
fattening. J. Agric. Sci., 63:113.
Brouwer, E. 1965. Report of sub-committee on
Constants and Factors. In: Energy
Metablolism of Farm Animals. Proc. the 3rd
Symp. K. L. Blaxter (ed.). K.L. Academic
Press. London.
Dahlborn, K., S. Benlamlih, F.R. Zine , A H.
Guerouali, H.J. Hossaini, and M. Oukessou.
1992. Food deprivation and refeeding in the
camel. The American Physiological Society.
262 (Regulatory Integrative Comp). Physiol.,
31: R1000-R1005.
Garrett, W.N., C. L. Ferrell, and P.V. Rattray.
1976. In Energy Metabolism of Farm Animals,
Proc. 7th Symp. Ed. M. Vermorel. Publ. EAAP
No: 19, G. de Bussac. pp 315-318.
Guerouali, A. 1990. Studies on digestion and
metabolism during pregnancy and lactation in
prolific sheep: Dman ewes. PhD thesis, Dept
of Anim Sci. CSU, fort Collins. CO 80523.
 Maintenance Energy Requirements and Energy Utilization
by Dromedary at Rest
INRA. 1978. Alimentation des rumenants. INRA
publications. Route de St-Cyr, 78000.
Versailles, France.
INRA. 1988. Tables de l’alimentation des
bovines, ovins et caprins, INRA Publ.
Versailles.
Koong, L.J., C.L. Ferrell and J.A. Nienaber. 1985.
Assessment of interre lationships among level
of intake and production, organ size and
fasting heat production in growing animals. J.
Nutr., 115: 1383.
KuVera, J.C., E.R. Orskov and N.A. Macleod.
1988. Energy exchanges in cattle nourished by
intragastric nutrition. In Van der Honig, Y.
(Ed). Proc. E.A.A.P. Energy Metabolism
Symposium. pp 271-274, Pudok, Wageningen.
McLean, J.A. 1972. On the calculation of heat
production from open-circuit calorimetric
measurement. Br. Nutr., 27: 597-600.
Orskov, E.R. and M. Ryle. 1990. Energy Nutrition
in Ruminants. Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd.
Cambridge University Press. England.
50
Schmidt-Nielsen, K., E.C., Jr., Krawford, A.E.
Newsome, K.S. Rawson, and H.T. Hammel.
1967. Metabolic rate of camels: Effect of body
temperature and dehydration. Am. J. Physiol.,
212: 341.
Van Es, A. J. H. 1972. Handebuch der
Tierernahrung, BanbIII. Verlag Paul Parey.
Hamburg und Berlin.
Vermorel, M., J.P. Dulphy and J.C. Bouvier.
1987. Energy utilization of sodium hydroxide
treated or untreated straw supplemented with
protein or concentrates by adult sheep. I-Feed
intake, digestibility, metabolizability and net
energy value. Arch. Anim. Nutr. Berlin., 37:
805-821.
Webster, A.J.F. 1972. Acte of eating and its
relation to the heat increment of feed in
ruminants, Environ. Physiol., 42.
Young, B.A. 1966. Energy expenditure and
respiratory activity of sheep during feeding.
Aust. J. Agric. Res., 17:355.

Osuji, P.O. 1974. The physiology of eating and

the energy expenditure of the ruminant at
pasture. J. Range Manage., 27: 437.

Table 1. Diet ingredients and level of feeding.

Periods of study FHP P1 P2 P3
Diet ingredient: a
- Barley grains (kg) 0 1 2 4
- Wheat straw (kg) 0 0.5 1 2
-Vitamins and minerals supplement b (g) 0 50 50 50
a Vitamins and mineral supplements were composed of 18% calcium, 15% Sodium Chloride, 12%
Phosphorus, 2% Magnesium, 1% Sulfur, 1.5% Trace Elements, 0.5 Vitamins and 50%
excipient.
b On fresh matter basis, with 90% dry matter in the ration.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 46-51

 A. Guerouali, R.Zine Filali, M.Vermorel, and M.F. Wardeh 51

Table 2. Body weight, feed energy intake and digestibility variation with the level of feeding
received by animals.
Periods of study FHP P1 P2 P3
Body weight (kg)
Mean a ± SD b 299.00 ± 30.70 308.40 ± 27.75 316.70 ± 28.54 334.20 ± 30.70
Gross energy intake (kcal/day)
Mean ± SD 0 5648 ± 225 11427 ± 189 21102 ± 1523
Energy digestibility (%)
Mean ± SD - 51.01 ± 4.12 60.88 ± 3.45 62.82 ± 3.09
a the mean for the data of five dromedaries used in the study.
b the standard deviation.

Table 3. Metabolizable energy intake and total heat production variation with the level of feeding.
Periods of study FHP P1 P2 P3
0.75
Metabolizable energy intake (kcal/kg ).
Mean a ± SD b 0 38.68 ± 4.62 76.63 ± 8.47 139.54 ± 11.52
0
Total heat production (kcal/kg 0.75)
Mean ± SD 51.01 ± 3.55 64.92 ± 6.21 71.59 ± 8.11 92.22 ± 10.56

Retained energy (kcal/kg 0.75)

Mean ± SD -51.01 ± 3.55 -26.24 ± 4.97 5.04 ± 4.74 47.32 ± 9.83

a the mean for the data of five dromedaries used in the study.
b the standard deviation.

Table 4. Linear regression of retained energy against metabolizable energy at different level
of feeding.
Data Considered Regression Equation Determination MEm kcal/MBS a
Coefficient (R2)
-FHP, P1, P2, P3 RE=.70ME-51.37 .97 73.38
-FHP, P1, P2 RE=.73ME-52.37 .95 71.74
-FHP, P1 RE=.65ME-51.69 .89 79.52
-P1, P2, P3 RE=69ME-50.39 .94 73.03
-P1, P2 RE=76ME-54.22 .86 71.34
-P2 , P3 RE=.61ME-40.73 .89 66.77
Mean ± SD ---- ---- 72.63 ± 3.76
a maintenance energy requirements expressed in kcal per metabolic body size, (kg 0.75).

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 46-51

 Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels Fed
Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay

D.Cianci 1, L.Goio 2. A.M.Hashi 3,

S. Pastorelli 4, M.Kamoun 5, G.B. Liponi6 and M. Orlandi7
1,2,4,6 & 7
Dipartimeto di Scienze Anatomiche, Fisiologiche e Delle Produzioni Animali
Universita di Pisa, Italia
3
National University of Somalia
5
Ecole superieure Agriculture, Matur, Tunis

ABSTRACT
In vivo digestibility trials with camels were carried out in order to assess the nutritional characteristics of
wheat straw (S), meadow hay (H) and their mixture in the ratio of 70:30 (H/S). The average daily food
intake was 44.9 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (916g DM/100 kg lw), 32 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (654 g DM/100 kg lw) and
44.2 g DM/kg lw 0.75 (902 g DM/100 kg Iw) for the H, S and H/S feeds, respectively. Water voluntary
intake was higher when hay was employed (about 14 litres vs 10 litres for the straw). However, similar
results were obtained when water intake was related to dry matter (about 2.6 l/kg DM). Apparent
digestibilities of DM, OM and CP were 55.95, 58.18 and 53.04% for meadow hay, and 44.81, 48.02 and
practically zero for straw, while intermediate values were obtained for the mixture of the two roughages.

CF, NDF and ADF digestibilities were 59.57, 52.45 and 50.95% (H), 57.33, 53.35 and 49.96% (S), and
55.45, 52.23 and 47.27% (H/S).

Energy digestibility was 57.21% (H), 46.57% (S) and 54.03 (H/S) and the nutritive values expressed in
DE and ME (Mj/kg DM) were 10 and 8.62 for the meadow hay and 8.08 and 6.9 for the wheat straw.

(Key Words: Dromedary, Camel, Feed Intake, Digestibility).

Introduction by the dromedary, generalisations can not be

Studies on digestion have provided an important
contribution to the knowledge of the anatomy
and histology of the gastrointestinal tract of the
camelidae (Dougbag and Berg, 1980; Hifney et
al. 1985; Vallenas and Stevens, 1971).
Subsequently, more precise research on
digestive physiology has advanced that
knowledge (Englehardt et al. 1984).
Studies on the practical aspects of nutrition have
been generally concerned with feeding
behaviour and comparative adaptations to
nutritional stresses. Although attempts made to
evaluate feed intake and digestibility of nutrients
made of the digestive capacity of this species.
Dry matter intake values (Richard, 1989) ranged
from 1.6 to 3.8 kg/100 kg (lw). Several
digestibility trials with various forage species
(Bakhit and Mirgani, 1986; Maloiy, 1972;
Schmidt-Nilson, 1964) showed voluntary dry
matter intakes of 1 kg DM/100 kg (lw) and were
lower than those previously reported. Data on
digestibility coefficients are limited to give a
reliable orientation. Variations were probably
due to the factors (environmental, animal
characteristics, feed quality and physical form)
known to influence intake and the small number
of observations from which data were often
derived. The objectives of this study were to

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 52-56

 D. Cianci, L. Goio, A. M. Hash
contribute to the knowledge on dry matter intake
and digestibility in this species and to estimate
the feeding value of low quality roughage diets
for mature dromedary camels.
Materials and Methods
Voluntary intake and digestibility trials were
carried out using four adult dromedaries. The
animals, with a mean body weight of 579 ± 44
kg, were kept in individual boxes during the
study period. Test feeds consisted of wheat
straw and natural meadow hay. The
experimental design consisted of a succession of
three distinct trials varying type of feed straw
alone (S), mixture of hay and straw 70:30 (H/S),
and, hay alone (H). Each forage, chopped into a
length of 7 cm, was available to the animals ad
libitum and was provided in two feedings (at
7.00h and 19.00h).
Each trial was divided into two stages: a
preliminary 15-day period to allow the animals
to adapt to each feed, and a 7-day experimental
period during which voluntary feed intake and
water consumption were measured and total
collection of feces was made. Feces collection
was conducted using a system developed by
Gorsky et al (1957) for cattle and was adapted in
this study to dromedaries. Feces were collected
twice daily (morning and evening) and the total
weight was measured for each animal. After
adequate mixing to ensure uniformity, dry
weight was determined, and a sample of 15% of
total weight was stored through immediate
freezing at -18°C. Forage and fecal samples
were subsequently analysed according to the
guidelines of the "Commissione Valutazioni
alimenti" (Food Evaluation Commission) of
A.S.P.A. (1980) .
Results and Discussion
Feed Composition
The chemical composition of the feeds is shown
in Table 1. The protein concentrations were
below the quantity considered as the minimum
necessary for good ruminal functioning and
ranged to 8% at which Minson (1981) reported
that intake of tropical forages were depressed.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 52-56
53
The choice of such low-protein and high-fiber
feeds in this investigation was held to be
appropriate, given that dromedaries in their
natural habitat are quite often subject to poor
quality diets.
Dry Matter Intake
Data on voluntary feed intake were summarised
in Table 2. Intake of straw averaged 654 g
DM/100 kg (1w) corresponding to 32 g DM/kg
law lw0.75 hay was very much higher and
amounted to 44.9 g DM/kg lw0.75 (916 DM/I 00
kg law), while that of the mixture of hay and
straw (44.2 g DM/kg lw 0.75) was closer to that
of hay alone.
Somewhat similar results obtained by Gerard
and Richard (1989) graminaceous hay (51 g
DM/kg lw0.75) and Gihad et al (1989) using
Trifomm alexandrinum hay (DMI of 49.51 g
DM/kg lw 0.75 DM/I 00 kg lw). Maloiy (1972
reported ingestion data between 0.68 and 1.15
kg/100 kg 1w for Cynodon dactylon. Bakhit and
Mirgani (1986) found a low value of 38.2 g
DM/kg lw0.75 with mature graminaceous hay,
and increased to 51.9g DM/kg lw0.75 when sup-
plemented with urea.
The combination of hay with straw in the ratio
of 70/30 did not significantly influence DMI
(44.2 g DM/kg lw0.75). Rations consisting of
75% crushed date seed or olive pulp and mixed
with 25% Trifolium alexandrinum hay gave
higher intake values of 62,87 and 56.41 g
DM/kg lw 0.75, respectively (Gihad et al. 1985).
These diets contained, respectively, 7.95 and
9.35% CP and 13.35 and 21.88% CF.
It appeared that intake of low quality roughages
by the camel was restricted to less than 50 g
DM/kg lw0.75 for hays and very much lower for
straws. Ewes fed hay alone consumed 84 g
DM/kg lw0.75 daily (ARC, 1980). Despite the
low intake, camels were successfully maintained
on the low quality roughages. Yagil (1985)
reported camels maintained on 3-5 kg of poor
quality forage and performed well in fertility
performance. Results indicated that the camel,
which is predominantly a browser, could
 Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels Fed Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay
maximise extraction of energy from fibrous
feeds.
Water Consumption
The voluntary intake of water (Table 2) was
higher in the two trials which employed hay
compared to that of straw alone (about 14 litres
vs 10 litres). However, water consumption was
similar in the three trials when expressed in
relation to dry matter intake (2.5 l/kg DM intake
for straw, 2.65 l for the mixture of hay and
straw and 2.55 l for hay alone). The values were
lower than those obtained by Gihad et al (1985)
with Trifolium alexandrinum hay (27.11 ml/kg
lw, 86 ml/ kg lw0.82 and 2.72 ml/g DM intake).
In the same comparative trial, values were
significantly lower than those of sheep and
goats. These data confirm the limited water
requirements of the camel.
Digestibility
DMD of feeds ranged from 44.81% for the
straw alone to 55.95% for ŷ the meadow hay
(Table 3). DMD of the mixture of hay and straw
was 52.95%. DMD of the hay was slightly
higher than those reported by Gihad et al (1988)
for Trifolium alexandrinum hay (53.98%),
Maloiy (13) for Cynodon dactyion hay (50%),
and Bakhit and Mirgani (1986) for a wild
graminaceous hay (51.0%). Mean of DMD
would be 52.7%. The dilution of hay with 30%
wheat straw did not significantly affect DM
digestibility. Similarly, Farid et al (1979) found
a DMD of 50.8% with a mixture of wheat straw
and trefoilum hay.
Regarding OMD the following values were
obtained: 48.02, 55.29 and 58.18% for the S,
H/S and H rations, respectively. And were
slightly higher than those for dry matter.
CP digestibility of wheat straw was practically
zero on the average and in accordance with that
reported for the same feed by Andrieu et al
(1988). The digestibility of the protein of hay
was 53.04% and that of the mixture of hay and
straw was 41.28%. Using Cynodon dactyion
with a CP content of 6.5%, Maloiy (1972) found
a lower CP digestibility of 48.6%. Gihad et al
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 52-56
54
(1988) also reported CP digestibility of 51.53%
for Trifolium alexandrinum with a CP content
of 11.38%, which is slightly inferior to the
present findings.
The apparent digestibility of crude fiber was
similar for the test feed: 57.33, 55.45 and 59.57
for the straw, mixture of straw and hay and hay,
respectively. These values were higher those
superior reported by Gihad et al (1988) for
Trifolium alexandrinum hay (47-63%).
For NDF, ADF and cellulose digestibility, mean
values were also similar for the three roughage
diets (H, H/S, S). These were, respectively,
53.35, 52.23 and 52.45% for NDF; 49.96, 47.27
and 50.95% for ADF, and 60.80, 59.45 and
61.70% for cellulose. The digestibility of the
neutral detergent fiber was comparable to the
mean values for cool-season and warm-season
grass hays (55.1 and 55.9%) cattle, sheep and
goats (15). These results further confirm that the
camel is also capable of utilizing the dry matter
of poor quality feeds such as straws.
Energy Value
Energy digestibility was 46.57% for the wheat
straw, 57.21% for the meadow hay, and 54.03%
for their mixture. Digestible energy was, 8.08,
10.00, and 9.44 MJ DE/kg DM for the three
rations. Respectively. Metabolisable energy
(ME) content, calculated from measured DE,
was 6.9, 8.62 and 8.12 MJ ME/kg DM,
respectively (Table 4).
ME values of feeds for camels would possibly
be slightly higher than those measured in sheep,
and camels generally extract more energy from
the food they consume (Degan et al. 1987).
References
Andrieu, J. C. Demarquilly, and D. Sauvant,
1988. Tables de la valeur nutritive des
aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovins
et caprins, Ed. TNRA, Paris.
Commissione Valutazione Alimenti (A.S.P.A.)
1980. Valutazione degli alimenti di interesse
 D. Cianci, L. Goio, A. M. Hash
zootecnico. 1. Analisi chimica. Zoot. Nutr.
Anim., 6: 19-34.
ARC. 1980. The nutrient requirements of
ruminant livestock. Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureau, Slough, England.
Bakhit S.M.A. and T. Mirgani. 1986. Effects of
intraniminal administration of urea on the
nitrogen balance of camels and goats. Camel
research papers from Sudan, Group
document, SRC 12. Addis-Abeba (ETH),
CIPEA, 34-41.
Degen, A.A., E. Elias, and M. Kam. 1987. A
preliminary report on the energy intake and
growth rate of early-weaned camel (Camelus
dromedarius) calves. Anim. Prod., 45: 301-
306.
Dougbag, A.S.A.M. and R. Berg. 1980.
Histological and histochemical studies on
the mucosa of the initial dilated and middle
long narrow part of the third compartment of
the camels stomach. Zentbl. Vet. Med., 2:
155-163.
Engelhardt, W. von., K. Riibsamen, and R.
Heller. 1984. The digestive physiology of
camelids. In: Cockrill.W.R. The camelid: an
all purpose animal Workshop on Camels.
Khartoum, December 18-20, 1979. Uppsala,
Scandinavian Institute of African Studies. pp
323-346.
Farid, M.F.A., S.M. Shawket, and M.H.A.
Abdel-Rahman. 1979. Observation on the
nutrition of camels and sheep under stress. In
I.F.S. Camels, Provisional Report no 6, 125-
170. Workshop on camels, Khartoum,
December 18-20.
Gerard, D. and D. Richard. 1989. Note sur la
consommation d'un foin par des
dromadaires. Revue Elev. Med. Vet. Pay
Trop., 42 : 95-96.
Gihad, F..A., T.T., El Gallad, A.E. Sooud, H.M.
Abou el Nasr, and M.F.A. Farid. 1988. Feed
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 52-56
55
and water intake, digestibility and nitrogen
utilization by camels compared to sheep and
goats fed low protein desert-products.
CIHEAM. Seminaire sur la digestion, la
nutrition et 1'alimentation du dromadaire,
Ourgala, February 28-29, and March 1,
Paris.
Gorsky, J. 1957. A urine and feces collecting
apparatus for heifers and cows. J. Anim.
Sci., 16: 100.
Hifney, A., A.K. Ahmed, and I.A. Ibrahim.
1985. Topography and morphology of the
stomach of camel. Assiut Vet. Med. J., 15:
45-49.
Maloiy, G.M.O. 1972. Renal salt and water
excretion in the camel. Symp. Zool. Soc.,
Lond., 31: 243-259.
Minson, D.J. 1981. Nutritional differences
between tropical and temperate pastures. In:
R.H.W. Moriey (ed.). Grazing Animals:
143-157. Elsevier, New-York.
Reid, R.L., G. Jung, J.M. Cox-Ganser, B.F.
Rybeck and B.C. Townsend. 1990.
Comparative utilization of warm and cool-
season forages by cattle, sheep and goats. J.
Anim. Sci., 68: 2986-2994.
Richard, D. 1989. Ingestibilite et digestibilite
des aliments par le dromadaire. Options
Mediterraneennes - Series Seminaires- n°.2:
55-59
Schmidt-Nielson, K. 1964. Desert Animals.
Oxford University Press, London.
Vallenas, A. and C.E. Stevens. 1971. Motility of
the llama and guanaco stomach. Am. J.
Physiol., 220: 275-282.
Yagil, R. 1985. The Desert Camel: Comparative
Physiology Adaptation. Comparative
Animal Nutrition, Basel, Karger.
 Feed Intake and Digestibility in Camels Fed Wheat Straw and Meadow Hay 56

Table 1. Chemical composition of feeds (% on dry matter basis).

Item Wheat Straw Meadow
Dry matter 89.09 87.33
Organic matter 91.43 91.36
Crude protein (Nx6.25) 3.56 7.29
Ether extract 1.02 1.58
Crude fiber 44.68 36.95
NFE 42.17 45.54
Ash 8.57 8.64
NDF 82.28 67.07
ADF 57.68 44.28
Cellulose 44.49 34.17
Hemicellulose 24.6 22.79
ADL 9.17 7.18
Cross energy (Mj/kg) 17.26 17.45

Table 2. Daily dry matter intake and water consumption (mean + s.d.) of camel offered low quality
roughages.
Item Wheat straw 1 Meadow hay + Wheat Straw Meadow hay
No. of animals 4 4 4
D.M.I.g. 3774 + 125 5212 + 479 65293 + 435
G/100 kg 1w 654 + 33 902 ± 77 916 ± 71
G/Kg1w0.75 32.0 ± 1.0 44.2 ± 3.6 44.9 ± 3.2
Water intake 9.9 ± 1.7 14.0 ± 3.9 13.7 ± 4.2
Ml/kg 1w0.82 51.28 ± 9.4 75.93 ± 20.59 74.2 ± 21.74
1 Kg D.M.I 2.5 ± 0.48 2.65 ± 0.52 2.55 ± 0.59

Table 3. Apparent digestibility (mean ± s.d.) of nutrients by camels.

Item Wheat straw 1 Meadow hay ± Wheat Straw Meadow hay
No. of Animals 4 4 4
DM 44.81 ± 1.72 52.59 ± 0.86 55.95 ± 1.66
OM 48.02 ± 2.03 55.29 ± 0.87 58.18 V 2.06
Crude protein -0.90 ± 7.41 41.28 ± 4.69 53.04 ± 2.32
Crude fibre 57.33.2.06 55.45 ± 0.66 59.57 ± 2.36
NDF 53.35± 1.76 52.23 ± 1.01 52.45 ± 2.57
ADF 49096 ± 1.90 47.27 ± 1.43 50.95 ± 2.53
Cellulose 60.80 ± 1.76 56.45 ± 1.71 61.7 ± 2.44
Hemicellulose 61.35 ± 2.46 62.06 ± 1.83 55.42 ± 3.99
Energy 46.57 ± 2.26 54.03 ± 1.00 57.21 ± 2.08

Table 4. Summary of the nutritional characteristics of feed tested.

Wheat Straw ± Wheat Straw Meadow hay Meadow hay
DDM g/kg DM 448.1 529.5 559.1
DOM g/kg DM 439.1 506.5 531.5
DCP g/kg DM - 26.5 38.7
DE Mj/kg DM 8.08 9.44 10.00
ME Mj/kg DM 6.09 8.12 8.62
NE1 Mj/kg DM 3.85 4.67 5.01
MILK F.U. kg DM 0.54 0.66 0.70

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 52-56

 Two Transferases and Four Electrolytes in
Normal One-Humped Camel Serum
A. Sarwar, M.A. Majeed, G. Hur and l. R. Khan

Dept. of Veterinary Anatomy

University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

ABSTRACT
Two serum transferases and four electrolytes were studied in 56 dromedary camels in eight equal-sized
groups (four male groups based on physiological status). Overall means and standard deviations were:
AST 47.8 ± 2.58 lU/l, AST: 4.3 ± 0.12 lU/;, Na: 178.4 ± 2.86 mEq/l, K; 5.41 ± 0.11 mEq/l; Cl: 175.80 ±
2.02 mEq/l; and Ca: 5.64 ± 0.10 mEq/l. Na was higher (p<0.05) in females than in males. There were no
differences for any parameter among male age groups. Heifers had higher (P<0.05) AST levels than
pregnant dry and non-pregnant dry females. Non-pregnant dry females had higher (P<0.05) K levels than
non-pregnant lactating females. Pregnancy does not appear to affect AST in dry females but serum K
levels are affected by lactation.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Blood Biochemistry).

Introduction Materials and Methods

AST and AlT are found in the tissue and body
fluids of all the domestic animals (Cornelius et al.
1959). ln man and dogs, serum level of the two
transferases are routinely used as an index of liver
function (Wroblewski and la Due, 1956;
Cornelius, 1957). On the other hand, serum
electrolytes e.g. Na, K, Ca and Cl take part in
some reactions which are critical to life (Church,
1988). It is, therefore, imperative that the
concentration of these electrolytes be maintained
within relatively narrow limits (Bone, 1988). An
unusual fluctuation in them is almost invariably
indicative of an abnormal condition (Coles, 1967).
The present study was undertaken to determine
the normal values of six parameters in
one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) and
the extent to which these are affected by sex, age
in males and lactation and/or pregnancy in
females.
Camels
Fifty-six clinically healthy one-humped work
camels (28 males and 28 females) were randomly
selected from its natural habitat at Sarai Mohajar
in Bhakkar, Pakistan. The four groups of equal
size among the males were up to 4, 5 to 6, 6 to 7,
and more than 7 years of age. The four female
groups consisted of heifers, not pregnant dry and
not-pregnant lactating. The age was estimated by
dentition after the system evolved by Rabagliati
(1924).
Laboratory Techniques
Blood samples were collected in July and August.
About 10 ml of blood was collected by the usual
Jugular venipuncture using a 5-cm long, 1B gauge
hypodermic needle. Care was taken not to excite
the animal during collection. Blood samples were
centrifuged for 10 minutes at about 3000 rpm for
serum separation, and serum was stored at 30 to
40 °C until analyzed.
 A. Sarwar, M.A. Majeed, G. Hur and l. R. Khan
Serum Enzymes
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and Alanine
aminotransferase (AlT) expressed in lU per liter,
were determined by calorimetric method using
commercial Merckotest (E. Merck and F.R.
Darmstad, Germany) Kits. Absorbance was read
at a wavelength of 546 nm with the help of
spectronic-21 (Baush and lomb, USA).
Serum Electrodes
Serum level of sodium (Na) and potassium (K)
were determined by the Corning 480 flame
photometer. These values were expressed in mEq
per l.
Serum chloride (Cl) in mEq per l was determined
by titration employing a commercial Merckotest
Kit.
Calcium (Ca) level of serum in mEq per l was
estimated by using a commercial Merckotest Kit.
The absorbance was read in spectronic-21 at a
wavelength of 750 nm.
Statistical Analysis
Grand means, group means and their standard
error, and ranges were calculated for each
parameter separately. ln addition, effect of sex was
compared by the student "t" test, the four age
groups among males and four lactating and/or
pregnancy states in females were tested by one
analysis of variance. Significantly, different group
means were compared by Duncan's multiple
range test (Steel and Torrie, 1984). All
computations were done using MSTAT program.
Results and Discussions
Serum Enzymes
Aspertate Aminotransferase: (AST)
AST level averaged 47.79 ± 2.58 lU per l of serum
showing a range of 20.50 to 90.00 lU per1 (Table
1). This mean was comparable with that of El
Amrousi (1984), who reported a mean of 44.22 ±
6.2 lU per l in 40 Saudi Arabian camels of either
sex and varying ages. Al-Ali et al (1988) reported
a much higher average of 81 ± 3.7 lU per l in
Syrian camels, whereas the mean of 24.6 ± 5.0 lU
per l recorded in six non-descript camels of Syrian
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 57-61
58
origin (Kouider and Kolb, 1982), is way lower.
How far the smaller sample size was to be blamed
not clear. However, in the present study, the two
sexes and the four age groups among the males
did not affect AST level (Table 1).
Among the four states of lactation and/or
pregnancy, AST level was found significantly
higher (P<0.05) in heifers (66.07± 7.34 lU/l) than
either not pregnant dry (37.67± 3.34 lU/l) or
pregnant dry (43.57 ± 6.18lU/l) females. There
was no difference between non pregnant dry and
pregnant dry groups (Table 1). Influence of
pregnancy on AST level in dry females was
negligible.
Alanine Aminotransferase (AlT)
A mean AlT level of 4.33 ± 0.12 which ranged
from 1.66 to 7.00 lU per l was observed. This was
in between the previous records 3.5 ± 3.3 lU per l
in six non descript Syrian camels (Kouider and
Kolb, 1982) and 5.54 ± 0.51 lU per l in 40 Saudi
Arabian camels of the two sexes and varying age
(El-Amrousi and Wasfi, 1984).
Serum Electrolytes
It would not wise to consider each electrolyte in
isolation, yet the present study being a preliminary
probe necessitates their individual consideration. It
might however, be kept in mind that in the camel
Na and K were correlated positively with each
other (Sarwar and Majeed, 1992).
(1) Sodium (Na)
Against a normal plasma concentration of about
135-155 mEq per l in other domestic animals
(Kerr, 1989), Na averaged 178.39 ± 2.86 mEq per
l with a range of 132 to 215 mEq per l in camels.
Comparatively, lower averages were recorded in
200 adult Egyptian camels of either sex; (148.16 ±
2.05 mEq per l) (Barakat and Fattah, 1970), and in
40 Arabian camels of both sexes and varying ages;
146.06 ± 2.03 mEq per l) (Al-Amrousi and Wasfi,
1984).
Na is the electrolyte which is most intimately
associated with water balance and many of its
disturbances tend to by primarily fluid problems
(Kerr, 1989). This contention is in general
 Two Transferases and Four Electrolytes in Normal One-Humped Camel Serum
applicable specifically to those domestic animals
and man where hypernatraemia could be easily
seen when loss of a low Na fluid occurs e.g. in
vomiting, excessive panting and sweating.
When restricted water intake prevents normal Na
excretion, then clinical manifestation e.g.
head-pressing, apparent blindness, coma due to
cellular dehydration in the central nervous system
become noticeable; which are primarily associated
with excessive glucocorticoids.
This was why, according to Kerr (1989), plasma
Na concentration, greater than about 160 mEq per
l, were liable to prove fatal. How the camel
withstands serum Na level of more than 200 mEq
per l needs to be investigated further.
Na level was found significantly higher (P<0.05)
in females (184.07 ± 2.94 mEq/l) than in males
(172.7 ± 3.94 mEq/l). There were not significant
differences in Na level at various ages in males
and in various states of lactation and/or pregnancy
tests among females (Table 1).
(2) Potassium (K)
The average value for serum K was 5.41± 0.1
mEq per l showing a range of 4.10 to 7.65 mEq
per l (Table 1). According to Kerr (1989), normal
plasma concentration of K was about 3.3-5.5 mEq
per l and if it was less than 3 or close to or over 7
mEq per l, it should be regarded as an emergency.
The average value was comparable with that of
Barakat and Fattah (1970), in adult Egyptian
camels of both sexes 4.70 ± 0,10 mEq per l in 200.
However, slightly lower 4.39 ± 0.13 mEq per l
was reported in 40 Saudi Arabian camels of either
sex and varying ages (El-Amrousi and Wasfi,
1984). Yet, differences of serum K levels between
the two sexes and the four age groups were not
significant (Table 1).
Serum K level was found significantly higher
(P<0.05) in non-pregnant dry (6.26 ± 0.28 mEq
per l) than in non-pregnant lactating females (4.83
± 0.16 mEq per l). Whereas, the remaining two
heifers groups (5.51 ± 0.34 mEq per l) and
pregnant dry group (5.52 ± 0.36 mEq per l)
differed neither between themselves nor with the
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 57-61
59
other groups. Thus, these results suggested that,
serum K level was depressed in non-pregnant
lactating camels. This observation was in line with
those of Church (1988) cows.
(3) Chloride: (Cl)
Mean Cl was 175.80 ± 2.26 mEq per l (628.01 ±
0.08 mg/d1) ranging between 129 to 204 mEq per
l in 56 camels under investigation. A comparable
value of 612 mg/dl = 171 mEq per l was recorded
in 40 mature males and immature female camels
in Egypt origin (Yousef and Abdelmalek, 1980).
Sex had no significant effect on Cl in camels
(Table 1). This finding was in line with the work
of Barakat and Fattah (1970).
Age groups under scrutiny showed no significant
variation in males and so were lactation and/or
pregnancy states tested among the females (Table
1). This is in line with Yousef and Abdelmalek
(1980).
(4) Calcium (Ca)
Ca level averaged 5.64 ± 0.01 mEq per l (11.28 ±
0.20 mg/dl) with a range of 3.75 to 7.40 mE q per
l. These findings were similar to El-Amrousi and
Wasfi (1984), in both sexes who recorded)and
different ages11.68 mg/dl (5.84 mEq per l.
Barakat and Fattah (1970), however, reported a
slightly higher value of 12.4 ± 0.09 mg/dl (6.2 ±
0.04 mEq per l) in 200 adult Egyptian animals of
both sexes. No significant difference was found in
Ca level between male and female camels.
These results were in agreement with those of
Barakat and Fattah (1971) who compared 100
adult male (12.23 ± 0.44 mg/dl = 6.12 ± 0.22 mEq
per l) with 100 adult female (12.11± 0.22
mg/dl=6.55 ± 0.11 mEq per l)camels. like sex, age
in males and lactation and/or pregnancy states in
females showed no significant effect on Ca level
in camels (Table 1).
References
Al-Ali, A.K., H.A. Husayni and D.M. Power.
1988. A comprehensive biochemical analysis
of the blood of the camel (Camelus
 A. Sarwar, M.A. Majeed, G. Hur and l. R. Khan
dromedarius). Comparative Biochem. and
Physiol., B. 89 1: 35-37.
Al-Amrousi, A.M. Hafiz and I.. A. Wasfi. 1984.
Some biochemical parameters of mature
female camels in eastern province of Saudi
Arabia. Assuit Vet. Med. J., 13: 121-124.
Barakat, M.Z. and M.A. Fattah. 1970. Bio-
chemical analysis of normal camel blood.
Zentble Vet. Med., A. 17: 550-557.
Barakat, M.Z. and M.A. Fattah. 1971. Seasonal
and sexual variations of certain constituents of
normal camel blood. Zentble Vet. Med. A.
18:174-178.
Bone, J. F. 1988. Animal Anatomy and
Physiology. 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliff, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Church, D. C. 1988. The Ruminant Animal
Digestion, Physiology and Nutrition. Prentice
Hall, Engle-wood Cliff, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Coles, E. H. 1967. Veterinary Clinical Pathology.
2nd Ed. W. B. Saunders Company.
Philadelphia.
Cornelius, E. C. 1957. New concepts and methods
in the laboratory diagnosis of canine liver
disease. Gaines Vet. Symp. Kankakee, lll 23
Oct, 1957.
Cornelius, E. C., J. Bishop, J. Switzer and E.A.
Rhode. 1959. Serum and tissue transaminase
activities in domestic animals. Cornell Vet.,
49: 118-126.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 57-61
60
Kerr, M. G. 1989. Veterinary Laboratory
Medicine: Clinical Biochemistry and Hema-
tology. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford, London, Edinburgh, Boston,
Melbourne.
Kouider, S. and E. Kolb. 1982. Studies on diurnal
glucose levels and enzyme activities (aspartate
aminotransferase, alanine amino transferase,
acid and alkaline phosphatase, glucose, 6
phosphate dehydro-genase) in serum of
camel Archive fur experimental veterinar
medicine, 36: 601-610.
Rabagliati, D.S. 1924. The dentition of the camel.
Government Press, Cairo, Egypt.
Sarwar, A. and M.A. Majeed.1992. Interrelation-
ships between 30 parameters of blood in
normal one- humped camel in summer. The
First Intl. Camel Symp. Dubai, 3-6 Feb.
Steel, R.G.D. and J.H. Torrie, 1984. Principals and
Procedures of Statistics. Mcgraw Hill, Koga
Kusha Ltd, Tokyo, Japan
Wrobywski, F. and J.S. Ladue. 1956. Serum
glutamic pyruvic transaminase in cardiac and
hepatic diseases. Proc. Soc. Expt. Biol
Med.,91: 596.
Yousef. G.W. and A.N. Abdelmalek. 1980.
Chlorides in serum of Egyptian farm animals
with special reference to species, age, sex and
disease. Pak. J. Sci., 32: 11-14.
 Two Transferases and Four Electrolytes in Normal One-Humped Camel Serum 61

Table 1. Grand means ± SE and ranges of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine

aminotransferase (ALT), sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), and calcium (Ca) in normal
one-humped camel.
Mean ± SE
Vairables/Gro. n AST lS/L ALT lU/1 Na meq/L K meq/L Cl meq/L Ca meq/L
Grand Mean
Means ± S.E. 56 47.79±2.58 4.33±0.12 178.39±2.86 5.41±0.11 175.80±2.26 5.64±0.10
Range 56 20.50±90.00 1.66±7.00 132.0±5.0 4.10±7.65 129.0±204.0 3.75±7.40
Effect of Sex
Male 28 45.62±3.83 4.21±0.16 172.71±3.94 a 5.30±0.14 175.28±3.42 5.66±0.08
Female 28 49.95±3.47 4.39±0.18 184.07±3.94b 5.53±0.17 178.40±3.03 5.62±0.14
Effect of Age in Males
Up to 4 years 7 36.45±8.43 4.19±0.29 173.86±6.44 5.45±0.20 173.75±5.94 6.24±0.27
5 to 6 years 7 46.78±8.86 4.81±0.26 173.00±9.74 5.18±0.44 185.20±5.70 5.42±0.22
6 to 7 years 7 57.67±5.68 3.84±0.37 175.57±0.74 5.43±0.23 171.83±8.30 5.45±0.27
over 7 years 7 41.57±6.47 4.09±0.21 168.42±6.64 5.12±0.19 170.36±7.64 5.51±0.38
Effect of lactation and/or pregnancy in females
Heifers 7 66.07±7.34 a 4.71±0.34 181.42±7,73 a 5.51±0.34 b 178.20±4.39 5.35±0.35
Non pregnant dry 7 37.67±3.34 b 4.14±0.21 189.85±5.43 a 6.26±0.28 171.79±8.32 5.32±0.70
Pregnant dry 7 43.57±6.18 b 3.95±0.40 191.71±6.38 a 5.52±0.36 b 171.88±4.78 5.56±0.27
Non pregnant 7 52.50±6.19 a b 4.76±0.40 173.29±10.71 4.83±0.16 b 183.71±6.10 6.06±0.33
lactating
Different letters in a column indicate significant differences between the means listed therein: at 5
percent level.
iu/l = international unit per liter. meq = mill equivalent per liter.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 57-61

 Seasonal Variations in Hematological and Serum
Biochemical Parameters in Racing Camels

R. Salman and M. Afzal

Camel Research Center P.O. Box 580

Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

ABSTRACT
Seasonal variations in hematological and serum biochemical parameters were studied in 28 racing
camels. Blood samples were collected during winter (January) and summer (July/August) and analyzed
for hematological parameters. Leukocyte count, erythrocyte count and haemoglobin levels did not differ
significantly during different seasons, but hematocrit values were significantly higher (P<0.01) during
summer due to increased mean corpuscular volume of erythrocytes. Total proteins, albumin, creatine
kinase and creatine values were similar (P<0.01) during summer and winter. However, statistically
significant (P<0.01) seasonal variations were observed in serum levels of glutamate oxaloacetate
transaminase (GOT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and iron. GOT, BUN
and iron levels were higher in winter while LDH was higher in summer.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Blood Biochemistry).

Introduction United Arab Emirates has two seasons, summer

Camel racing is an important sport in this region
and its popularity has increased tremendously over
the last decades, particularly in the Arabian
Peninsula.
Some studies dealing with hematology and serum
biochemistry of the camel have previously been
reported (Soni and Aggarwala, 1958; Banerjeeet
et al. 1962; Bhattacharjee and Banerjee, 1962;
Lakhotia et al. 1964; Soliman and Shaker, 1967;
Abdelgadir et al. 1984a,b; Higgins and Kock,
1986). However, camels included in these studies
were raised under desert range conditions where
there is scarcity of feed and water. Nutrition and
management of racing camels were absolutely
different, and these animals were not only offered
24 hour drinking water but were also provided
rich nutrition including specially formulated
concentrate and green fodder. Furthermore, these
animals were closely monitored for health and
disease diagnosis.
and winter. Camel racing takes place in winter
(October to March) when animals are given feed
supplements to boost their performance which
might also influence hematological and serum
biochemical parameters. The objective was to
evaluate seasonal influences on hematological and
serum biochemical parameters of racing camels.
Materials and Methods
Adult racing camels, 28 in number, aging between
4 to 8 years, were included. Animals were bled in
the morning before feeding. For hematology,
blood was collected in vacationer tubes containing
EDTA as anticoagulant. Blood samples were
immediately transported to the laboratory and
analyzed. Hematological parameters were
measured using a Coulter Counter model T890
specially set for camel blood. These included total
leukocyte count, total erythrocyte count,
haemoglobin, hematocrit and mean corpuscular
volume (MCV).
 R. Salman and M. Afzal
Serum biochemical parameters were measured on
Hitachi 704 autoanalyzer using Boehringer
Mannheim Kits. These parameters included total
proteins, albumin, glutamate oxaloacetate
transaminase (GOT), creatine kinase (KC), lactate
dehydrogenase (lDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN),
creatine and iron.
Blood samples were collected from the same
animals in January (representing winter) and
July/August (representing summer). Paired t-test
was used to evaluate the seasonal difference in all
the parameters.
Results and Discussion
Range and means ± s.d. of hematological
parameters in 28 racing camels, in winter and
summer, were shown in Table 1. Variations
among individual camels were more in leukocyte
count than erythrocyte count. Leukocyte count,
erythrocyte count and haemoglobin levels did not
show significant differences (P<0.01) in winter
and summer. Mean values of hematocrit and
MCV were significantly higher (P<0.01) in
summer than winter. Ghosal et al (1973) also
reported increased in hematocrited camels in
summer. Is this camel's response to higher
ambient temperature for better oxygen carrying
capacity in summer or sequel to change in feed is
not yet, known?.
Hematological parameters in racing camels were
generally similar to those reported for production
camels (Lakhotia et al. 1964; Soliman and Shaker,
1967; Abdelgadir et al. 1984a; Higgins and Kock,
1986). However, higher leukocyte counts in
camels were reported by other workers (Soni and
Aggarwala, 1985; Banerjee et al. 1962).
Leukocytes usually increase following exposure to
infection, and camels included in these studies
might have had subclinical infection.
Ranges and means ± s.d. serum biochemical
parameters of racing camels in winter and summer
were shown in Table 2. No significant changes
were seen in total proteins in the two seasons, but
albumin levels were lower (P<0.01) in summer
than winter which might be attributed to
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 63-65
63
temperature stress (Kaneko, 1980). Albumin to
total proteins ratio in camel serum varied from
0.60 to 0.70 with an average of 0.67 in winter and
0.65 in summer. This proportion is higher than all
other domestic animals (normally 35 to 55%)
(Kaneko, 1980). Albumin has the water
attracting/holding property and higher value in
camel probably indicate specific adaptation for the
desert environment.
Serum enzymes showed variable trend in different
seasons. GOT values were higher (P<0.01) in
winter while LDH were higher in summer. No
significant difference in KC values was seen in the
two seasons. Seasonal variations in enzyme
pattern could be attributed to difference in feeding,
exercise and management during the two seasons.
GOT values ranges from 54 to 128 U/l. All camels
except two on one sampling had GOT values less
than 96 U/l. lDH values varied from 232 to 543
U/l. However, most of the animals (89 percent in
winter and 75 percent in summer) had LDH
values less than 400 U/l. Individual animals
showed great variation in KC values during both
seasons and ranged from 37 to 148 in winter and
40 to 103 in summer. However, more than 90
percent of the KC values (except 4 animals, each
with one value) were less than 98 U/l.
Serum enzymes were measured to assess damage
to the internal organs/tissues. The level of enzyme
activity and the enzyme pattern gives clue to the
site and extent of cell damage. However, it may be
pointed out that the organ distribution of
intracellular enzymes varies widely in different
species of animals. Thus, there is need to
determine the enzyme patterns of organs/tissues of
camels before serum enzyme values could be
accurately interpreted.
Creatinine values ranged from 1.49 to 2.29 mg/dl
and did not differ significantly (P>0.01) in the two
seasons. BUN values were higher (P<0.01) in
winter than summer. Higher dietary protein in the
racing season. i.e. winter, is expected to increase
the BUN (Emmanuel, 1984). BUN varied from 6-
33 mg/dl, but less than 10 percent of the BUN
values (5 animals, each with one value) were more
than 25 mg/dl in both seasons.
 Seasonal Variations in Hematological and Serum Biochemical Parameters in Racing Camels
Iron levels ranged from 66 to 165 ug/dl in camel
serum. However, most of the serum iron values
(89 percent) were above 80 ug/dl. Serum iron
levels were significantly (P<0.01) higher in winter
than summer due to supplementation in the racing
season (Carlson, 1987).
Normal values of hematological and serum
biochemical parameters of racing camels as well
as seasonal variations in these parameters. The
data could serve as normal reference values and
might be used to monitor health status in the
racing camels.
Acknowledgements
The work was sponsored by H.H. Sheik Hamdan
Bin Zayed Al-Nhayan. Authors are highly
thankful to Mr. Mustajab Haider and Mr. Rashed
Ahmed for their excellent technical assistance.
References
Abdelgadir, S.E., A.G.A. Wahbi and O.F. Idris.
1984a. Some blood and plasma constituents of
the camel. In: The Camelid an All-Purpose
Animal, Vol. 1. W. R. Cockrill, (ed.).
Scandinavian lnsititute of African Studies,
Uppsalla, pp 438-443.
Adbelgadir, S.E., A.G.A. Wahbi and O.F. Idris.
1984b. A note on the hematology of adult
Sudanese dromedaries. In: The Camelid An
All-Purpose Animal Vol. 1 W. R. Cockrill.
(ed.). Scandinavian Institute of African
Studies. Uppsala. pp 444 - 448.
Banerjee, S., R.C. Bhattacharjee and T.I. Singh.
1962. Hematological studies in the normal
adult Indian camel (Camelus dromedarius).
Amer. J. Physiol., 203: 1185-1187.
Bhattacharjee, R.C. and S. Banerjee. 1962.
Biochemical studies on Indian camel (Camelus
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 63-65
64
dromedarius). J. Sci. Indust. Res., 21C: 106-
107.
Carlson, G.P. 1987. Hematology and body fluids
in the equine athlete; a review. In: Equine
Exercise Physiology Z. Ed. J.R. Gillespie and
N.E. Robinson IICEEP Publications, Davis, pp
393-415.
Emmanuel, B. 1984. Comparative biochemical
studies in: The camelid An All-Purpose
Animal Vol. 1. W. R. Cockrill. (ed.).
Scandinavian Institute Studies. Uppsala, pp
449-462.
Ghosal, A.K., T.C. Appanna and P.K.
Dwaraknath. 1973. Studies on the seasonal
variations in the blood constituents of lndian
camel (Camelus dromedarius). Ind. J. Anim.
Sci., 43: 642-644.
Higgins, A.J. and R.A. Kock. 1986. A guide to the
clinical examination, chemical restraint and
medication of the camel. In: The Camel in
Health and Diseases. Ed. A. Higgins. Billiere
Tindall, London, pp 21-40.
Kaneko, J.J. 1980. Serum proteins and the
dysproteinemias. ln: Clinical Biochemistry of
Domestic Animals. 3rd edition. J. J. Kaneko.
(ed.). Academic Press, New York, pp 103-116.
Lakhotia, R.l., A.K. Bhargava and P.N. Mehrotra.
1964. Normal ranges of some blood
constituents of the Ind. camel. Vet. Rec., 76:
121-122.
Soliman, M.K. and M. Shaker. 1967. Cytological
and biochemical studies on the blood of the
adult she-camel. Ind. Vet. J., 44: 989-991.
Soni, N.K. and A.C. Aggarwala. 1958. Studies in
the physiology of the camel (Camelus
dromedarius). l. Cellular blood constituents.
Ind. Vet. J., 35: 209-214.
 R. Salman and M. Afzal 65

Table 1. Means ± S.D. and ranges of hematological parameters in racing camels.

Parameters Winter Summer
Range Means + S.D Range Means + S.D
Leukocytes x 10/l 7.0 - 15.2 11.5 + 2.3 7.5 - 17.9 11.0 + 2.5
Erythrocytes x 10/l 6.37 - 8.83 7.57 + 0.59 6.25 - 9.23 7.38 + 0.89
Haemoglobin g/dl 10.3 - 14.1 12.3 + 1.0 9.7 -15.8 12.2 + 1.6
Hematocrit % 21.7 - 32.0 26.5 + 2.7 20.4 - 39.8 29.6 + 5.5
Mean corpuscular volume fl 33.8 - 37.3 34.9 + 1.1 34.6 - 45.6 39.9 + 3.3

Table 2. Means ± s.d. and ranges of serum biochemical parameters in racing camels.
Parameters Winter Summer
Range Means + S.D Range Means + S.D
Total proteins d/dl 5.82 - 6.92 6.33 ± 0.27 5.73 + 7.03 6.36 ± 0.28
Albumin g/dl 3.79 - 4.55 4.22 ± 0.19 3.87 ± 4.43 4.14 ± 0.14
Glutamate oxalo acetate 62 - 128 80 ± 15 5489 71 ± 8
Creatine kinase U/l 37 - 148 72 ± 25 40103 71 ± 19
Lactate dehydrogenase U/l 232 - 456 321 ± 61 244543 370 ± 71
Blood urea nitrogen mg/dl 9 - 33 20 ± 5 630 15 ± 7
Creatinine mg/dl 1.61 - 2.17 1.90 ± 0.15 1.492.29 1.87 ± 0.23
Iron ug.dl 66 - 165 111 ± 21 69140 98 ± 18

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 63-65

 Water Balance in the Camel
(Camelus dromedarius)
R. Zine Fillali (1) and R. Shaw2
1
Dept. of Physiology, Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire
Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
2
Dept. of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine,
Cornell Univeristy. Lhaca VY. USA

ABSTRACT

Water balance was investigated in heat stressed dremdary camels during normohydration, dehydration
and after rehydration. Four camels were daily subject to high temperature (42Cº) in a climatic chamber,
and fed 2.5 kg of barley per day and wheat straw ad libitum. The amounts of consumed feed and water
were measured. Total body water was determined using tritiated water (TOH). During the initial heat
exposure, total body water increased by 13.5% while during a period of two weeks of water
deprivation, body water loss ranged from 12.5 to 21.9%. Upon rehydration water consumption
exceeded water loss. 60-90% of the total volume of water intake was consumed within the first 10
minutes. After rehydration, the labelled water in blood and rumen fluid achieved comparable
concentrations within 4 and 6 after dinking.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Water balance, Heat stress, Physiology).

Introduction one of the basic assumptions made by other

In any hot and arid region, water is required by
endotherms for evaporative cooling (Macfarlane,
1964). However, the camel has a legendary
reputation to withstand relatively long periods of
water deprivation under hot conditions and is
reputed to be able to withstand a water loss
equivalent to 25% of body weight. The camel has
a very large drinking capacity, not to store up
water for future needs, but to replenish water
already lost via urine, feces, and evaporation.
Upon rehydration, it is able to restore its weight-
loss very precisely, which has led to the
conclusion that the camel has a well-developed
water satiety mechanism (Gauthier-Pilters and
Dagg, 1981; Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964). However,
studies based on body weight changes may or
may not reflect body water fluctuations. This
study involved direct measurements of total body
water using tritiated water in order to investigate
research workers that changes in weight represent
changes in body water content.
Materials and Methods
Four healthy, three to four years old, sexually
immature, female camels (Camelus dromedarius)
each of which weighted about 250 kg were used.
Prior to the study, a rumen hernia was surgically
formed so that the rumen compartment was easily
accessible directly beneath the skin (Olsen, 1979).
A cannula was then inserted through the hernia
into the rumen to sample rumen fluid. Animals
were fed 2.5 kg of barley per day and were given
wheat straw ad libitum. The amounts of consumed
feed and water were measured.
Animals were exposed to a controlled air
temperature of 42 ºC and 30% relative humidity
for eight hours a day and kept outside during the
 R. Zine Fillali and R. Shaw
night when the mean air temperature was
approximately 10 ºC with a relative humidity of
96%. The studies involved two weeks of daily
heat exposure before the withdrawal of water.
This was followed by a two-week period of
dehydration.
Total body water was determined before and after
the initial period of heat exposure and at the end of
the period of dehydration. Tritiated water (TOH)
obtained from the Amersham International
Laboratories, Buckinghamshire, England, was
used to prepare a solution of sodium chloride
(0.9% W/V) with a specific activity of 500 µci/ml.
The labelled normal saline was injected into the
jugular vein by means of a polyethylene catheter
and a syringe fitted with a T-piece. Each dose was
washed 3 times with normal saline. The exact
injected amount was determined gravimetrically.
Before TOH administration, animals were denied
feed and water for about 10 hrs (Robert Shaw,
1982); the TOH was then injected in the evening
at the rate of 8 µci/ml (Holleman et al. 1982) and
allowed to equilibrate with the body water pool
overnight when water and feed were withheld.
Pre and post-injection blood samples (10 ml) were
taken the following morning and on alternate days
at the same time each day. Internal standards were
prepared for each animal and for each experiment
by diluting an aliquot of the administered solution.
0.2 ml of the diluted stock solution was mixed
with 10 ml of unlabelled blood. The TOH in the
plasma of the samples, standards and blanks was
counted in a liquid scintillation counter (Beckman
L.S. 3133T) following precipitation in dioxane
(Springell and Wright, 1976). Total body water
was calculated by extrapolating the decline in
specific activity to the time of injection (Holleman
et al. 1982). Samples of blood and rumen fluid
was taken every 5 min. following rehydration and
analyzed for TOH concentration. The rumen fluid
was centrifuged and 2 ml of the supernatant was
mixed with 2 ml of H202 to minimize quenching
(Wang et al. 1975).
Results
Total Body Water Changes
During the initial heat exposure, total body water
increased by 0.6 – 13.5%. (Table 1). The loss in
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 66-70
67
body water during the period of dehydratin was
between 12.5 and 21.9% (Table 2). In all animals
, water consumption upon rehydration exceeded
water lost and 60-90% of the total consumed
volume was taken within the first 10 minutes.
Further, smaller quantities of water were taken
over the next five hours. In one camel , the
consumed amount of water appeared to be
independent of the degree of dehydration. In the
other animals, the degree of dehydration and the
volume consumed was comparable (Table 2).
After rehydration, the rumen TOH concentration
dropped initially and started to rise. The specific
activity of blood decreased (Fig. 1) and both
rumen and blood achieved comparable
concentration between 4 and 6 hours after
drinking.
Blood samples taken 6-8 hours after rehydration
and assayed for TOH concentration allowed the
calculation of a new estimate of TBW which
should be equal to the sum of the TBW before
rehydration and the consumed volume of water.
Data shown in Table 3 demonstrate a close
correlation between the two calculations.
Discussion
The dilution of a known quantity of marker such
as TOH distributed throughout body fluids
measures the total body water content. Most
workers, when comparing TOH space with actual
water space, found that TOH space overestimated
the true body water volume by 16% in sheep
(Russel et al. 1982) and 15% in cattle (Carnegie
and Tulloh, 1968). The reasons for this difference
was not fully identified, but were more apparent
under field than laboratory conditions, and would
be related in part to the incorporation of tritium
into organic molecules and in part to its dilution
with atmospheric water vapor especially when
ambient humidity was high (Robert Shaw, 1982).
An overestimate of TBW would also lead to an
over estimate of water turnover. Overestimation
obtained in this study was, with one exception,
very small since there was, a close similarity
between water turnover calculated by the rate of
 Water Balance in the Camel (Camelus dromedarius)
TOH dilution and measured total water intake.
Mcfarlane and Howard (1970) found a good
correlation between actual water uptake and rate
of TOH dilution in the lamb and calf.
Although TOH space tends to overestimate
TBW, the factors that cause this error are likely to
remain relatively constant in an individual animal,
and measurements of changes in TBW from
measurements of TOH space are likely to be
accurate. For example, the increase in TBW
which followed rehydration was accurately
determined from measurements of the increase in
TOH space.
The fact that camels regain their original body
weight after rehydration was observed by other
workers and led to the conclusion that all weight
loss during dehydration was due to water loss
(Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964). However, the weight
loss observed during dehydration might be a
combination of water, tissue, and gut content
reduction especially since feed was markedly
reduced (Zine-Fillali, 1987). In this experiment
direct changes in TBW indicated that water
consumption exceeded water loss by 13% and
therefore, the animals did not have a precise water
satiety mechanism. The average weight loss was
47.7 ±2.6 kg and the average water consumption
was 53.2 ± 9.4 kg while body water reduction
was 38.0 ± 2.2 kg. Over hydration might only be
a phenomenon when severe dehydration occurs.
Water satiety after severe dehydration might be
predominantly a function of rumen distension
since the restoration of the known thirst stimuli
such as blood volume and tonicity take several
hours after drinking (Zine-Fillali, 1987). The
animals tended to drink the same amount of water
each time they were dehydrated irrespective of
the level of dehydration. Therefore, the reticulo-
rumen distension might be one of the factors
which terminate drinking (Bost, 1964) and as the
rumen empties, the thirst stimulus due to tonicity
and volume deficits remains so that when water is
available they then consume more water.
The equilibration of ingested water with the
water pool following rehydration took
approximately 3-4 hours as shown by the
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 66-70
68
confluence of the specific activity changes in the
blood and rumen water with time. Isotope
equilibration does not signify that ingested water
has been distributed throughout the body. The
rumen of the camel (Hoppe et al. 1975) and the
goat (Shkolnik et al. 1980) have been shown to
act as a reservoir of water.
References
Bost, J. 1964. Régulatgion péripherique de la soif
chez les petits ruminants. Mécanisme de la
satiété. J. Physiol, Paris, Tome, 56 (3) :302-
303.
Carnegie, A. B. and Tulloh. 1968. The in vivo
determination of bodywater space in cattle
using tritium dilution technique. Proc. Aust.
Soc. Anim. Prod., 7: 308.
Gauthier-Pilters, and A.I. Dagg. 1981. The
Camel. Chicago, U. of Chicago Press.
Holleman, D. F. , R. G. White and J. R. Luick.
1982. Application of the isotopic water
method for measuring total body water body
composition and body water turnover. In: Use
of TOH in studies of production and
adaptation in ruminants. IAEA, Vienna.
Hoppe, R., R.N.B. Kay and G.M.O. Maloiy.
1975. The rumen as a reservoir during
dehydration and rehydration in the camel.
Physiological Society, Sept. 76-77.
Macfarlane, W.V. 1964. Terrestrial animals in dry
heat. Ungulates. In: Handbook of Physiology,
Section 4, Adaptation to the environment. Ed.
D.B. Dill, Washington, D.C., Am. Physiol.
Soc., pp 509-539.
Macfarlane, W.V. and B. Howard. 1970. Water in
the physiological ecology of ruminants. In:
The physiology of digestion and metabolism
in the ruminant. A.T. Phillipson. (ed.).
Aberdeen, Scotland, Oriel Press, pp 362-374.
Olsen, J.D. 1979. Method for repeated or
prolonged rumen infusion without
 R. Zine Fillali and R. Shaw 69

establishing an open fistula. Am. J. Vet. Res., P. Thivend, (eds.). pp 731-742. Lancaster,
40 (5): 730-732. U.K., Medical Technical Press.

Robert Shaw, D. 1982. Potential errors in the
technique for estimating total body water and
water turnover using tritiated water. In: Use of
TOH in studies of production and adaptation
in ruminants, IAEA, Vienna.
Russel, A.J.F., J.Z. Foot and D.N. McFarlane.
1982. Use of tritiated water for estimating
body composition in grazing ewes. IAEA,
Vienna. Panel Proceeding Series.
Shkolnik, A., E. Maltz and I. Choshniak. 1980.
The role of the ruminant’s digestive tract as a
water reservoir. In: Digestive physiology and
metabolism in ruminants. Y. Ruckebusch and
Schmidt- Nielsen, K. 1964. Desert Animals;
Physiological Problems of Heat and Water.
Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
Springell, P.H. and D.E. Wright. 1976. Liquid
scintillation counting of tritiated water in
plasma following dioxane precipitation. Int. J.
App. Rad. Isotopes, 27 : 85-88.
Zine-Fillali, R. 1989. Studies on Dehydration and
Rehydration on the Camel (C. dormedarius).
Thesis, Doctorate Sciences Agronomiques.
Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II
Rabat, Morocco.

Table 1. The effect of repeated heat exposure on total body water of dromedary camels.
Camel No. Before Heat Exposure After Heat Exposure % Change
1 194.7 195.8 +0.6
2 186.3 191.7 +2.9
3 182.8 207.5 +13.5
4 169.8 187.4 +10.4

Table 2. Total body water estimated by TOH space in dromedary camels (L).
Camel No. Dehydration Water Consumption During Difference Between Water Lost
Rehydration and Consumed
At start At end % change L % of hydrated state L % change
1 183.4 146 -20.4% 57.6 31.4 20.2 11.0
2 186.5 145.6 -21.9 40.0 21.5 0.9 0.5
3 181.2 143.3 -20.9 61.5 33.9 23.6 13.0
4 172.3 136.6 -20.7 53.6 31.1 17.9 10.4

Table 3. Total body weight of dromedary camels after rehydration*.

Camel No. Artificial Environment Natural, Warm Environment Natural, Cool Environment
1 223.6 (217.6) 205.8 (203.6) 201.4 (199.2)
2 211.0 (206.8) 184.6 (185.6) 194.8 (193.0)
3 228.8 (224.2) 204.1 (204.8) 200.5 (200.7)
4 209.0 (205.7) 189.6 (190.2) 194.2 (193.6)
* Based on TOH concentration 6-8 hrs after rehydration.
Figures in parentheses are the sum of the volume consumed at rehydration and the TBW before
rehydration.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 66-70

 Water Balance in the Camel (Camelus dromedarius) 70

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 66-70

 Biochemical Adaptation of Camelids During Fasting
J. Wensvoort1, D.J. Kyle2, E.R. 0rskov3 and D.A. Bourke4
1,2 & 4
P.O. Box 9220, Dubai, UAE
3
Rowett Research Institute, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn,
Aberdeen AB21 9SB, UK

Correspondance should be sent to Professor E. R. 0rskov,

Rowett Research Institute, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, UK.

ABSTRACT
Biochemical changes during fasting were studied in serum of camelids (dromedary camel, llama) and
ruminants (sheep, steers). Camels maintained low levels of β hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and high levels of
glucose, but showed some increased levels of non esterified fatty acid (NEFA) and urea when fasting.
Sheep and steers showed a rise in serum BHB and much higher increases of NEFA than camels and
llarnas. Sheep showed decreased serum glucose. The llama showed some increase in BHB but NEFA
was lower than the other three species. These results indicate that camelids have a unique ability to
control lipolytic and glucoenoegenic activity to prevent or postpone the pathological state of ketosis.
Understanding and manipulation of these metabolic mechanisms in cattle and sheep could have great
benefit to the livestock industry.

(Key Words: Camelids, Ruminants, Glucose requirements).

Introduction biochemical mechanisms may also be contrib-

Through evolution, camelids i.e. camels (Camelus
spp) and South American camelids (llamas,
alpacas, guanacos and vicuna) have specifically
adapted to extreme environments. Camels are
known to be able to fast for long periods and to
use dietary energy very efficiently. Their mainte-
nance energy requirement has been found to be as
low as 314 KJ/kg0.75 (Guerouali and Filali, 1992).
This is approximately two thirds of the
requirement of beef cattle (Bos taurus) (NRC,
1985). Similarly, the maintenance requirement of
digestible energy in the llama (Llama glama) was
reported to be 37% lower than in sheep (Johnson,
1989).
The efficiency and fasting ability of camelids can
be explained in part, by behavioural and
physiological characteristics (Wilson, 1984) but
utory factors.
In ruminants fasting induces breakdown of body
tissue and generally causes a shift in the main
energy producing pathway (Trichloroacetic acid
cycle, TCA-cycle) with increased formation of
ketone bodies (hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate)
as a result of insufficient supply of oxaloacetate
precursors. During fasting camelids may be able
to utilise free fatty acids and ketone bodies more
effectively and not need to rely fully on classical
ruminant biochemical pathways for their energy
and glucose requirement.
This study describes the changes in blood
biochemistry observed during fasting in two
camelid species i.e. dromedary camel and llama in
comparison with sheep and cattle.
 J. Wensvoort, D. J. Kyle, E. R. 0rskov and D. A. Bourke
Materials and Methods
Animals, feed and experimental procedure
Three adult camels (Camelus dromedarius), three
sheep (Ovis aries), three steers (Bos taurus) and
one llama (Llama glama) were used in this study.
The camels were kept at the Central Veterinary
Research Laboratory in Dubai and the three steers,
sheep and llama at the Rowett Research Institute
in Aberdeen. Prior to the study all the animals
were fed diets which were adequate for
maintenance.
The camels, steers and sheep were each fasted for
five consecutive days on one occasion. The llama
was fasted for five days on three occasions with
six weeks between fasting periods. Drinking water
was always available. Blood samples were
obtained daily by jugular venepuncture from three
days prior to fasting until five days after fasting.
The serum was separated, centrifuged and stored
at -20°C until analysis.
Biochemistry studies
ß hydroxybutyrate (BHB), glucose, non esterified
fatty acids (NEFA) and urea were determined
with a Kone dynamic selective chemistry
analyzer.
Data analysis studies
Analysis of variance and Student's t-test were used
to compare biochemical values 20 with each
species (except llama) before and during the
fasting periods. As only one llama was used in
these studies, the data obtained from this animal
was not used for statistical analysis, but for
comparison with the other species are presented as
mean values in Figures 1-4.
Results
Fasting did not cause any significant change in
BHB concentrations in camels, whereas marked
increases (p < 0.05) were found with the sheep
and steers (Fig. 1). In all species NEFA increased
(p < 0.05) with fasting, however much larger
increase 8 were seen in the sheep and steers than
in the camelids (Fig. 2). In camels serum glucose
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 71-75
72
was maintained during fasting and increased after
feeding commenced. Glucose concentrations
decreased (p < 0.05) in sheep during fasting but
did not change significantly in steers. After
feeding there was no significant change in glucose
concentrations in sheep or steers (Fig. 3). The data
collected from the llama indicated similar changes
in glucose, NEFA and urea to those observed in
the camels. Blood urea concentration increased in
all species during fasting (Fig. 4).
Discussion
In camels, during fasting total ketone bodies have
been previously reported to increase (Uro, 1987)
or remain unchanged (Mirgani, 1982) during
fasting, as observed in this study. It has been
suggested that ketones have a very low entry rate
in camels (Chandrasena et al. 1979) and kinetic
studies would be required to confirm this.
The low levels of BHB observed in these studies
during fasting, may indicate that camelids can
supply sufficient carbon (C4) metabolites for
maintenance of the TCA cycle or alternatively that
they require less C4 metabolites or use different
metabolites than ruminants.
Other factors which may contribute to maintaining
the TCA-cycle and/or the high blood glucose
levels include; conversion of monocarboxylic
fatty acids; mobilised from depot fats; to
dicarboxylicacids by Q-oxidation is reported by
Verkade et al (1932), thus yielding succinic acid
(4-carbon unit) through lA-oxidation; oxidation of
acetoacetate and BHB by 3-ketoacid-CoA
transferase activity to produce succinate;
acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase activity to produce
acetyl-CoA.; conversion of acetone to pyruvate;
enzyme activity which provides NADPH i.e.
acetyl-CoA carboxylase in isocitrate
dehydrogenase pathway. The increased level of
urea during fasting indicates amino acid
breakdown with supply of oxaloacetate precursors
and possible gluconeogenesis. However since
serum urea concentration does not indicate the
extent of lean tissue degradation and subsequent
gluconeogenesis, studies on nitrogen excretion in
fasting camelids are required. In camelids the
 Biochemical Adaptation of Camelids During Fasting
lower rates of increase in serum NEFA during
fasting and the higher serum glucose levels which
are maintained throughout fasting are probably of
major importance in preventing excessive ketosis,
during starvation. Camelids and camels in
particular seem to have a unique ability to control
their lipolytic and gluconeogenic rates to prevent
or postpone the pathological state of ketosis. If
such mechanisms could be understood and
triggered in domesticated ruminants like cattle and
sheep, it could have great benefit to the livestock
industry.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by His Highness
Shaikh Mohammed bin Rasid A1 Maktoum,
Dubai, U.A.E., the Scottish Office Agriculture and
Fisheries Department, U.K. and the Rowett
Research Institute, Aberdeen, UK.
We are grateful for the help from Professor K. W.
J. Wahle and Dr. D. Hirst.
References
Chandrasena, L.G., B. Emmanuel, D.W. Hamar,
and B. R. Howard. 1979. A comparative study
of ketone body metabolism between camel
(Camelus dromdarius) and the sheep (Ovis
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 71-75
73
ovis). Comparative Biochem. Physiology,
64B: 109-112.
Guerouali, A. and R.Z. Filali. 1992. Maintenance
energy requirements of the dromedary camel.
Proc. of the First International Camel Conf.
251 -254.
Johnson, L.W. 1989. Llama Reproduction.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food
Anim. Practice, 5:159-182.
Mirgani, T. 1982. Effects of fasting on camel
serum lipids. Sudan Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb., 23:
73-76.
National Research Council. 1985. Nutrient
Requirements of Beef Cattle. National
Academic Press, Washington, D.C.
Uro, A.B.O. (1987) Studies on Some Aspects of
Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism in the
Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Ph.D Thesis.
University of Khartoum.
Verkade, P.E., M., Elzas, J., Van Der Lee, H.H.,
De Wolf, Verkadesandbergen and D.H. Van
Der Sande. 1932. Utersuchungen uber den
Fettstoffwechsen. Proc. of the Royal Academy
of Sci., Amsterdam, 35, 225-266.
Wilson, R.T. 1984 The Camel. Longman, London.
 J. Wensvoort, D. J. Kyle, E. R. 0rskov and D. A. Bourke 74

Fig. 1. Concentration of BHB

Fig. 2. Concentrations of NEFA

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 71-75

 Biochemical Adaptation of Camelids During Fasting 75

Fig. 3. Concentrations of Glucose

Fig. 4. Concentrations of Urea

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 71-75

 Effect of Dietary Zinc Supplementation on Wound Healing
in Camels
L. S. Fahmy1, E. A. Berbish2, H.M. Teleb3 and A.A. Hegazy4
1
Dept. of Surgery, Anaesthesiology & Radiology, 2 Dept. of Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition,
3&4
Dept. of Pathology, Faculty of Vet. Medicine, Cairo University

ABSTRACT
The effect of oral zinc supplementation (0.5 and 1.0 g zinc oxide/camel/day) on wound healing in camels
was studied on groups,each consisted of two camels. In the first group, camels were fed basal ration
(green barseem, hay and millets). In the other two groups, the camels were fed the basal ration +0.3g
ZnO/ camel/day or basal ration +1.0g ZnO/camel/day for 45 days. Twelve wounds were induced in
shoulder and thigh regions. Blood samples were collected just before the experiment and after 15 and 30
days of wound induction. Wound biopsy was done his to pathologically examined.

Blood analysis revealed that oral zinc supplementation did not affect Ca, Zn and Cu concentration in
blood plasma throughout the experimental period. Microscopical examination showed that dietary zinc
supplementation enhanced healing process of wounds. It was clear that ZnO at a level of 1.0g/camel/day
was better than the level of 0.5g ZnO/camel /day.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camel, Nutrition, Zn, Wound Healing).

Introduction digestion, absorption and metabolic utilization of a

Variations in wound healing seem to be the result
of differences in location, severity of wound and
the extent of injury to tissues. Also, wound
healing is affected by age, nutritional status and
general state of health of animal and its body
reserves and resources for the regeneration of
tissue (Blood and Virginia, 1988). Malnutrition
and hypoproteinemia adversely affect wound
healing as the repair stage of healing is prolonged
with a decreased number and activity of
fibroblasts as well as maturation of collagen.
It had been reported that wound healing of zinc
deficient animals was delayed severely. The exact
mode of action of zinc in tissue repair is unknown,
but the role of zinc in normal protein synthesis
provides a clue to the relationship (Church and
Pond, 1988). The effect of zinc deprivation may
be due to the importance of zinc for effective
wide range of other nutrients e.g.vitamin A (Smith
et al. 1973), vitamin E (Bettger et al. 1980),
proteins (Hardie - Muncy and Rasmussen, 1979)
and copper (O'Dell et al. 1976). Zinc also has a
role as an essential cofactor in the activity of over
100 enzymes, zinc can function as tightly bound
moiety, termed metallo enzyme or as a more
loosely bound entity as in metal-enzyme-complex
(Vallee, 1976). Normal epithelial and fibroblastic
proliferation in wound healing requires zinc-
dependent enzymes DNA-Polymerase and reverse
transcriptase. Without adequate zinc level,
epithelial cells and fibroblasts may migrate
normally, but they cannot multiply, thus
epithelization would not occur and collagen
synthesis would be inadequate to hold the wound
together (Probst and Bright, 1985).
Detailed information about surgical wound and
tissue reaction in camels are scanty. Proper
 S. Lotfia Fahmy, E. A. Berbish, H.M. Teleb and A.A. Hegazy
management and treatment of camel's wound in
particular are poorly documented in the literature.
It is an often held belief that wound healing is
slower in camels than in other mammals. This
belief has arisen probably because of the nature of
the most commonly encountered wounds in
camels and their susceptibility to secondary
complications. A further difficulty is the tendency
of camel owners, often due to their pastoralist
lifestyle, to delay seeking veterinary attention or to
attempt to apply traditional remedies to the injury
(Ramadan et al. 1986). The present work aimed at
studying the effect of oral zinc supplementation
on wound healing process in camels using two
levels of zinc oxide as a dietary supplement.
Materials and Methods
Six mature healthy camels (4-7 years old) were
kept in a wide, well ventilated and sunny stable
with sand floor at the Camel Research Center
(NARP), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo
University. Camels were fed on a basal ration
composed of green barseem, barseem hay and
millets (Table1) throughout the experimental
period. Chemical proximate analysis of basal
ration was conducted according to AOAC (1980).
While its Ca, Zn and Cu contents were estimated
using atomic absorption spectrophotometer * (SP
1900, Pye Unicam). Camels were divided into 3
groups, two animals each. Camels of group I, the
control were fed on a basal ration. The control,
animals of groups II and III were fed on basal
ration + o.5 g zinc oxide per camel/day, or on
basal ration+ 1.0g zinc oxide/camel /day using the
drenching gun. The total zinc received by camel
was 61.7, 102.7 and 143.6 mg/kg ration-dry
matter for groups I, II and III, respectively (Based
on molecular weight of ZnO which contains
80.3% Zn).
Blood samples were collected from the camels to
determine the initial Ca, Zn and Cu levels in their
plasma before the beginning of the experiment
and after 15 and 30 days from wound induction
(Table 2). Twelve wounds were induced while the
camels were controlled in the kneeling position
under the effect of Xylazine HCl. Tranquilization
was given in a dose of 0.5mg/kg body weight
77
intramuscularly according to Khamis et al (1973),
with linear spray anaesthesia of the intended line
using Lidocain ** 10% spray, after aseptic
preparation of the operation site. The incised
wounds (about 6-8 cm length and 2.5-3.0 cm
depth) were induced through the full thickness of
the skin, subcutaneous tissue and muscles at the
mid-space of the lateral aspect of shoulder (M.
Triceps brachii) and cranio-lateral aspect of the
thigh (M. quadriceps femoris) region at the right
side. Bleeding was mechanically controlled.
Wound dressing was done from the second day
post-surgery daily for 10 days then on alternate
days until 42 days using normal saline. The gross
evaluation of wounds was conducted every other
day including general appearance, by clinical
observation of the wound, colour, degree of
granulation, tissue formation and epithelial
growth. Biopsy specimens were collected at 7
days intervals up to 28 days from the wounds,
stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin (Lillie,
1965) and examined microscopically.
Results and Discussion
Upon induction of the experimental wounds, the
blood oozed continuously. All wound surfaces
initially within 24-48 hr post-induction showed
classical inflammatory signs. On the third to fifth
day post-surgery, thin dry incomplete scabs were
formed covering granular, bright red layer of
newly formed granulation tissues. The scab
became thicker and harder, at the same time
granulation tissue continued to grow to fill the
gap. By approximately 12-17 days post-suergery,
the majority of the wound cavities were filled by
granulated tissue. Epthelization processes over
graulation, completely covered the wounds witnin
21-24 days post-surgery in camels of group III
(fed 1g ZnO/day), 30-37 days in group II (fed 0.5
g ZnO/day) and 42 days in the control group.
Zinc concentration in camel's plasma did not
change considerably (Table 2) either by wound or
by zinc supplementation. In other species, stress
and diseases resulted in decreased in blood zinc
concentrations in cows (Dufty et al. 1977).
Japanese quail (Harland et al. 1974). However,
Heinrichs et al (1984) found that, lactating cows
 Effect of Dietary Zinc Supplementation on Wound Healing in Camels
supplemntated with zinc (0.056% of grain
mixture) for 60 days did not affect plasma zinc or
wound healing. Tower et al (1981) found that, in
cows and calves, zinc supplemented had little
effect on plasma zinc concentration. On the other
hand, oral zinc supplementation (ZnO)
insignificantly increased serum zinc level in male
buffalo-calves throughout experimental period of
90 days (Hady, 1986). Mohammed et al (1994)
also observed that zinc level in serum was
markedly elevated by oral zinc supplementation in
yearling buffalo calves. Zinc concentration in
blood serum plasma was the most widely used
indicator of deficiency, but also lack certainty and
sensitivity and a diagnostic criterion (Underwood,
1981).
There was little alteration in plasma Cu level
following zinc supplementation (Table 2). In most
species, copper interacts with other minerals
including zinc (Underwood, 1981), but this
negative relationship has not been studied in
camels. Such a negative correlation between zinc
and copper level in blood was reported in sheep
(Bremner et al. 1976) and cows (Tower et al.
1981).
Plasma Ca concentration was within normal
values and was not affected by zinc
supplementation (Table 2). Excessive zinc intake
decreased Ca and Cu absorption (Robinson,
1992). Also, Smith et al (1984) found a significant
drop in serum Ca concentration after 24 hours
following a single high dose of zinc oxide. This
was however, not found in the present study; due
either to a low level of zinc supplementation or
short experimental period.
Normal values of zinc concentration in blood or
serum of domestic livestock mostly lie within the
range of 0.8-12 ug/ml but individual variability
could be high and many factors other than dietary
zinc might affect serum concentration
(Underwood, 1981). In camels, zinc conentration
was almost at the lower range (Table 2). Zinc
supplementation did not change zinc
concentration in plasma considerably. This could
be due to the fact that zinc was removed from
blood rapidly by tissues, and that tissues saturated
78
with zinc (muscle) translocated zinc to
unsaturated tissues (livers, pancreas and kidneys)
(Pekas, 1968).
Histopathological examination of wounds on the
7th day post-surgery in camels of the control
group I showed a mild epithelial proliferation at
the edges of the wound.The wound was partially
filled at its base with granulation tissue while the
superficial parts contained blood clot invaded with
round cells and scarce granulation tissue at the
edges. Camels of group II showed that the wound
gap was almost filled with granulation tissue while
superficial parts of very thin layer of blood clot
with incomplete epithelization were formed. The
surrounding wound tissue appeared hyperemic
and edematous. Wounds of camels of group III
were characterized by its filling with granulation
tissue and incomplete epithelization under the
skin with mild edema of the surrounding tissue.
Shabaan (1979) reported that wound gap was
filled with fibrous tissue at the depth of the
wounds while superficial part consisted of
granulation tissue of 6 day old surgery wounds in
camels when the lips of wounds were sutured;
while at 8 day old surgery there was regenerated
epidermis from both sides of wounds and was
proliferated in sloping manner and covered and
completely wound surfaces. Mature collagen
invaded the scar towards the surface leading to
complete union of operated wounds.
On the 14th day post-surgery, control camels
showed that the base of the wound was filled with
granulation tissue, contained collagen fibres while
the superficial parts consisted of granulation tissue
containing areas of hyalinized blood clot. Camels
of group II showed presence of granulation tissue
filling the wound gap. The superficial parts of
granulation tissue were still containing blood clot
and epithelial proliferation, was noticed. Camels
of group III showed that wound gap was filled
with granulation tissue. At the base of the wound
fibroblast cells, blood capillaries and collagen
fibers were seen. There was also a very thin
complete epithelial union. Purohit and Chouban
(1992) found that collagen content was increased
from day 4 to 20 in healing stages of camels. On
the 21st day post -surgery control animals showed
 S. Lotfia Fahmy, E. A. Berbish, H.M. Teleb and A.A. Hegazy
that the wound was filled with granulation tissue
with superficial blood clot at the surface. Partial
epithelization was seen. Wounds of camels of
group II were completely filled with highly
vascular granulation tissue with wound
epithelization which appeared very thin and
formed of a few layers of cells. In animals of
group III, the wounds were filled with collagen
fibres with complete epithelization. The later was
formed of a basal layer and few flattened
epithelial cells. On the 28th day post-surgery, the
wounds of control camels and the other two
groups were completely healed with fibrous tissue
formation in the area.
It was conducted that addition of dietary zinc
enhanced wound healing. These results are
parallel with those of Purohit and Chonhan (1992)
who found that dressing materials namely, such as
Zinc, insulin (best), tissue extract and neem oil
enhance tissue repair in camels.
References
A.O.A.C. 1980. Official Methods of Analysis,
13th ed, Washington, USA.
Bettger, W.J., P.G. Reeves, J.E. Savages and B.L.
O'Dell. 1980. Interaction of zinc and vitamin
E in the chick. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.,163:
432.
Blood, D.C. and P.S. Virginia. 1988. Baillieres
Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary.
Bailliere-Tindall.
Bremner, I., B.W. Young and C.F. Mills. 1976.
Protection effect of zinc supplementation
against copper toxicosis in sheep. Br. J. Nutr.,
36: 551.
Church, D.C. and W.G. Pond. 1988. Basic
Animal Nutrition and Feeding. John Wiley and
Sons, U.S.A.
Dufty, J.A. J. B. Bingley and L.Y. Cove. 1977.
The plasma zinc concentration of non-
pregnant, pregnant and parturient Hereford
cattle. Aust. Vet. J., 53: 519-522.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 76-80
79
Hady, M.M. 1986. Role of Microelements in
Nutrition of Water Buffalo and its Relation to
Production and Animal Health. Ph. D. Thesis.
Fac.Vet. Med. Cairo Univ.
Hardie-Muncy, D.A. and A. L. Rasmassen. 1979.
Interaction between zinc and protein levels and
source in weaning rats. J. Nutr., 109, 321.
Harland, B.F. M.R.S. Fox and B. E. Jr. Fry. 1974.
Changes in plasma zinc related to fasting and
dietary protein intake in Japanese quail.
Proc.Soci, Exper. Biol. Med., 145: 316-322.
Heinrichs, A. J. D. A. Todhunter, F. A. Murray,
A.P. Jr. Crifo, J. H. harrison, and H.R. Conrad.
1984. Zinc methionine supplementation for
dairy cows. A study of effect on plasma zinc,
wound healing, mammary health and immune
responses. Research Circular. Ohio. Agric.
Res. and Development Center No.281, 12 pp.
Higgins, A. 1986. The Camel in Health and
Disease. 1st.ed. Bailliere Tindall, England.
Khamis, Y. K. Fouad, and A. Said. 1973. Vet.
Med. Rev. 4:336. (Cited in Higgins, A.1986)
Bailliere Tindall, England.
Lillie, H.D. 1965. Histopathological Technique
and Practical histo chemistry. McGraw-Hill.
NewYork and London, pp 69-72.
Mohammed, O. E., F. F. Mohammed, H. M.
Teleb, H. Abd Elatif and M.A. El-Fadaly.
1994. Effect of vitamin E and zinc
supplementation on immune response of
Buffalo calves. Vet. Med. J. (Giza), 41: 15-17.
O'Dell, B.I., P.G. Reeves and R.F. Morgan.
1976. Interrelationship of tissue copper and
zinc in rats nutritionally deficient in one or
the other of these elements. In: Trace
Substances in Environmental Health (O. D.
Hemphilled). Vol.10. 411 pp. Univ. of
Missouri Press, Colombia.
Pekas, J.C. 1968. Zinc-65 metabolism. Effect of
continuous infusion of high level of stable zinc
in swine. J.Anim. Sci., 27:1559.
 Effect of Dietary Zinc Supplementation on Wound Healing in Camels 80

Probst, C.W. and R.M. Bright. 1985. Wound
healing Textbook of Small Animal Surgey.
Vol .1, Saunders Philadelphia.
Purohit, N.H. and D.S. Chouban. 1992. Wound
healing in camels Proc. 1st Int.Camel. Conf.
pp 355-370.
Ramadan, R. O. R. A. Kock, and A. J. Higgins.
1986. Observation on the diagnosis and
treatment of surgical conditions in the camels.
In " The camel in Health and Disease".By
Higgins, A.Bailliere Tindal, London.
Robinson, N.E. 1992. Current Therapy in Equine
Medicine. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
Smith, B.L., A. J. Collier, R. J. Lawrence, and N.
R. Towers. 1984. Hypocalcaemia associated
with high dose rates of zinc oxide in lactating
dairy cows. New Zealand Vet. J., 32: 48.
Smith, J. C., E. G. McDoniel, F. F. Farr, and J. A.
Halsted 1973. Zinc: A trace element essential
in vitamin A metabolism. Science, 181: 954.
Tower, N.R., B. W. Young, and D. E. Wright.
1981. Effect of zinc on bovine plasma copper.
New Zealand Vet. J., 29 :113.
Underwood, E.J. 1981. The Mineral Nutrition of
Livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux, England.

Shabaan, I. A. 1979. Some Investigation on Vallee, B.L. 1976. Zinc biochemistry in the
Wounds and Wound Healing in One Humped normal and neoplastic growth process. In:
Camel. Ph. D.Thesis Fac. Vet. Med. Zagazig Cancer Enzymology.
Univ.

Table 1. Ingredients, amount and chemical analysis of the basal ration.

Basal Ration DM % CP% Ash% Ca mg% Zn ppm Cu ppm
7.0 kg green barseem(on fresh basis) 17.0 1.7 2.02 1.31 38.0 17.1
7.0 kg barseem hay. 91.3 10.37 12.8 0.66 68.0 47.0
(2.5 kg millets) 89.1 11.2 1.98 0.081 56.0 30.0

Table 2. Ca, Zn and Cu levels in camel blood plasma (mg%).

Ca Zn Cu
Pre- experimental 9.195 0.0674 0.0602
15 days post surgery:
0.5g ZnO/Camel/day 8.186 0.0782 0.0799
1.0g ZnO/camel/day 10.09 0.0782 0.0731
30 days post surgery
0.5 g ZnO/camel/day 7.999 0.0846 0.731
1.0 g ZnO/camel/day 9.535 0.0701 0.0662
Control Camels 8.651 0.0951 0.0639

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 76-80

 Functional Anatomy of the Renal Pelvis
in the One-Humped Camel

H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine

Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II

B.P. 6202 Rabat-Morocco

ABSTRACT
The morphology and the vasculature of the kidney of the dromedary was described. Information
obtained from gross dissection of embalmed camel kidneys was correlated with latex and Batson's
solution injected vascular and in excretory casts. The functional significance of the renal pelvis was dis-
cussed.

(Key Words: Dromedary, Camel, Kidney, Anatomy).

Introduction Materials and Methods

The morphological features of the kidney in most
domestic animals have been reported in literature
(Barone, 1978; Bourdelle and Bressou, 1949,
1953, 1978; Bradely, 1948; Nickel et al.1979;
Getty, 1975; Moffat, 1975; Miller, 1979). There
are, however, few accounts on the gross
microscopic anatomy of the kidney of the camel
(Lesbre, 1903; Tayeb, 1948; Abdalla, 1973; El-
Shaieb et al. 1982). For instance, El-Shaieb et al
(1981) studied the arcuate arteries, Abdalla and
Abdalla (1979) reported morphometric
observations on the kidney, and Moussa (1983)
described the juxtaglomerular complex of the
kidney in the camel. Intensive research on the
renal function such as the response of the renine
aldosterone system (Finberg et al. 1978), water
turnover and renal function of the camel in the
desert (Seibert and Macfarlane, 1971), and the
role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
aldosterone in dehydrated and rehydrated camel
(Yagil and Etzion, 1979) were reported.
The purpose of this investigation was to describe
the functional anatomy of the renal pelvis and its
relationship to renal blood vessels.
Forty-six camel kidneys were used, 30 of which
were obtained from a local slaughterhouse, and
the rest were collected from camels after
intramuscular administration of xylazine
hydrochloride Rompun at a dosage level of 0.2
mg/kg body weight and subsequent bleeding at the
Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire (l.A.V)
Hassan ll, Rabat, Morocco.
Latex and Batson’s 17 were injected into the
ureter and renal vessels of 20 kidneys and then
they were macerated in concentrated HCl solution
leaving the casts of the lumen of the renal pelvis,
ureter, and the renal vasculature.
Results
The paired kidneys of dromedary camel are
located retroperitoneally inside the abdominal
cavity; the right kidney being somewhat located
more cranially than the corresponding left. They
are bean-shaped with smooth surfaces with grey
or blue coloration. The right kidney is situated
ventral to the transverse processes of the first
lumbar vertebrae. It measures about 17 cm in
 H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine
length, 13 cm in width, and 6 cm in thickness,
weighing 720 gm. Its cranial and caudal
extremities are somewhat similar, the former
being capped by the caudate lobe of the liver
(renal impression). The left kidney occupies the
sublumbar region ventral to the last three lumbar
(L5-L7) transverse processes and has small and
pointed cranial extremity and large and rounded
caudal extremity. lt is about 16 cm in length, 12.5
cm in width, and 6 cm in thickness, weighing 685
gm. The lateral border of each kidney is convex
and related to the lateral abdominal wall. The
medial border is somewhat concave with an
idented renal hilus transmitting the renal vessels,
lymphatics and the ureter. The renal lymph nodes,
adrenal (suprarenal) gland and the initial segment
of the ureter are related to the medial border, in
addition to the abdominal aorta to the left and the
caudal vena cava to the right kidney. The flat
dorsal surfaces of both kidneys are related to the
psoas muscles and iliac fascia, but their slightly
convex ventral surfaces have different
relationships (Fig. 1). The left kidney is related
ventrally to the spleen and the dorsal sac of the
rumen, the right kidney to the colon.
The examination of the cast of the excretory part
of the kidney (Fig. 2) revealed a narrow crescentic
pelvis with 9-13 recesses extending to the
medullar zone of the kidney. These recesses
consist of dorsal as well as ventral segments being
related to the respective surface of the kidney, and
the small terminal recesses are located toward the
poles of extremities. Each recess of the renal
pelvis has a deep inner surface surrounding the
medullar part of a renal lobe, while the outer
surface encloses the corresponding interlobar
artery and its branches after coalescing with the
adjacent one. Each pelvic recess presents two
borders: a slightly convex one facing towards the
surface of the kidney is provided with numerous
folds, whereas the other smooth, slightly concave
border is directed deeply.
Each kidney is vascularized by the renal artery
arising from the lateral aspect of the abdominal
aorta, the right artery being longer than the
corresponding left. Each renal artery after
coursing laterally divides into dorsal and ventral
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 81-85
82
branches before reaching the hilus. Each of these
branches in turn splits into 5-8 interlobar arteries,
and after ascending along the opposed borders of
the medullary pyramids they supply the respective
surfaces of the kidney. Near the corticomedullar
junction, the interlobar arteries branch into arcuate
arteries that radiate toward the periphery of the
cortex, where they again split into several
interlobular arteries. Different arterioles leave
these vessels to vascularize the glomeruli and,
hence, the different arterioles (Fig. 3).
The venous drainage of the kidney stems from the
numerous capsular veins that, after converging,
empty into the interlobular, arcuate interlobar and
finally into the dorsal and ventral branches of the
renal vein draining the respective surfaces of each
kidney. Each dorsal and ventral branch again
divides into the cranial and caudal branches. The
cranial as well as caudal branches become
confluent with each other inside the renal sinus
which then continues as the renal vein. The left
renal vein is longer than the right one, both of
them opening into the caudal vena cava.
Discussion
Presence of recesses in the renal pelvis of the
camel kidney was the most important anatomical
characteristic feature which was designated as
specialized fornices in sheep and dog (Pfeiffer,
1968) . These structures should not, however, be
confused with the calices of the multipapillated
kidney of the ox and pig. The camel, similar to the
horse, sheep, goat and dog possesses a renal
crest-type kidney. These recesses had the
appearance of flowers with many petals and a
complicated arrangement. The angioarchitecture
of the camel kidney was similar to that of the dog
(Evans and Christensen, 1979). Examination of
the renal pelvis revealed that these recesses
extended in the medullar zone of the kidney where
the capillaries were in close association with the
lining epithelium. At the arch of the specialized
recess a dense plexus of capillaries intermingling
with elastic nets that apparently protecting the
blood vessels were discernible. The functional
significance of these recesses is not clearly
understood. Pfeiffer (1968) reported a good
 Functional Anatomy of the Renal Pelvis in the One-Humped Camel
correlation between the effect of urea and the
osmotic ceiling of the urine and the development
of pelvic fornices and that the papillary urea
concentration is much higher in mammals with
specialized fornices than in those without them. It
is possible that urea could be recycled from the
pelvic urine, and that urine formation is not
complete until it enters the ureter. Movements of
solute from the pelvic urine into the medullar
tissue may occur through the epithelium of the
specialized recesses and thus assist in building up
urea and the osmotic concentration in the papillary
tissues. Very little intervening tissue separates the
urine in these recesses from the lumen of the
tubules and the cortical blood vessels. These renal
recesses might play an important role in the
economy of water.
References
Abdalla, M. 1973. Anatomical study of the urinary
system of the camel. M.V. Sci. Khartoum
University, Sudan.
Abdallah, M.A. and O. Abdallah. 1979.
Morphometric observations on the kidney of
the camel. J. Anat., 129 (1): 45-50.
Barone, R. 1978. Anatomie comparee des
mammiferes domestiques. Tome lll (splan-
chonologie). ascicule ll: 5-15. Laboratoire
d'Anatomie, Ecole Nationale veterinaire,
Lyon.
Bourdelle, E.T. and C. Bressou. 1949. Anatomie
Regionale des Animaux Domestiques. Tome l,
Equides. Librairie J.B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris.
Bourdelle E.T. and C. Bressou. 1953. Anatomie
Régionale des Animaux Doméstiques. Tome
lV, Carnivores (Chien et chat) Librairie J.B.
Bailliere et Fils. Paris.
Bourdelle, E.T. and C. Bressou. 1978. Anatomie
Régionale des Animaux Doméstiques. Tome
II, les Ruminants. J. B. Baillière (ed.), Paris.
Bradely, M.P. 1948. Urinary System in
Embryology of the Pig. 3rd edition: 197-210
Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 81-85
83
El-Shaieb, M.R., Fath El- Bab and A.S. Saber.
1981. The arcuate arteries and their branches
in the kidney of the camel (Camelus
dromedarius). Assiut Vet. Med. J., 8 (15 -16):
9-13.
El-Shaieb, M.R., Fath El-Bab and A.S. Saber.
1982. Some morphological features of the
kidney of the camel (Camelus dromedarius).
Assiut Vet. Med., 9 (17-18): 3-6.
Evans, J. and C. Christensen. 1979. The
Urogenital Apparatus. Miller’s Anatomy of
the Dog. 2nd Edition. 544-554. Saunder's Co.
Philadelphia- London- Toronto.
Finberg, J.P.M., R. Yagil, and G.M. Berlyne.
1978. Response of the Renine-Aldosterone
System in the Camel to Arcuate des
Hydratation. Appl. Physiol : Respirat. Exercise.
Physiol., 44 (6): 926-930.
Getty. 1975. The Anatomy of Domestic Animals.
Saunders Co. Philadelphia- London-Toronto.
Lsbre, M.F.X. 1903. Recherches Anatomiques
sur les Camelides. Arch. Mus. d'Hist. Nat.,
Lyon.
Miller. 1979. Anatomy of the Dog. Second
Edition. A.B. Saunders Co. Pheladelphia-
London-Toronto.
Moffat, D.B. 1975. The Mammalian Kidney. lst
Edition. Cambridge University Press-London,
New York.
Moussa, M.H.G. 1983. The Juxtaglomerular
Complex of the One Humped Camel. Vet.
Bull. 53 (1):123.
Nickel, R., A. Schumer and E. Seirferle. 1979.
The Viscera of the Domestic Mammals. 2nd
Edition. Verlage Paul Springer, pp 282-304.
Pfeiffer, E.W. 1968. Comparative Anatomical
Observations of the Mammalian Renal Pelvis
and Medulla. J. Anat., 102 (4): 321-331.
 H. Zguigal and A. Ouhsine 84

Siebert, D.B. and W.V. Macfarlane. 1971. Water
Turnover and Renal Function of Dromedarius
in the Desert. J. Physiol,: 225-240.
Tayeb. M.A.F. 1948. Urinary System of the
Camel. J. Am. Vet. Med. Ass. 568-572.
Yagil, R. and Z. Etzion. 1979. The role of ADH
and Aldosterone in the dehydrated and
rehydrated camel. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.,
63 (A): 275-375.

Fig. 1. Sagittal section of the kidney.

1. Ureter; 2. Renal pelvis; 3. Pelvic recesses; 4. Site of pyramid

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 81-85

 Functional Anatomy of the Renal Pelvis in the One-Humped Camel 85

Fig. 2. Latex's cast of the renal pelvis.

1. Ureter; 2. Renal pelvis; 3. Pelvis recesses; 4. Site of renal pyramid

Fig. 3. Batson's cast of the vascular and excretory systems of the kidney.
1. Ureter; 2. Renal pelvis; 3. Pelvic recesses; 4. Site of pyramid; 5. Renal artery;
6. Dorsal branch of 5; 7. Ventral branch of 56; 8. Interlobar artery; 9. Renal vein.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 81-85

 Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat
A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed

King Faysal University

P.O. Box 420 Al-Ahsaa 31982, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT
The ultra structural and histological features of camel (Camelus dromedarius) meat were examined.
The unaged muscles displayed all the major ultra structural features i.e. Z-line, A-band, l-band, H-band
and M-line. In addition, N2-line was observed in the Psoas major (PM) muscle only. Upon aging, some
of these features were affected and displayed marked changes. Typing of fibers indicated that α W,
βR and α R fibres exist in the skeletal muscle of the camel.

(Key Words: Dromedary, Camel, Meat, Histology, Fibre)

Introduction local camel market, transferred to King Faisal

Compared with other types of red meat, camel
meat was widely believed to be tough.
Accordingly, several investigators used proteolytic
enzymes to improve its tenderness (Abdalla et al.
1982). There are several factors that could
affect the physical, chemical and palatability
attributes. Meat scientists have used the
microscope (electron or light) effectively to
study meat qualities. Calkin et al (1981)
examined the relationship of fibre type
composition to marbling and tenderness of
bovine muscle. Several investigators tried to
relate ultrastructural changes in bovine, ovine or
porcine skeletal muscles. Furthermore, some of
the investigators tried to build a link between the
extent of Z-line degradation and the muscle fiber
types (Abbott et al. 1977).
Since studies on camel meat are very scarce, the
purpose of the current study was to high light the
muscle fibre type and ultrastructure of camel
skeletal muscle.
Materials and Methods
Animal Purchase and Slaughter
Two of each red and black Arabian camel types
(approx. two years old) were purchased from a
University Agricultural Experimental Station,
conditioned for 32 days slaughtered at Al-Hasa
slaughterhouse. In addition, two young cattle
steers were slaughtered.
Histological Examination
Samples for the histological examination were
obtained from the of each camel and steert.
Immediately after slaughter, samples were
removed from longissimus dorsi (LD), semi
tendinosus (ST), soleus and psoas major (PM).
The samples were quickly frozen in isopentane
cooled in liquid nitrogen. Transverse sections
of each muscle sample were cut 10 mm thick
using a cryostat at 20 ºC and stained for
acid-stable and alkali-stablemysion adenosine
triphosphatase (ATPase) and succinic dehydro-
genase (SDH) according to Dubrowitz and
Brook (1973) procedures. In addition, some of the
sections were stained for PAS reaction accord-
ing to Drury and Wallington (1980) procedure.
Stained sections were later examined and
photographed on Olympus Vanox Research
Microscope (Japan), and each muscle fibre
photomicrograph was classified according to the
classification scheme described by Ashmore and
Doett (1971).
 A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed
Electron Microscopy
Within 45 minutes postmortem, samples (fixed on
tooth picks with Astra sutures before removing
from the carcass) were removed from PM, ST
and LD muscles. Samples were fixed in
glautaraldehyde (2%) and osimium tetraoxide
(1%) both in 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2),
dehydrate with acetone solutions, stained with
uranyl acetate, infiltrated, embedded in spurs
epoxy formulation and cured overnight at 70C.
Thin sections were cut using a diamond knife on
lKB ultra microtome, stained with lead citrate and
examined with Carl Zeis's electron microscope
operated at 40 to 60 Kv.
Results and Discussion
Histological Examination
The results of succinic dehydrogenase (SDH)
staining of the LD of camel and beef steers are
shown on Figs. 1 and 2. In both animal species
three different muscle fibres were observed
namely βR (with high SDH activity), α R (with
intermediate SDH activity) and α W (with low
SDH activity).These fibre types were further
confirmed with the PAS reaction (Figs. 3 and
4). The distribution fibres of different muscles
from camel types (red and black) and the LD of
beef is shown in Table 1. The distribution of
muscle fibre types in the LD of the two camel
types indicated that black camel has slightly more
α W, less α R and less βR than red camels. The ST
of the red camel had more αW than that of the
black camel but the opposite is true for the βR
muscle fibers type. The ST of the two camel types
had similar percentage of J muscle fiber type. The
combined data for the LD of the two camel
types were compared with that of beef, the latter
had slightly less βR and less α W fibers but had
more αR fiber than the camel. Unlike beef, camels
in this study were not raised in confinement and
as such they experienced more muscular activity
which could be conductive to βR fibers. It was
not known whether the 32 days (in confinement)
conditioning period had any effect on the
results. Fibre typeing is a dynamic process i.e.
change of muscle fiber types with age and
function of the muscle (Seideman et al. 1986;
Billeter et al. 1980). Seideman et al (1986) found
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95
87
that as animal age increases the percentage of α W
fiber at the expense of α R fiber confirming an
earlier report by Ashmore and Doett, (1977).
The distribution of fiber types J, αR and α W in
the LD of 12 month old steer was found to be
27.2%, 31.6% and 41.2%, respectively (Seideman
et al. 1986). Calkin et al (1981) reported that LD
of mature beef contained 26.9%, 30.7% and
42.4% of J, αR and αW fibers, respectively.
Young and Bass (1984) observed a wide variation
in the occurrence of α W fibers in the LD of steers
and bulls. In the current study and at the age
tested, αR was the predominant fiber type in the
camel and steer skeletal muscle (Table 1).
Ultrastructure of Camel Skeletal Muscle
Figure 5 depicts the ultra structure of the unaged
camel PM, ST and LD muscles, respectively.
The major ultrastructural features i.e. Z-line,
l-band, A-band, H-zone and M-line of a typical
skeletal muscle were nicely shown. These same
features were reported earlier by Schaller and
Powrie (1971) for red meat of other animals.
Whereas the banding pattern, the different
component of the sarcomere and subcellular
fractions were intact and distinct in the
micrographs (Figs. 5,6 and 7) of the unaged camel
muscles. Some of these features displayed
marked changes upon aging (Figs. 8, 9 and 10).
The Z-line of the LD (Fig. 10) appeared to be not
affected by aging like that of ST and PM muscles
and its O-band was greatly reduced to the
extent that the A-band looks like it penetrates the
Z-line. Several investigators have associated
degradation in the Z-line was associated with
the improvement in tenderness upon aging.
Comparisons of Figures 11 and 12 for aged PM
and ST muscles reveal that only the PM muscle
(Fig. 11) possesses an N2-line on both sides of
the Z-line. Robson and Huiatt (1983) stated that
for reasons that are not entirely clear, the
N2-line has not consistently been observed in
the ultrastructural studies of muscles. Locker and
Leet (1976) proposed a third set of filaments
in the muscle ultrastructure and termed it
G-filament and in 1976 they suggested that the
N2-line is suspended on the G-filament.
 Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat
Remedios and Gilmor (1978) observed a 2-7 mm
in diameter filament in the striated muscle which
could be the G-filament. Titin and Nebulin are the
two cytoskeletal proteins of the proposed
F-filaments and N2-line, respectively. Both of
these proteins are highly insoluble, have high
molecular weights and elastic in nature (Robson
and Huiatt, 1983). The tensile strength of cooked
meat was attributed mainly to the G- Filament
and collagen. Although two of the three muscles
aged and examined in this study displayed
postmortem changes, particularly in the l-band
and Z-line, similar to that observed by
different investigators in the skeletal muscles of
other red meat species, yet it is not possible at this
junction to give a simple explanation (other than
species difference) why camel meat is not as
tender as the meat from other red meat species.
Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by the
Scientific Council of King Faisal University,
Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia.
Gratitude is expressed to the staff of the
electron microscopy unit of King Faisal
University for their technical assistance with
TEM. Thanks are extended to Mr. Abdelmoneim
Hussein for his assistance with the histological
work.
References
Abbott, M. T., A. M. Pearson, J.F. Price and G.R.
Hooper. 1977. Ultrastructural changes during
autolysis of red and white porcine muscle.
J. Food. Sci., 42: 1185-88.
Abdalla, N.M., N.M. El-Shimi, and M.H.G.
Moussa. 1982. Effect of using papaya leaves
and fruits for tenderization on the quality
characteristics of camel meat. Research
Bulletin No. 1745, Faculty of Agric., Ain
Shams, Egypt.
Ashmore, C.R. and I. Doett. 1977. Postnatal
development of fiber types in normal and
dystrophic chick muscle. Expt. Neurol, 30:
431-437.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95
88
Billeter, R., H. Weber, H. lutz, H. Howald, H.M.
Eppenberger and E. Jenny. 1980. Myosin
types in human skeletal muscle fibers.
Histochemistry, 65: 249-251.
Calkin, C.R., T.R. Dutson, G.C. Smith, Z.I.
Carpenter and G.W. Davis. 1981. Relationship
of fiber type composition to marbling and
tenderness of bovine muscle. J. Food Sci., 46:
708-710.
Drury, R.A.B, and E.A. Wallington. 1980. In
Carleton's Histological Techniques. 5th
edition., 239 pp.
Dubrowitz, V. and M.H. Brook. 1973. Muscle
Biopsy: A Modern Approach. W.B. Sanders
Co. Ltd. London.
Locker, R.H. and N.G. Leet. 1976. Histology of
highly-stretched beef muscle. Evidence for
movement of gap filaments through the Z-
line, using the N2-line and M-line as makers.
J. Ultrastruct. Res., 56: 31-38.
Remedios, C.G. and G. Gilmor. 1978. Is there
a third type of filament in straited muscles. J.
Biochem., 84: 235-238.
Robson, R.M. and T.W. Huiatt. 1983. Roles of
the cytoskeletal proteins desmin, titin and
nebulin in muscle.Rec. Meat. Conf. Proc., 36:
116-123.
Schaller, D.R. and W.D. Powrie. 1971. Scanning
electron microscopy of skeletal muscle from
rainbow trout, turkey and beef. J. Food. Sci.,
36: 552-559.
Seideman, S.C., J.D. Crose and H.R. Cross. 1986.
The effect of sex condition and growth
implants on bovine muscle fiber characteris-
tics. Meat Sci., 17: 79-95.
Young, O.A.and J.J. Bass. 1984. Effect of
castration on bovine muscle composition.
Meat Sci., 11: 139-156.
 A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed 89

Table 1. Distribution of the skeletal muscle fiber types of the Arabian camel and steers.
Muscle Fiber Types (%)
Species and Muscles ∝W *
∝ R* Β R*
Red Camel (n=2)
LD 38.8 46.7 14.5
ST 36.7 43.3 20.0
Soleus 30.2 48.1 21.7
Black Camel (n =2)
LD 13.4 41.7 44.8
ST 20.9 30.5 47.6
PM 30.4 27.8 41.7
Beef (n=2)
LD 34.8 52.1 13.0
* Expressed as percentage of total fiber numbers.

Fig. 1. Cross-section of camel longissimum dorsi (lD)

muscle stained for succinic dehydrogenase (SDH).

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat 90

Fig. 2. Cross-section of bovine lD muscle stained

for succinic dehydrogenase (SDH).

Fig. 3. Cross-section of camel lD muscle stained for PAS.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed 91

Fig. 4. Cross-section of bovine lD stained for PAS.

Fig. 5. Transmission electron micrograph of unaged camel PM muscle sampled

and fixed 45 min postmortem. Note the triads (transverse tubule + sarcoplasmic
reticulum) and the components of the sarcomere.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat 92

Fig. 6. Transmission electron micrograph of unaged camel ST muscle sampled

and fixed 45 min. Postmortem. Note: Glycogen granules
(G) and the components of the sarcomere.

Fig. 7. Transmission electron micrograph of unaged camel lD muscle sampled

and fixed 45 min.
Postmortem. Note: The presence of a sattelite cell.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed 93

Fig. 8. Transmission electron micrograph of camel PM muscle aged

for 5 days post-mortem.
Note the degradation of the Z-line, increased intercellular space.

Fig. 9. Transmission electron micrograph of camel ST muscle aged

for 5 days post-mortem.
Note degradation of Z- line (arrow), openings of the structure at the l-band.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 Microstructural Characteristics of Arabian Camel Meat 94

Fig. 10. Transmission electron micrograph of camel lD muscle aged

for 5 days post-mortem.
Note increased intercellular space and swolen subcellular fraction
and that the A-band look like it penetrated the Z- line (arrows).

Fig. 11. Transmission electron micrograph of camel PM muscle showing

the N2-line on both sides of the Z-line.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 A. Kassem, M. T. El Sayed and A. Ahmed 95

Fig. 12. Highly magnified transmission electron micrograph of camel ST muscle.

Note the absence of the N2-line.

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 86-95

 Studies on Mastitis in Female Camel
with Special Reference to Brucellosis

A.A.1 Hegazy, A.El Dughaym 2, M.Alaknah 3,

F. M.T. Housawi4 and M.E. Hatem5
1
Dept. of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources
2
Dept. of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources,
3, 4 & 5
Dept. of Clinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources,
King Faisal University, P.O Box 1757, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia.

ABSTRACT
A total of 392 quarters of mammary glands, 98 supramammary lymph nodes and 98 blood samples
collected from 98 female camels. Serological studies were conducted using Rose Bengale Plate Test and
serum agglutination test for detection of Brucella antibodies. The most commonly incriminated
organisms responsible for mastitis, as well as a detailed description for the pathological picture of the
resulting lesions.

(Key Words: Dromedary camel, Mastitis, Mammary Glands, Brucella).

Introduction Kastrzynski and Kozanecki, 1990; Bakeer et al.

Mastitis has both an extreme zoonotic and
economic importance. It is the cause of multiple
hazardous effects on human health and animal
production. The increase demands on camel milk
and its products necessitate the identification of
the clinico-pathological changes of mammary
glands in relation to the causative pathogen aiming
at establishing a rapid method for diagnosis.
Different hitopathological types of mastitis
previously described; acute diffuse fibrinous
mastitis (Bakeer et al. 1994), subacute interstitial
mastitis (Quandil and Qudan, 1984; Bakeer et al.
1994), gangrenous mastitis (Bolbol, 1982),
chronic obstructive mastitis (Ramadan et al.
1987). Acute necrotic, hemorrhagic and chronic
interstitial mastitis was reported as different types
of mastitis in the female camel (Kaspakov, 1976;
1994).
A. pyogenes, Staph. aureus, Strept. agalactiae,
Strep.uberis, E.coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Micrococcus, Past haemolytica and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated from
mastitic mammary glands either in the form of
pure or mixed infection (Zafer and Moustafa,
1971; Kapur et al. 1982; Hassanein et al. 1984;
Hafez et al. 1987; Karmy, 1990; Bakeer et al.
1994; Abdurahman, 1996; El Jakee, 1998).
Brucella melitensis, Biovar types 1 and/or 2 was
isolated from the supramammary lymph nodes
and milk of female-camel without remarkable
gross lesions (Radwan et al. 1992; Gameel et al.
1993; Hegazy et al. 1998) from sera-positive
Saudi Arabian, Libyan and Egyptian dromedaries,
respectively.
 A. A. Hegazy, A.El Dughaym, M.Alaknah , F. M.T. Housawi and M.E. Hatem
The present study described the pathological
profile of mastitic glands in relation to the
causative pathogen and states the incidence of
Brucella seropositive animals in relation to
isolation of brucella from mammary glands of the
female camel shedding a light on this important
and previously insufficiently recognized health
problem.
Materials and Methods
This study was conducted during the time period
extending from October 1999 to January 2000.
Samples
A total of 392 quarters of mammary glands, 98
supramammary lymph nodes and 98 blood
samples were collected from 98 female camel
slaughtered at Al-Ahsa modern slaughterhouse:
Serological Studies
Sera were separated from the blood samples,
inactivated and stored at -20 0C until tested. The
sera were screened with Rose Bengale Plate Test
(RBPT) for the presence of Brucella agglutinins.
The positively tested sera were further treated with
the serum agglutination test using Brucella
abortus and Brucella melitensis antigens.
Bacteriological Examination
Tissue samples from mammary glands,
supramammary lymph nodes and milk (From
lactating cases) were transferred into ice boxes to
the laboratory within few hours from collection.
Each sample was streaked onto brucella agar
supplied with selective antibiotic mixture, Hekton
enteric agar, and blood agar. Plates were then
incubated at 37°C, examined after 24 hours and
then for colonial growth daily for 10 days. The
growing colonies were identified morphologically
and biochemically according to the standard
method of Carter and Cole (1990).
Pathological Studies
The collected mammary glands were examined
grossly for detection of abnormalities. Tissue
samples from mammary glands and
supramammary lymph nodes were fixed in a 10%
neutral formalin and processed by paraffin
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 96-102
97
embedding method. Paraffin sections were
performed and stained by H&E and
microscopically examined (Carleton et al. 1967).
Results
Serological Studies
Seven out of 98 sera samples reacted positively to
RBPT and SAT. Brucella melitensis was isolated
from the mammary glands of 5 cases (Table 1).
Bacteriological Examination
The most commonly isolated bacterial species
from mastitic mammary glands were
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staph aureus,
Streptococcus group A. pyogenes, Brucella
melitensis, E. coli, and Pasteurella hemolytica
either in pure or mixed infections.
Pathological Studies
The macroscopical examination of the mammary
glands revealed that 39 quarters showed the
clinical picture of mastitis, while the
microscopical examination added another 29 cases
concluding a total of 68 (17.34%) mastitic
cases.The types of mastitis and isolated organisms
were presented in Table 2. Moreover, microscopic
examination revealed disturbance of growth and
neoplasia in another 11 cases. Types and
incidence of these lesions were presented in Table
3. The macroscopical and microscopical pictures
of different types of the aforementioned lesions
are described below:
Acute diffuse mastitis
Grossly, the affected quarter(s) was swollen and
firm with reddish discoloration. The cut surface
appeared granular and dry with presence of clotted
milk in the cisternae.
Microscopically, the acini showed severe
aggregations of inflammatory cells mainly
neutrophils and mononuclear cells, in addition to
desquamated epithelium and eosinophilic
exudates. The interstitial tissues appeared
edematous and infiltrated with inflammatory cells,
and vascular congestion and hemorrhages were
commonly seen. E. coli was isolated from these
cases.
 Studies on Mastitis in Female Camel with Special Reference to Brucellosis
Acute necrotic mastitis
Grossly, the affected udder revealed swelling of
one or more quarters. The cut surface showed
large areas of necrosis, dark brown in color,
friable and with multiple cavitation. The cisternae
contained brownish exudates.
Microscopically, there were areas of coagulative
necrosis surrounded by inflammatory zones
consisting of mononuclear cells followed by
granulation tissue. The surrounding mammary
lobules appeared infiltrated with inflammatory
cells mainly macrophages and histocytes.
Pseudomonas aerugenosa and E.coli. were
isolated from these cases.
Diffuse chronic non-suppurative interstitial
mastitis
Grossly, the affected quarter (s) was firm,
enlarged with deformity of the external shape and
teats position.
Microscopically, extensive fibrosis, scarring of
the interstitial tissue and lobular infiltration with
mononuclear inflammatory cells mainly
macrophages, plasma cells, histiocytes, and
lymphocytes were the prominent picture. The
acini were mostly atrophied or replaced by fibrous
tissue. The ducts were mostly dilated and showed
fibrous thickening of their walls with
desquamation or stratification of the lining
epithelium and accumulation of chronic
inflammatory cells and eosinophilic exudates in
the lumen.
Chronic suppurative mastitis
Grossly, one or more quarters were affected. The
affected quarter was enlarged, firm and coarsely
nodular. The cut section revealed the presence of
chronic abscess surrounded by thick fibrous
capsule and containing creamy pus.
Microscopically, areas of liquifactive necrosis
surrounded by several layers of neutrophils and
macrophages were seen. The surrounding tissue
showed granulation tissue proliferation and
infiltration with inflammatory cells. The ducts
appeared desquamated and impacted by
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 96-102
98
inflammatory cells and tissue debris. The
surrounding lobules were heavily infiltrated with
inflammatory cells in addition to atrophy of the
acini. A. pyogenes was isolated from these cases.
Granulomatous mastitis
No marked gross abnormalities were detected in
these cases.
Microscopically, the lobules showed focal
interstitial aggregations of mononuclear cells
consisting of plasma cells, lymphocytes,
epithelioid cells and multinucleated giant cells.
Mild interstitial fibrosis was seen associated with
atrophy of the acini and presence of corpora
amylacea. Brucella melitensis was isolated from
these cases.
Subclinical interstitial mastitis
The udder in this case showed no detectable
abnormalities.
Microscopically, mild intra lobular and lobular
fibrosis associated with mononuclear cell
infiltration were seen. The affected lobules
showed collapsed acini with occasional
eosinophilic exudes. Staph. aureus and Group A
Streptococcus pyogenes were isolated from these
cases.
Chronic obstructive mastitis
This form of chronic mastitis was grossly
characterized by massive dilatation of the cistern
and accumulation of clotted milk associated with
fibrosis of the affected quarter. Obstruction of the
teat canal and hypertrophy of the teat were
constantly detected. Microscopically, marked intra
and interlobular fibrosis associated with focal
aggregations of chronic inflammatory cells and
occasional neutrophils were commonly seen. The
acini were collapsed with marked ductal ectasia,
which sometimes contained eosinophilic exudate
in the lumen. Past. hemolytica and Group A
Streptococcus pyogenes were isolated in these
cases.
Duct ectasia
The affected parts were transformed into spongy
mass. Microscopically, the ducts appeared highly
 A. A. Hegazy, A.El Dughaym, M.Alaknah , F. M.T. Housawi and M.E. Hatem
dilated with thin wall. Ectasia also included
terminal ductules and acini. Neither inflammatory
cells nor stagnation of secretion could be detected.
Fibrosclerosis
The detected cases were more or less localized
fibrosclerotic tissue.
Intraductal fibroma
This was consisted of papillary overgrowth
protruding in the duct lumen.
Adenocarcinoma
The mass was detected since it during routine
examination of the mammary glands was
diagnosed as simple tubular type. The mass
showed tubular arrangement but solid and/or
squamous structure was seen. Pleomorphism and
mitotic activity were common. Plasma cells and
lymphocytes were present in varying numbers
around the tumour cells. The stroma was moderate
and in some areas sclerotic.
Discussion
The incidence of clinical mastitis in the female
camel in the present investigation was 9.95%. The
microscopical examination revealed a higher
percentage rate (17.34%) and this was attributed
to the subclinical and granulomatous mastitis,
which could not be recognized clinically and is
only detected microscopically. The clinical
percentage of mastitis was less than reported by
Hafez et al (1987), while the microsopical
incidence was similar to that of Bakeer et al
(1994).
The difference in incidence between the clinical
and microscopical mastitis necessitate the
performance of rapid mastitis test somatic cell
count and isolation of the pathogen from milk
samples as a sensitive and accurate method in
addition to clinical examination, which was in
accordance with the recommendation of Mustafa
et al (1987); Erskin et al (1988) and Obeid and
Bagadi (1996).
The incidence of Brucella positive animals in this
study was 7.14%. No clinical or gross changes
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 96-102
99
were detected in the mammary glands of these
animals despite isolation of Brucella melitensis
from highly positive animals. It was worth
mentioning that the mammary glands of these
cases showed focal granulomatous mastitis.
Similar lesions in cow were described by Jubb et
al (1993).
The microscopical changes described for brucella
induced mastitis in case of female camel is likely
considered to be the first world wide report in this
species.
Brucella melitensis was isolated from milk of
female camel in Saudi Arabia (Radwan et al.
1992) and supramammary lymph nodes (Hegazy
et al. 1998).
Microscopical examination of randomly collected
mammary glands revealed that subclinical mastitis
represented the highest percentage of mammary
gland affection. Staph. aureus and Strept.
agalactia were isolated from these cases. Similar
organisms were isolated by Kaspakov (1976),
Hassanein et al (1984) and El-Jakee (1998) who
reported that members of the genus Staphylcoccus
followed by members of the genus Streptococci
were the predominant organisms leading to
mastitis in camels Abdurahman (1996) considered
them to be the main cause of sub clinical mastitis.
As this form of mastitis could be detected
clinically or macroscopically, it is hence necessary
to standardize a test for milk, aiming at detecting
sub clinical mastitis, which is of utmost
importance from the public health point of view.
Chronic nonsuppurative mastitis represented the
most commonly detected clinical form. It was
characterized by fibrosis, glandular atrophy and
epithelial stratification. Similar changes were
observed in the camel (Hungerford, 1989; Bakeer
et al. 1994) and in the cow (Kennedy and Miller,
1993) in chronic cases of streptococcus mastitis.
Streptococcus was also reported as a major cause
of mastitis in camels (Barbour et al. 1985; Karmy,
1990).
Chronic suppurative mastitis was found to be
similar to summer mastitis in cow (Jubb et al.
 Studies on Mastitis in Female Camel with Special Reference to Brucellosis
1993). A. pyogenes was isolated as a single culture
from the affected cases. Hassanien et al (1984)
and Karmy (1990) isolated the same organism
from similar cases, however Bakeer et al (1994)
isolated Staph.aureus as well from the affected
cases.
Acute necrotic mastitis was characterized by
extensive necrosis and acute inflammation with
degeneration of the surrounding lobules. Both
Pseudomonas aerugenosa and E. coli were
incriminated for these lesions. It is well known
that the tissue changes are the result of endotoxic
injury to the microvasculature of the alveolar wall
and mammary interstitum while Pseudomonas
aerugenosa is a secondary invador of the already
infected udder. This form of mastitis is considered
to be a result of peracute infection by E. coli in a
way similar to that of cattle.
Acute diffuse mastitis was attributed to E. coli
infection. The inflammation mostly involved one
quarter and caused destruction of the lining of the
ducts, edema of interstitial tissues and infiltration
of the acini with serous and inflammatory cells
mainly neutrophils and macrophages.
Similar findings were observed in cow in acute E.
coli infection (Kremer et al. 1990). Bakeer et al
(1994) also reported similar lesions in camels. E.
coli was isolated from the milk of mastitic females
and regarded as the principle causative agent
(Nagah and Thabet, 1993). It was also isolated
from peracute mastitis in camels (Kapur et al.
1982; Quandal and Qudan, 1984).
Obstructive mastitis was characterized by
dilatation of the cistern and obstruction of the teat
canal, which might be the predisposing factor
followed by invasion of the etiological agent.
Streptococcus sp. and Past hemolytica were
isolated. Similar findings were also reported by
Ramadan et al (1987).
Concerning duct ectasia, intra ductal fibroma,
fibrosclerosis, and adenocarcinoma, no previous
report could be traced about these lesions in
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 96-102
100
camels however such lesions were detected in
dogs (Hampe and Misdorp, 1974).
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brucellosis in camels in central Saudi Arabia.
Rev. Sci. Tech., OIE, 11(3): 837-844.
Ramadan, R.O., A.M. Hassan, R. Abdin Bey,
Y.A. Algasnawi, E.S.M. Abdallah, A.A.
Fayed. and A.M. El-Hassan. 1987. Chronic
obstructive mastitis in camel. A clinico-
pathoilogical study. Cornell Veterinarian, 77:
132-150.
 Studies on Mastitis in Female Camel with Special Reference to Brucellosis 102

Zafer, S.A. and I. H.Moustafa. 1971. Mastitis in

she camel and its treatment. Egyptian Vet.
Med. J. Giza, 19: 385-389.

Table 1. Serological results in relation to brucella isolation.

Case Number RBPT SAT Brucella Isolation
14 + 160 +
22 + 80 +
25 + 640 +
29 + 40 -
35 + 20 -
36 + 320 +
46 + 1280 +

Table 2. Bacterial isolates in relation to the type of mastitis.

Type of Mastitis Number & Incidence Bacterial Isolate

Acute diffuse mastitis 3 (4.41%) E.coli

Subclinical interstitial mastitis 29 (42.64%) Staph.aureus &Srept.agalactiae
Chronic non suppurative interstitial mastitis 15 (22.05%) Strept .agalactiae
Acute necrotizing mastitis 3 (4.41%) Pseudomonas aeruginosa &E.coli
Chronic suppurative mastitis 9 (7.35%) A.pyogenes
Granulomatous mastitis 5(7.35%) Brucella melitensis
Obstructive mastitis 4 (5.88%) Past.hemolytica &Streptococcus sp.

Table 3. The type and incidence of mammary neoplasia and disturbances of growth.
Type of Lesion No of Cases Incidence
Fibrosclerosis 4 4.08%
Duct ectasia 3 3.06%
Intra ductal fibroma 3 3.06%
Adeno-carcinoma 1 1.02%
Total 11 11.2%

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 96-102

 Pathology in Camel Lungs
R. Zubair, A. M. Z. Khan and M. A. Sabri
Dept. of Vet. Pathology, Faculty of Vet. Science
University of Agriculture
Faisalabad 38040 Pakistan

ABSTRACT
One hundred camel lungs having gross pathology changes were collected from abattoirs of Lahore and
Faisalabad. The prevalence of various pathological condition in lungs were 48.90 %, stage of red
hepatization 33.33% and stage of gray hepatization 17.77%, Hydatidosis 40% bronchitis 8%,
Penumonicosis 5% and Tubercle nodules 2%. The microorganisms isolated were Corynaebacterium,
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Echerichia, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Bacillus lebsiella and Mycobaterium.

(Key Words: Dromedary Camels, Pathology, CARDN).

Introduction formalin solution and processed by routine

Pathological conditions of lungs, particularly
pneumonia in farm animals may result in severe
reduction in production and even terminate in
death causing economic losses to the farmers.
Pneumonia in farm animals has been recognized
as a major malady in all parts of the world (Jubb
et al. 1985). Infectious agents like bacteria, virus
and fungi are known as major causes of
pneumonia (Jones and Hunt, 1983). Literature
revealed only sparse reports about pathological
changes and associated bacterial isolation from
the camel lungs (Nabiha et al. 1981).
Materials and Methods
The grossly affected lungs from one hundred
dromedary camels of different ages and sexes
were collected from Lahore and Faisalabad
abattoirs. The lungs were examined externally
and internally (by opening the bronchial tree) for
the presence of parasites, tuberculous nodules
abscesses, hydatid cysts, areas of consolidation,
emphysema and pneumonic changes. Samples
for bacteriological and histopathological
examination were taken to the laboratory in ice
packed containers. Tissue specimens from each
case were fixed in 10 m per cent neutral buffer
paraffin embedding technique for microscopy
(Buxton and Fraser, 1977; Humason, 1972)
Results and Discussion
Observed pathological conditions were
category-zed into seven groups as shwon in
Table 1.
The first group included 22 cases of congestion.
Microscopically, this change was associated
with inflammatory edema of the alveoli and the
capillaries were distended with blood.
Mehomoud et al (1988) examined lungs from 52
camels and reported that pneumonia was seen in
six cases while congestion and mild bronchitis
in seven cases. Staphylococcus was isolated
from 7 cases while Pseudomonas
corynaebacterium and P. klebsiella were
isolated from 5, 8 and 2 cases, respectively.
Red hepatization of lungs was observed in 15
cases. Grossly the lungs showed red areas of
consolidation. The affected areas were firm like
liver tissue (hepatized) and of lobular
distribution. Microscopically, the capillaries in
alveolar walls were distended with blood. Some
of the alveoli were filled with inflammatory
 R. Zubair, A. M.Z. Khan and M.A. Sabri
exudates. One of the cases was a chemical
irritant. This stain was attained in less than two
minutes after its application, while in case of
infections (bacterial as well as viral) is
developed in few hours (Jubb et al. 1985).
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Klebsiella
were isolated from 6, 7 and 2 cases of affected
lungs, respectively. The third group consisted of
8 cases of gray hepatization. The lungs showed
multiple focal areas of consolidation with a dark
grayish color and had lobular distribution.
Microscopically, the bronchial lumen was filled
with exudats containing polymorphonulcear
cells, monocytes and desquamated epithelium of
bronchioles.
The alveoli were distended with exudats the
greyness of the affected tissue in this stage is
attributed factors like ischaemia of the alveolar
capillaries due to pressure of the exudate on
them increased infiltrations of leukocytes and
lyses of erythrocyte (Sastry, 1983).
Corynebacterium and Escherichia were isolated
from 5 and 3 cases, respectively.
From the above discussion, it appeared that the
prevalence of pneumonia varied from place to
another in camels due to the difference in
management, nutrition and climatic factors.
Bronchitis was diagnosed histologically in 8
cases which showed infiltration of inflammatory
cells with abundance of mononuclear cells and
exudats in bronchiolar wall. In some of these
cases polymorphonuclear cells were also present
in the alveoli. These studies were to be in line
with those of Mehmoud et al (1988) who
described similar cellular reaction in mild
cellular bronchitis. Staphylococcus and Baxillus
were isolated from 6 and 2 cases, respectively.
Pneumoicosis was histologically present in 5
cases. The dust or carbon particles were seen in
the tissue added aggregates of fine granules of
dark black color. These granules at some sites
initiated fibroblastic proliferation which
appeared in the form of dense nodules
composed of fibrocyte and collagen fibers. The
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 103-106
104
nodules were localized in perivascular,
perobronchial inter alveolar or interstitial
connective tissue. Proteus and Bacillus were
isolated from 4 and 1 cases, respectively.
Penumonicosis developed in these cases may be
attributed to atmospheric contamination of
minerals and other industrial pollution in the
form of dust.
Hydatidosis was observed in 40 cases. The
lungs from these cases had Echinococcus cysts.
The number of cysts varies from one to twenty
and their size ranged from two to five
centimeters. Microscoprcally, the cystic wall
containd mature and immature wall fibroblasts.
The outer surface of the cyst had a thick zone of
connection tissue lined by relatively immature
fibroblasts.
The surrounding parenchymal tissue showed
congestion. The reraction around the
bronchioles appeared in the form of aggregation
of mononuclear cells, inter-alveolar tissue was
also infiltrated by mononuclear cells.
Pampiglione (1986) examined 250 camels in
Algeria and noted 22 (8.4%) harbored hydatid
cysts. Hamdy et al (1980) found 144 (7.95%)
out of 1811 camels positive for hydatid infection
at Cairo and Embaba abattoirs. Saad (1982)
reported that out of 51 camels examined in
Gedarif Sudan 18 (35.29%) were infected with
hydatid cysts. From the above reference it was
evident that the prevalence of hydatidosis varies
in from one camel population to another as well
as from place to place. Dogs and Jackals acts as
an intermediated host for echinococcus cysts.
Moreover, local law about stray dogs and dogs
with nomads play a vital position in its
disseminate. Proteus was isolated from 3 cases
of this group.
The seventh group included two cases of
tubercle nodules. Grossly, the lesions were in
the form of small discrete military nodules
varying from 1 to 3 cm in size. The smaller
nodules coalesced to form large nodules. These
nodules had raised surface and were grayish
 Pathology in Camel Lungs
white in color. Upon cutting, they yielded
inspissated pus which was sometimes gritty in
nature. Histopathologicallty, these appeared as
granulomass in parenchymatous tissue having a
center of caseation surrounded by giant cells,
epithelioid cells and lymphocytes. Myco-
bacterium tuberculosis was confirmed by acid
fast staining. Arora and Kalra (1973) isolated
klebsiella and Diplococci species from bronco-
pneumonia in camels. Klebsiella and Pseudo-
monas aerogenosa was found in upper and
lower respiratory tract were pathogenic org-
anisms. (Baily and Scott, 1974; Shigidi, 1973)
isolated and identified microorganisms from
nasal swabs, lungs and bronchial lymph nodes
of apparently healthy camels. These micro-
organism included bacilli 26.20%, diphtheroid
15.9%, corynebactrium pyogenes 5.40%, alpha
hemolytic streptococcus 5.1%, E. Coli 1% and
Enterobacter aerogenese 0.5%.
It was clear that the respiratory tract of
apparently normal animals acted as a reservoir
for many species and types of organisms. These
microorganisms reached the nasal cavity either
through inhalation or during drinking. Stress
factors such as changes in the hygienic,
environmental and climatic conditions play an
important roles in the onset of pneumonia such
factors would lower the resistance of the lung
tissue and the existing organism most probable
would get the upper hand.
References
Arora, R.G. and D.S. Kalra. 1973. A note on
isolation of klebsiella pneumonia and
diplococci from cases of bronchopneumonia
in camels. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 43 (12).
Baily, W. R. and B.G. Scott. 1974. Diagnostic
Microbiology, Isolatin and Identification of
Pathogeneic Organisms. 4 th Ed. The
Mosbyt, Comp. Saint, Louis, pp 103-143.
Buxton, A. and G. Fraser. 1977. Animal
Microbiology. Blackwell Scientific, Pub.
Oxford, London, pp 466-465.
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 103-106
105
Hamdy, I.I., E.G. Mikhail, A.A. Soliman and
H.H. Hameed. 1980. A study on hydatidosis
in some animals in Egypt. J. Soc. Parasit.,
10(1): 43-51.
Humason, L.G. 1972. Animal Tissue Technique.
3rd ed. W.H. Preeman Company, San
Fransaisco, pp 153-186.
Jones, T.C. and R.B. Hunt. 1983. Veterinary
Pathology. 5th ed. Lee Gabiger, Philadelphia
U.S.A. pp 1218-1250.
Jubb, K.V.F., P.C. Kennedy and N. Palmer.
1985. The Female Genetic System. In:
Pathology of Domestic Animal. 3rd ed.
Academic Press, New York.
Mehmoud, A.Z., S.I. Moustafa, and A.H. Elyas.
1988. A study on lung affection of camel
(Camelus dromedarius) in Assiut Govt.
Assiut. Vet. Med. J., 20 (40): 92-97.
Nabiha, R.H. D.E. Rawhia, N.M. Doghim, Al-
Zeftawi and A.F. Sondons. 1981.
Pathological Studies on pneumonia in
camels. 15th Arab. Vet. Med. Cong. Cairo.
Pampiglicone, S. 1986. Hydatidosis in Algerian
dromedaries Proc. 1st. Int. Cong. Parasit.
Room, 2:766-767.
Saad, M.B. 1982. Hydatidosis in camel in
Gedarif (Eastern region) of the Sudan. Sudan
J. Vet. Res. 4:156. Hel. Abst. 54(7): 2360.
Samel, S.K. and B. B. Mallick. 1983. Isolation
and characterization of viral agents from
respiratory tracts of cattle in India. Ind. J.
Anim. Sci., 53 (2): 142-147.
Sastry, G.A. 1983. Veterinary Pathology. 6th ed.
CBS Publishers and Distributors. Delhi-
110032. India, pp 421-451.
Selman, I.E. and A. Wiseman. 1983. A study of
respiratory disease of adult cattle in Britain,
problems affecting individual animals. Irish.
Vet. J., 37(2): 28-34.
 R. Zubair, A. M.Z. Khan and M.A. Sabri 106

Shigidi, M.A. 1973. Aerobic microflora of Singh, N.B. and B. S. Malik. 1968. Microflora
respiratory tracts of animals. Sudan, Sci, of the respiratory tract of buffaloes. Ind.
Anim. Husb., 149. J.Vet. Sci., 45: 565-571.

Table 1. Observed pathological conditions.

Groups Number of cases
Penumonia 45
Stage of congestion 22
Stage of red hepatization 15
Stage of grey hepatization 8
Bronchits 8
Pneumonicosis 5
Gydatidosis 40
Tubercle Nodule 2

J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 103-106

 Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt.
(2) Pathological Studies

A. A. Hegazy 1, Lotfia. S. Fahmy2, M.A. Aiad3 and A.A. Shamaa4

1,3 & 4
Dept. of Pathology,
2
Dept. of Surgery, Anaesthiology and Radiology,
Faculty of Vet. Med.,
Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.

ABSTRACT
Histopathological and parasitological investigations were conducted on 488 camel eyes collected from
Cairo slaughterhouse. The ocular lesions were classified according to the anatomical structure of the eye
and nature of the lesion. Pathological changes were reported in 15.7 % of the examined cases. The most
prevalent pathological lesions were keratitis epithelialis, superficial stromal keratitis, interstitial keratitis,
ulcerative keratitis, keratoconjunctivitis, choroidal coloboma, uveal melanoma, retinal folds, peripheral
retinal cystic degeneration, panophthalmitis and glaucoma. Parasitological examination revealed the
presence of ticks and mites on the eye lids while no thelazia or filaria could be detected.

(Key words: Camel, Dromedary, Eye, Pathology).

Introduction The lids were grasped with a toothed forceps at

The camel constitutes an important source for
meat and fiber in arid and semi-arid areas. Many
investigators have studied the camel in health
and disease, but little attention has been paid to
the pathology of the eye of the camel. Tracing
the available literature, no information wasn
found concerning the histopathological inves-
tigation of the camel eyes and its classification,
a fact which initiated the idea of the present
investigation on the pathological profile of the
ocular infections and its incidence in this
species.
Materials and Methods
Technique for Eye Enucleation
The present investigation was carried out on 488
camel eyes collected from Cairo slaughterhouse.
the lateral canthus and an incision was made
through the skin and conjunctiva towards the
medial canthus, exposing the orbit.
The bulbar conjunctiva was grasped with a
forceps below the globe, which was gently
retracted downwards.
The conjunctiva was incised above the globe by
directing a scalpel into the orbit close to its edge
and away from the globe. The incision was
enlarged to permit the insertion of curved pair of
scissors. A blunt pointed curved scissors was
inserted through the incision and directed
upwards and backwards to the rear of the orbit,
where the optic nerve was severed. The extra-
ocular muscles were then cut. The orbital
contents; globe, optic nerve, extra-ocular
muscles, third eyelid, eyelids and the bulbar
 A. A. Hegazy, Lotfia. S. Fahmy, M.A. Aiad and A.A. Shamaa
conjunctiva were totally removed. The eyes
were immediately inspected for any gross
lesions and the extra-ocular muscles were
dissected away from the globe which was then
immediately immersed in the fixative (Saunder
and Jubb, 1961; Saunder and Rubin, 1975).
Parasitological Examination
Parasitological examination was carried out for
detection of Thelazia and Filarial worms and
ectoparasites, namely ticks and mites (Higgins,
1985). The specimens were immediately
transferred to the laboratory in a black dissecting
pan and examined according to Lyons et al
(1986) and Ladoucer et al (1981). The eyeball
was averted and the conjunctival and corneal
surfaces, area behind the third eyelid and hair
around the eye were washed with water. The
ducts of the lacrimal gland were opened and
examined for parasites. All parts were washed
again in water.
The collected wash was left to sediment by
gravity. The supernatant was discarded and the
sediment was examined microscopically. The
worms were fixed in a buffered 10% formalin
according to Higgins (1985). The aqueous
humours were collected from the anterior
chamber of the eye to detect the presence of
filarial worms according to Round (1962).
Histopathological Examination
A total of 488 camel eyes were subjected to
pathological examination. The eyes were
examined grossly for detection of abnormalities.
Fixation
The enucleated eyes were fixed in Zinker-acetic
acid fluid according to Levy et al (1965) and
Saunder and Rubin (1975). Specimens about 5
mm in size were collected from the cornea,
corneo-scleral junction (limbus), choroid, retina,
optic nerve and eye lids.
The specimens were dehydrated in gradual
concentrations of alcohol, cleared in xylol and
embedded in paraffin. Sections of 5 u thickness
108
were made and stained with H & E (Carleton et
al. 1967) and microscopically examined.
Results
The incidence and type of pathological
affections are presented in Table 1.
Parasitological Findings
The parasitological examination was negative
for nematodes (Thelazia and Filarial), while
arthropods; ticks and mites were present in 12
cases. This induced blepharitis in the affected
cases, which showed thickened eyelids, blepha-
rospasm and epiphora together with chemosis of
the conjunctiva. In eight of the cases, tick
infestation (Hyaloma species) was found on the
periphery of the lower eyelid. The other 4
camels had alopecia with hemorrhagic crusts
along the upper eyelid and pruritis.
Microscopical examination of skin scrapings of
the crusted eyelids revealed the presence of
sarcoptic mite.
Histopathological Findings
Affection of the Eyelids
Parasitic blepharitis
Acanthosis associated with relative
hyperkeratosis and hypertrophy of epidermal
papillae were observed. In addition,
intraepithelial accumulation of inflammatory
cells mainly mononuclear cells and neutrophils
were detected. The underlying connective tissue
appeared diffusely infiltrated with macrophages
and eosinophils. In these areas the sebaceous
glands and hair follicles showed degenerative
changes.
Affections of the Fibrous Coat
Keratitis epithelialis
Grossly, corneal edema and loss of transparency
were the noted lesions .
Microscopically, the pathological alteration here
was restricted to the epithelial layer. There was
an irregular increase in the thickness of lamina
epithelialis associated with hydropic
degeneration of the superficial epithelial cells.
Few deep epithelial cells were ruptured with
 Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies
formation of microcysts. The basal cell layer
appeared to be involved with hydropic
degeneration in 3 cases. The underlying stroma
was not affected .
Superficial Stromal Keratitis
Grossly, corneal opacity was the characteristic
lesion. Microscopically, the pathological altera-
tions extended to involve the upper third of the
stroma. Moreover, epithelial cell degeneration
including the basal cell layer was observed.
These changes were observed mostly at the
periphery of the cornea and were characterized
by vasculariza-tion of the stroma with or
without oedema. In some cases, pigmentation
was observed in the form of focal accumulation
of melanocytes either within epithelial cell layer
or in the stroma .
Interstitial (deep) Keratitis
Grossly, the eye showed corneal opacity and
marked pigmentation. Microscopically, the
patho-logical alteration extended to include the
whole corneal stroma .The epithelial layer was
uneven with intense pigmentation of the
epithelial cells. The underlying stroma was
vascularized at different levels. In addition, cell
infiltration with deposition of melanin pigment
especially near the neovascularization was
occasionally noted. In some cases, the
subepithelial connective tissue showed
excessive oedema.
Ulcerative Keratitis
Corneal ulcer
The corneal examination revealed severe
destruction with complete loss of epithelial cells.
Moreover, the underlying stroma showed
variable thickening with rupture of the descemet
membrane. An acidophilic granular substance in
the anterior chamber was seen.
In two other cases, the ulcer was deep enough to
perforate the cornea. The rest of the corneal
epithelium was irregular in both shape and
thick-ness. The stromal connective tissue
appeared oedematous and showed
neovascularization with severely infiltrated by
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 107-113
109
histiocytes and neutrophils. In addition, its
superficial layer was characterized by
aggregation of the melanin pigment.
Healed Corneal Ulcer
Macroscopical examination of the healed
corneal ulcer revealed a corneal scar area with a
central dark pigmented line. Microscopical
examination revealed various thickening of the
corneal epithelium which mostly appeared thin
at the site of healing. Islets of epithelial cell
aggregations appeared to be located just beneath
the epithelial lining. Pigmentation of the basal
cells as well as the stroma in a focal manner and
at various levels was observed. Vascularization
and fibrosis of the stroma were also detected .
Keratoconjunctivitis
Microscopically, the cornea showed abnormally
projected epithelial papillae in the underlying
stroma. In addition, the basal and intermediate
cells were pigmented.
Infiltration with neutrophils, lymphocytes and
histocytes in the substantial propria with marked
pigmentation of the epithelial layer was noted.
Oedema and neovascularization were detected
in the stroma.
Affections of the Vascular Coat
Choroidal Coloboma
The sagital section of the orbit revealed multiple
irregular bordered patches in the choroid. It
appeared yellowish orange in colour in the area
around the optic nerve.
Microscopically, there was a relative decrease
down to the complete absence of pigmentation
of the choroids leading to presence of focal
areas of choroid free from the melanocytes (Fig.
8B).
Uveal melanoma
Grossly, the eye ball showed black
discoloration.
Microscopically, numerous accumulations of
melanocytes on the internal surface of the iris,
ciliary body and at the internal surface of the
 A. A. Hegazy, Lotfia. S. Fahmy, M.A. Aiad and A.A. Shamaa
cornea were seen. The melanocytes appeared to
be excessively accumulated at the base of the
iris. It was variable in size with intense
pigmentation. No invasion of blood vessels
could be seen in the available sections wherever
the local invasion of interstitial tissue gave the
diagnosis of this lesion, a borderline case which
could turn at any time to a malignant melanoma.
Affections of the Retina
Retinal folds
The retinal fold was formed from protrusion of
retinal layers in the vitreous leading to formation
of cone like structure. It consists histologically
from double layers of retina. The central cell
layer was formed of photoreceptor cells
followed by the other retinal cell layers arranged
as usual.
The apex of the cone was formed only of optic
and ganglionic layers, which appeared highly
vascularized particularly at the base of the
cornea. There was an increase in the number of
the outer nuclear layer cells that showed
hyperplasia in one side of the cone. At the base
of the fold both optic and ganglionic layers
appeared connected leading to formation of a
structure consisting of three layers of the retina.
Peripheral retinal cystic degeneration
Multiple small vacuoles were observed
microsco-pically at the peripheral part of the
retina, particularly at the base of the ciliary
process.
Panophthalmitis
This condition was observed in two cases.
Grossly the cornea was perforated and the iris
was prolapsed with the appearance of red
excavation. Corneal opacity with an irregular
surface was noted. Hypopyon was observed in
one case. The sagital section of the eyeball
indicated that the anterior chamber was
collapsed with shrinked cornea and organized
vitreous with a cheese like yellowish structure.
Microscopical examination revealed dilatation
of the blood capillaries, edema and leukocytic
infiltration of the conjunctiva. The cornea
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 107-113
110
showed a complete loss of the covering
epithelium at the area of ulceration associated
with proliferation of the surrounding epithelium
and papillary exten-sion of the basal cell layer
into the connective tissue stroma. Moreover, an
increase in the mitotic activity of the basal cell
layer was observed. The periphery of the ulcer
was covered with structureless eosinophilic
necrotic granules. The stromal connective tissue
showed edema, new capillary formation and
histiocytic and neutro-philic cell aggregations.
In addition, the superficial layer showed
accumulation of melanin pigment.
Irregular pigmentation was distributed in the
internal layer of sclera. Collapsed anterior
chamber was observed in one case.
The choroid was thick and the free end of the
iris had been ensheathed by fibrinous exudates
in one other case (Fig.14B). The ciliary body
appeared to be hypertrophied. The hypertrophy
of ciliary body was partly due to edema of the
connective tissue core and dilated lymph space,
in addition to epithelial cell hyperplasia with
multiple papillary projections. In addition, many
lining epithelial cells were devoid of melanin
pigment.
Excessive exudate and fine pigment appeared to
be accumulated between the choroid and retina
leading to detachment of the latter.
A copious fibrinous exudate accumulated in the
area of the vitreous in the form of a network. In
between its meshes many leukocytes mainly
neutrophils were seen. The retina showed
congestion and contained multiple foci of
hemorrhages. Different degenerative changes of
retinal layer were observed. The photoreceptor
layer and the intermolecular membrane
appeared to be the most affected layers.
Thickening of the retina was detected and
eventually attributed to accumulation of
inflammatory exudate. Excavation of the optic
nerve associated with degeneration of the
nervous element and focal aggregation of
neutrophilic cells was clearly observed.
 Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies
As a consequence of the increased intra ocular
pressure resulting from massive accumulation of
the exudate, a marked excavation of optic nerve
was seen.
Increased Intra Ocular Pressure (Glaucoma)
The macroscopical examination revealed a
tensed cornea that appeared to protrude out of
the orbit. No apparent changes had been seen in
the eyelids. The cornea in two cases lost its
transparency and showed corneal edema.
Microscopical examination of the cornea
showed that the epithelial layer was abnormally
projected into the underlying stroma. In
addition, the basal and intermediate cells were
heavily pigmented. Edema and
neovascularization were shown in its external
third while in its internal two-thirds
accumulation of melanin pigment was observed
in addition to neovascularization.
The ciliary body showed relative atrophy, which
was characterized by a decrease in its branches.
The filtration angle was narrower than normal.
The retina showed degeneration of the
ganglionic cell layer, atrophy of the internal and
external nuclear layers with alteration in the
photoreceptor layer. The optic nerve showed
various degrees of excavations associated with
atrophy of the nervous element.
Discussion
The present investigation revealed that the
incidence of eye affection was 15.7%, which is
higher than that previously reported by Fahmy
et al (2002). This might be attributed to the fact
that the first study was a field study while the
present was conducted slaughterhed animale
whose owners got rid of them. The parasitic
examination revealed that the changes observed
in eye lids were due to ticks and mites’
infestation. Similar changes were reported by
Simth et al (1974). Infestation of the eyelids
with arthropods (ticks and mites) usually leads
to blepharitis. Parasitic infestation causes
changes in the eyelids due to severe irritation. In
addition, the self inflicted trauma by the animal
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 107-113
111
itself in a trial to relieve this irritation also leads
to the aggravation of the condition.
It is worthwhile to mention that the
hyperkeratosis and acanthusis induced by the
ectoparasite decreased the efficacy of the topical
treatment, thus it is advisable to treat the animal
parentrally (Soll et al. 1984).
Ocular infestation with nematodes, filaria and
thelazia could not be detected. Further
investigation is recommended taking into
consideration the different localities, time of
sampling and seasonal variations.
Concerning the pathological studies, the
available literature indicated that such studies
have not been traced yet in the camel. As it is
important to standardize the reported lesions, the
pathological classification of other animals were
taken into consideration.
The histopathological affections reported in this
study have been observed in other animal
species (Saunder, 1968, 1975; Slatter, 1981;
Severin, 1984; Jubb et al. 1985).
Microscopically, keratitis epithelialis was
characterized by degenerative changes of the
epithelial layer. This was also observed by
Saunder (1968) and Jubb et al (1985) where in
superficial keratitis, the pathological lesions
extend to include the upper third of the stroma.
The lesion was characterized by vascularization
of the stroma with or without edema and focal
pigmentation of some areas. These changes
were in agreement with the results reported by
Amman (1966); Saunder (1968) and Yanoff
(1983).
Interstitial keratitis showed alteration in the
whole corneal stroma with extensive
pigmentation especially in areas adjacent to the
new vascularization. These findings were also
reported by Bellhorn and Henkid (1976). These
cases were mostly the result of mild chronic
irritation as suggested by Roberts (1954) and
Saunder (1968).
 A. A. Hegazy, Lotfia. S. Fahmy, M.A. Aiad and A.A. Shamaa
Ulcerative keratitis revealed destruction and
complete loss of epithelial cells with variable
thickening of the stroma associated with
suppuration and evidence of hypopyon in the
anterior chamber.
In healed cases a permanent scar showed
excessive pigmentation and/or epithelial islets.
These findings coincide with those of Slatter
(1981) and Severin (1984).
Keratoconjunctivitis was characterized by
degeneration of the conjunctival epithelium
acanthusis and cellular infiltration mainly by
lymphocytes. These changes were reported by
Markson and Darbyshire (1966); Saunder
(1968); Wilcox (1970) and Yanoff (1983).
The affections of the vascular coat were either in
the form of choroidal coloboma or uveal
melanoma. The choroidal coloboma was
atypical coloboma of the fundus in which the
pigment cell layer lacked and no alteration
involved other structures. Similar findings were
mentioned by Saunder (1968); Rubin (1974) and
Jubb et al (1985).
The uveal melanoma was the first to be reported
in the camel. It represented a primary form
where the criteria of malignancy were not
fulfilled. The histopathological investigation
suggested that the case could be a borderline
depending on its local invasion of the
surrounding tissues. This finding was in
agreement with that reported in other animals by
Thomson and Cotton (1983).
The pathological changes of the retina took
either the form of a retinal fold or peripheral
retinal cystic degeneration. The retinal fold was
composed of retinal tissue, which was
differentiated into layers as shown in other
animals (Saunder, 1968).
The peripheral retinal cystic degeneration was
characterized by multiple vacuoles in retinal
tissue. This condition was recorded in dog by
Rubin (1974) and in horse by Saunder and
Rubin (1975) and Jubb et al (1985).
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 107-113
112
Panophthalmitis was the result of perforating
wounds of the eye. The inflammatory reactions
involved the whole layers of the eye. The most
severely affected part was the cornea where loss
of corneal epithelium and involvement of inner
structure were detected a fact which agrees with
that mentioned by Jubb et al (1985).
The increase in the intra ocular pressure was
encountered in 4 cases. It was characterized by
atrophy of the retina, excavation of the optic
nerve and atrophy of cilary body. These results
were in agreement with Saunder (1968); Slatter
(1981); Thomson and Cotton (1983) and Jubb et
al (1985).
Despite the presence of lesions of glaucoma, the
disease was not clinically encountered simply
because of the difficulties in evaluation of intra
ocular pressure by the available instruments.
References
Amman, V.K. 1966. Hornhauten Krankingen
beim hund vergleichene - klinisch. Unter-
suchungen Kleindeir practisch, 11: 1-9.
Bellhorn, M. and C. Henkind. 1976. Superficial
pigmentary keratitits in the dog. J. Vet.
Med. Assoc., 149: 173-175.
Carleton, M. A., R. A. B. Druvy, F. A.,
Wallinton and H. Cameron. 1967. Carleton’s
Histo-pathological Technique. 4th ed,
Oxford Univ. Press, New York, Torento.
Higgins, A. J. 1985. Common ecto-parasites of
camel and its control. Br. Vet. J., 141: 197-
216.
Jubb, K. V. F. and P. C. Kennedy. 1985.
Pathology of Domestic Animals. 2ed, Vol. 2,
Academic Press New York and London.
Ladoucer, C.A. and K. R. Kazacos. 1981.
Thelazia lacrymalis in horses India. J. Am.
Vet. Med. Assoc., 178(3): 301-302.
 Eye Affections Among Camels in Egypt. (2) Pathological Studies
Levy, C. N, J. T. Covatta, C. Morris and H. M.
Aschner. 1965. Technique for preparing
histopathologic sections of dogs and rabbits
eyes in paraffin. Arch. Ophth., 73: 122-123.
Lyons, E. T., S.C. Tolliver, J. H. Drudge, T. W.
Swerezek, and M.W. Crowe. 1986. Eye
worms”Thelazia Lacrymalis” in one to four
year old thorough bred at necropsy in
Kentucky (1984-1985). Am. J. Vet. Res.,
47(2): 315-316.
Markson, L. M. and J. H. Darbyshire. 1966. The
reaction of calves to experimental infection
with the Oxford strain of infectious bovine
rhino tracheitis virus.
Rubin, L. F. 1974. Atlas of Veterinary
Ophthalmology. Lea & Febiger,
Philadelphia.
Saunder, L.Z. and K.V. Jubb. 1961. Notes on
technique of postmortem examination of the
eye. Canadian Vet. J., 2 (4): 123 –129.
Saunder, L.Z. 1968. Pathology of the Eye of
Domestic Animals. Verlag Paul Parey,
Berlin and Hambourg.
Table 1. The incidence and type of pathological eye affections.
Type of Affection No. of Cases
1-Affection of the eye lids:
Parasitic blepharitis
2-Affections of the fibrous coat:
a-Keratitis epithelialis
b- Superficial keratitis c-Deep keratitis
d-Ulcerative keratitis
e-Keratocojunctivitis
3-Affection of the vascular coat:
a.Choroidal coloboma
b-Uveal melanoma
4- Affections of the retina:
a-Retinal folds
b-Peripheral retinal cystic degeneration
5- Panophthalmia
6- Increased intra ocular pressure
(Glaucoma)
Total
J. Camel Science. 2004, 1: 107-113
113
Saunder, L.Z. and L. F. Rubin. 1975.
Ophthalmic Pathology of the Animals.
Bazel, Munhen, Paris and London.
Severin, A.C. 1984. Veterinary Ophthalmology
notes. 2nd ed., Colorado State University.
Slatter, D. 1981. Fundamentals of veterinary
Ophthalmology.W.B.Saunders, Philadelphia.
Smith, H.A., T. C. Jones and R. T. Hunt. 1974.
Veterinary Pathology. 4th ed., Ea and
Febiger, Philadelphia.
Soll, M.D., G.E. Swan, J. Schroder and J. D.
Bezuidenhont. 1984. Efficiency of
ivermectin against the sand Tampan. Vet.
Rec., 114:70.
Thomson, A.D. and R. E. Cotton. 1983. Lecture
Notes on Pathology, 3 rd ed., Blackwell
Scientific Puplications, Oxford, London.
Wilcox, G.F. 1970. An examination of
moraxilla and related genera commonly
isolated from bovine eye. J. Comp. Path.,
80: 165-174.
Yanoff, P. 1983. Ophthalmic Pathology. C. V.
Mosby Company.
% of the Affected Cases In Relation to the Total Number
12 15.58
16 20.77
21 27.27
7 9.09
5 6.49
4 5.19
2 2.59
1 1.29
2 2.59
1 1.29
2 2.59
4 5.19
77 15.7
 The Camel Applied Research and Development Network
(CARDN)
Journal of Camel Science
Editorial Policies and Procedures
The basic purpose of the Journal of Camel Science is to increase knowledge and understanding of camel
and to improve the care and productivity of camels both in commercial production and research. The
Journal of Camel Science accepts manuscripts for publication with this purpose in mind.

Results of the work must not have been published previously in a refereed scientific journal. Presentation
of a paper at scientific meetings or the use of data in Field Day Reports or similar documents do not
preclude the publication of such data in the Journal. Review papers on subjects of general interest may
be submitted. Authors are discouraged from submitting manuscripts based on routing product testing.
Animal experiments are undertaken only for the purpose of advancing knowledge. Animals used in
research must be properly housed, fed and cared for to ensure their comfort and health. If research may
result in discomfort or stressful conditions, justification for these conditions must be evident in papers
published by the Journal.

All manuscripts should be submitted to the Editor in Chief. Mail is animalwealth@acsad.org

/acsad@scs-net.org. All photo-graphs must be submitted in duplicate or e. mail. Submitted manuscript
must be accompanied with a "Manuscript Sub-mission and Copyright Release" (published in each issue
of the Journal). Companion papers or papers in numbered series should be submitted together.

Manuscripts will be subject to critical review by the Editorial Board or others designated by the Editor-
in-Chief. Papers needing revision will be returned to the author, and the author must return the revised
manuscript within 45 days, otherwise the author will be notified that the paper has been withdrawn.
Papers not suitable for publications will be returned to the author with the statement of reasons to
rejection. Accepted manuscripts will be edited in the order received.

Invited papers or papers presented at symposia that are submitted to the Journal of Camel Science for
publication will be subject to the usual reviews described above unless the Board of Editors rules
otherwise in specific cases. Such papers must confirm to the style and form for the Journal, and are to be
submitted as a group by the Chairman within 60 days of oral presentation.

There is no charge for publication (at this stage). Authors will receive 5 reprints. Additional reprints may
be charged.
Authors will receive page proof of articles by E. Mail if available). Accuracy of the proof is the author's
responsibility. Corrected proof must be mailed to the editor in chief within 10 days of receipt. Failure to
do so may result in delay of publication.

Editorial Policies and Procedures

One of the missions of the Camel Applied Research and Development Network is to foster
communication and collaboration among individuals and organizations associated with camel science
 114

research, education, industry, or administration. The Journal of Camel Science (JCS), accepts
manuscripts presenting information for publication with this mission in mind. Its editorial policies are
established by the Editor-in-Chief, and Editorial Board, subject to review by the Publications Committee,
and the membership of CARDN.

Views expressed in papers published in JCS represent the opinions of the authoris) and do not
necessarily reflect the official policy of the institution with which the author is affiliated, CARDN, or the
Editor-in-Chief.

Electronic Publication
The Journal of Camel Science is published as a full journal electronically on the Internet in addition to
being published as a paper Journal. Access to the journal electronically is via the ACSAD home page
(http:/ www.ACSAD.org). Members can elect not to subscribe to the paper journal but have access to the
full journal electronically by paying only their membership fee (Access to JCS is free at this stage).

All manuscripts submitted to JCS must be accompanied by a manuscript, submission form certifying that
any research that involves animals has followed established standards for the humane care and use of
animals. Only investigations that have followed high standards for The humane care and use of animals
in research will be reported in JCS. If research requires discomfort to the animals or stressful conditions,
justification for these conditions must be evident in papers published in JCS. The manuscript should
discuss anaesthetics, analgesics, tranquillisers, and care taken to minimize pain and discomfort during
preoperative, operative, and postoperative procedures.

Procedures used shall be those of accepted veterinary medical practice. If the study or condition of the
animal requires that the animal be killed, a humane method shall be used. All animals used in
experiments shall be under the direct supervision of an experienced investigator.

Types of Articles
Research Articles. Results of work contained in manuscripts submitted to JCS must not have been
published previously in a refereed scientific journal. Previous presentation at a scientific meeting or the
use of data in field day reports or similar documents, including press publications, does not preclude the
publication of such data in JCS. Authors are discouraged from submitting manuscripts based on routine,
repetitive product testing, especially if it is derived from a single station report, that is part of a wide-
scale commercial efficacy trial.

Review Articles. Unsolicited review manuscripts will not be accepted. However, invited speakers
delivering symposium presentations sponsored by programme committees are encouraged to submit
their reviews for publication. Such manuscripts will be subject to the same review policies as
manuscripts presenting original research. Review manuscripts must conform to JCS Style and Form.
Each review manuscript shall include a standard footnote indicating the date and title of symposium,
indicate the objective of each article, ensure all articles follow appropriate style and format, and include
with the set of manuscripts a listing of potential reviewers for manuscripts from the symposium.
 115
The Review Process

The suitability of manuscripts for publication in JCS is judged by reviewers, Editors, and the Editor-in-
Chief. The Editor-in-Chief, the Editors, and most reviewers are members of the Editorial Board,
Appointments to the Editorial Board are guided by the need for individuals with particular scientific
knowledge within a given field of specialization. Members of the Editorial Board are chosen on the basis
of demonstrated expertise and editorial competence.

There are three main grounds for rejection of manuscripts. First, the substance of the manuscript may not
meet JCS standards: The work may be incomplete, the evidence may not support the conclusions, or the
experimental approach may be poorly conceived. Second, although the work may be sound and the
results valid, the paper may be better suited for publication elsewhere. Third, the work may repeat
established fact or represent no advance of existing knowledge.

After a paper has been accepted, every effort will be made to publish it promptly. The interval from the
date when the manuscript is received to the date that it is accepted for publication by the Editor-in-Chief
will vary depending on the time required for review and revision. The author is notified when the
manuscript is accepted by the Editor-in-chief. After acceptance, correspondence concerning the
manuscript should be directed to the Technical Editor.

Copyright Issues
The copyright to material published in JCS is held by CARDN. Persons who wish to reproduce material
in JCS must request written permission from the Editor-in-Chief to reprint copyrighted information.
Likewise, authors of JCS manuscripts who include material (usually tables or figures) taken from other
copyrighted sources must secure permission from the copyright holders and provide written evidence of
this permission at the time the manuscript is submitted to JCS for review. Tables or figures reproduced
from the work of others must include an acknowledgment of the original source in a footnote or legend.

Guidelines for Authors

Manuscript Submission
Manuscripts, prepared in English, should be submitted to the Editor in Chief, Journal of Camel Science.
Authors must submit three copies of the manuscript, typed double-spaced and with lines numbered, and
must include a completed "Manuscript Submission and Copyright Release Form". Submission of a paper
indicates that all, authors have reviewed and approved the paper for release and that each author is
responsible for its content. A font with fixed character width (e.g., times new roman 12 point.) All pages,
including pages of literature cited, tables, and legends for figures, must be numbered consecutively on all
copies. Companion manuscripts or manuscripts numbered in series should be submitted together and be
designated clearly as companion papers. The author is notified of the receipt of a manuscript.

Typesetting from Diskette

Authors must send a disk version (n'/4 or 3'/2" format) of their manuscript. Disk files may be sent with
the original manuscript submission to aid in the review process. Disk files created in windows 2000 are
strongly preferred.
 116

Preparation of Manuscript
The first page of each manuscript must include the running head, title, names of authors, institutions,
city, zip code, and phone (and Fax) number of the contact author. The running head (an abbreviated title
consisting of no more than 45 characters plus spaces) should appear at the top of page 1 of the
manuscript entirely in capital letters. The title of the manuscript is typed in upper-and lowercase letters;
abbreviations are not permitted in the title. Authors (initials or full name(s) and last name), institution,
and city are listed in upper-and lowercase letters. Supplementary information, such as- current addresses
of authors, is given in footnotes on the first page. Indications of professorial rank or other professional
titles should not be used. Acknowledgments are given as a footnote on the first page. Footnotes on the
first page and other text pages are referenced sequentially by superscript numbers. Brand names and
company names and locations for all substances and equipment referred to in the text should be included
in parentheses within the text, not in footnotes.

Headings
Major headings (Introduction, Materials and Methods [or Experimental Procedures], Results, Discussion
[or Results and Discussion], Implications, and Literature Cited) are centred and appear in roman type,
the first letter of each major word capitalized. Major headings of review papers or papers from symposia
may deviate from this standard format; however, all papers must contain an abstract, key words, an
introduction, and an implications section. Abbreviations should be avoided in headings.

First subheadings appear at the left margin on a separate line in italics (indicated by underlining) and are
not followed by punctuation. First subheadings are used when subsections below major headings consist
of several paragraphs, especially if some or all of the paragraphs begin with a second subheading.

Second subheadings appear at the beginning of the first line of a paragraph. They are indented, italicised,
and followed by a period. They do not require labelling (a, b, c. etc.). Second subheadings may be used
with or without first subheadings; generally second sub-headings introduce sections three to four
paragraphs in length or longer sections below a first subheading.

Abstract
The abstract, consisting of no more than 2500 characters plus spaces in one paragraph, appears at the
beginning of the manuscript with the word "ABSTRACT" capitalized. the abstract should summarize
pertinent results in a brief but understandable form. References are never cited in the abstract.
Abbreviations that appear in the abstract that are not included in the standard abbreviation listing found
in each issue of JCS must be defined before they are first used. The abstract should start with a clear
statement of the objective and must conclude with one or two sentences that highlight important
conclusions.

Key Words
At the end of the abstract, list up to six key words that best describe the nature of the research; key words
should include the species, variables tested, and the major response criteria. The first letter of each key
word is capitalized; key words are separated by commas.

Introduction
The introduction follows the abstract and should not exceed 2,000 characters plus spaces. It briefly
justifies the research and specifies the hypotheses to be tested. Extensive discussion of relevant literature
should be included in the discussion of results, not in the introduction. To minimize length and avoid
redundancy, generally no more than three references should be cited to support, a specific concept.
 117

Materials and Methods

General. A clear description or specific original reference is required for all biological, analytical, and
statistical procedures. All modifications of procedures must be explained. Diets, animals (breed, sex, age,
body weight, and weighing conditions [i.e., with or without restriction of feed and(or) water]), surgical
techniques, measurements, and statistical models should be described clearly and fully.

Statistics. Biology should be emphasized, but the use of incorrect or inadequate statistical methods to
analyze and interpret biological data is not acceptable. Consultation with a statistician is recommended.
Statistical methods commonly used in the animal sciences need not be described in detail, but adequate
references should be provided. The statistical model, classes, blocks, and experimental unit must be
designated. Any restrictions used in estimating parameters should be defined. Reference to a statistical
package without reporting the sources of variation (classes) and other salient features of the analysis,
such as covariance or orthogonal contrasts, is not sufficient. A statement of the results of statistical
analysis should justify the interpretations and conclusions. When possible, results of similar experiments
should be pooled statistically. Do not report a number of similar experiments separately.

The experimental unit is the smallest unit to which an individual treatment is imposed. For group-fed
animals, the group of animals in the pen or the paddock is the experimental unit. If individual animals
fed as a group are considered by authors to be independent experimental units, this deviation from
accepted procedures must be explained and justified. Repeated chemical analyses usually do not
constitute independent experimental units. Measurements on the same experimental unit over time also
are not independent and must not be considered an independent experimental units. For analysis of time
effects, use time-sequence analysis.

Usual assumptions are that errors in the statistical models are normally and independently distributed
with constant variance. Most standard methods are robust to deviations from these assumptions, but
occasionally data transformations or other techniques are helpful. Most statistical procedures are based
on the assumption that experimental units have been assigned to treatments at random. If animals are
stratified by ancestry or weight or if some other initial measurement should be accounted for, the model
should include a blocking factor, or the initial measurement should be included as a covariate.

A parameter (mean µ], variance [σ2]), which defines or describes a population, is estimated by a statistic
( X , s2). The term parameter is not appropriate to describe a variable, observation, trait, characteristic, or
measurement taken in an experiment.

Standard designs are adequately described by name and size (e.g., "a randomised complete block design
with six treatments in five blocks").

Standard deviation refers to the variability in a sample or a population. The standard error (calculated
from error variance) is the estimated sampling error of a statistic such as the sample mean. When a
standard deviation or standard error is given, the number of degrees of freedom on which it rests should
be specified. When any statistical value (as mean or difference of two means) is mentioned, its standard
error or confidence limit should be given. The fact that, differences are not "statistically significant" is no
reason for omitting standard errors. They are of value when results from several experiments are
combined in the future. They also are useful to the reader as measures of efficiency of experimental
techniques. A value attached by "±" to a number implies that the second value is its standard error (not
 118

its standard deviation). Adequate reporting may require only 1) the number of observations, 2) arithmetic
treatment means, and 3) an estimate of experimental error. The pooled standard error of the mean is the
preferred estimate of experimental error. Standard errors need not be presented separately for each mean
unless the means are based on different numbers of observations or the heterogeneity of the error
variance is to be emphasized. Presenting individual standard errors clutters the presentation and can
mislead the reader.

For more complex experiments, tables of subclass means and tables of analysis of variance or covariance
may be included. When the analysis of variance contains several error terms, such as in split-plot and
repeated measures designs, the text should indicate clearly which mean square was used for the denomi-
nator of each F statistic. Unbalanced factorial data can present special problems. Accordingly, it is well
to state how the computing was done and how the parameters were estimated. Approximations should be
accompanied by cautions concerning possible biases.

Contrasts (preferably orthogonal) are used to answer specific questions for which the experiment was
designed; they should form the basis for comparing treatment means. Nonorthogonal contrasts may be
evaluated by Bonferronit statistics. The exact contrasts tested should be described for the reader,
Multiple-range tests are not appropriate when treatments are orthogonally arranged. Fixed-range, pair-
wise, multiple comparison tests should be used only to compare means of treatments that are
unstructured or not related. Adjusted, or so-called least squares, means should not be employed unless
the design is unbalanced or contains missing values or an adjustment is being made for a covariate. In
factorial treatment arrangements, means for main effects should be presented when important,
interactions are not present. Means for individual treatment combinations also should be provided in
table or text so that future researchers may combine data from several experiments to detect important
interactions. An interaction may not be detected in a given experiment because of a limitation in the
number of observations.

The terms "significant" and "highly significant" traditionally have been reserved for P < .05 and P <.01,
respectively. Other probability levels can be discussed if properly qualified so that the reader is not
misled, but do not report P-values to more than three decimals. When available, the exact probability
levels (alpha levels) should be presented rather than merely P<.05 or P < .01 so the reader can decide
what to reject. Such information is useful for future analyses in which data are combined. Regardless of
the probability level used by the authors, failure to reject a hypothesis should be based on the relative
consequences of type I and II errors. A "non significant" relationship should not be misinterpreted; it is
not proof that no relationship exists. An inadequate number of experimental units or inadequate control
of variation limits the power to detect relationships, Use of P>.05 to indicate non significance should be
avoided; readers may interpret this as the probability of a beta error, not an alpha error. This problem can
be avoided by citing the absolute probability of an alpha error.

Give only meaningful digits. A practical rule is to round values so that the change caused by rounding is
less than one-tenth of the standard error. Such rounding increases the variance (if the reported value by
less than .1%, so that less than 1% of the relevant information contained in the data is sacrificed. In most
cases, two or three significant digits (not decimal places) are sufficient.

Results
Results (may be combined with discussion) should be presented in tabular form when feasible. The text
should explain or elaborate on the tabular data, but numbers should not be repeated extensively within
 119

the text. Sufficient data, all with some index of variation attached, should be presented to allow the
reader to interpret the results of the experiment.
Discussion
The discussion (may be combined with results) should interpret the results clearly and concisely in terms
of biological mechanisms and should integrate literature results with the research findings to provide the
reader with a broad base on which to accept or reject the hypotheses tested.

Implications
This section, consisting of no more than 1,000 characters plus spaces in one paragraph, follows the
discussion and should explain in lay terms, without abbreviations, acronyms, or citations, what the
findings of this research imply for camel production and(or) biology. Though some speculation is per-
mitted, this section should also caution the reader against over extrapolation of results. For manuscripts
with direct applications, this section will consist of an interpretive summary. If results have no
implications, this should be stated.

Appendixes
To provide readers with numerical examples or give extensive details of analytical procedures, an
appendix can be included with a manuscript, However, if the supplemental material is of interest only to
a limited number of JCS readers, it should not he. included as an appendix. Instead, mention that
supplemental information is available on request from the author. In the manuscript, the appendix should
follow the literature cited section and be introduced by a major heading.

Citations
Text: Published literature is referenced in the text in one of two ways, depending on sentence structure:
(1) The daily crude protein requirement for maintenance of camels was 190g (Wardeh 1997; Geurouali
and Wardeh 2002); 2) Wardeh (1997) and Geurouali and wardeh (1990) have reported that the daily
protein requirements for camels was 190g.When two or more citations are included in a grouping within
a sentence, the citations within the grouping are arranged in chronological order. Multiple citations for a
given year are further arranged alphabetically. When a citation has one or two authors, cite the reference
throughout using the name(s) and the date (e.g., Fahmy and Hegazi, 2000). When a citation has more
than two authors, cite the reference throughout the text with "et al." following the last name of the first
author (e.g., Fahmy et al. 2001). When the same author(s) have two references with different dates, cite
them together in the text (e.g., Fahmy et al. 2001;2002). If two papers abbreviate identically in the text,
place a letter after the date both in the text and in the citation in literature cited. Letters should not be
included unless the text citations are identical. Check the literature cited to make certain that all text
citations are represented, and that all citations listed are cited in the text. Unpublished literature is listed
in the text as follows by: (personal communication); (M. F. Wardeh, personal communication); ...
according to M. F. Wardeh (unpublished data). The individual's full name and location should be
provided. If the unpublished data are from the authors' laboratory, it can be cited as (our unpublished
observations).

Literature Listing
The number of citations should be minimised by careful scrutiny; select only the most pertinent ones. No
more than three references should be cited to support a specific concept. Interested readers can examine
those references or cited reviews for further citations. Initials are used for first and middle names in all
citations. Initials are placed after the first author's name but before the last names of all co-authors.
 120

Citations are listed in strict alphabetical order by authors. If all authors are identical for two or more
citations, chronological order of publication should dictate the order of citations. When more than one
paper in a given year is listed by authors whose names are in the same order in each paper, the papers are
arranged in alphabetical order of the paper title, and the date is assigned a letter suffix (e.g., Wardeh,
1999a). Only the first word and proper nouns in titles of papers begin with a capital letter. When a total
book is cited, page numbers are not provided. When the reference is a chapter or section from a book,
give inclusive page numbers. Use inclusive page numbers for journal articles. If the pages of the journal
cited are numbered within an issue rather than consecutively for a total volume, include the issue (or
month), supplement, or part number in parentheses after the volume number. No comma follows the
name or abbreviation of the journal cited.

References should be abbreviated in accordance with Serial Sources /or the BIOSIS Previews®' Data-
base published annually by BIOSIS, 2100 Arch Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103-1399. Periods are placed
after each abbreviated word. The abbreviation "(Abstr.)" should be used to designate each reference that
is an abstract. Citations of unpublished work are listed in parentheses in the text only; they do not appear
in the literature cited. Articles submitted for publication but not yet accepted cannot be cited. References
from nonrefereed publications should be avoided, but they can be employed when information is not
available from refereed publications. Manuscripts that have been accepted for publication but are not yet
published can he listed in the literature cited with the designation "(In press)" following the journal title.
To be consistent with current journal convention, inclusive page numbers should now be included in
literature citations.

Abbreviations of Frequently Cited Periodicals

Acta. Agric. Scand.
Acta. Endocrinol.
Adv. Appl. Microbiol.
Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem.
Adv. Genet
Adv. Lipid Res.
Adv. Protein Chem.
Agric. Eng.
Agron. J.
Am. J. Anat.
Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
Am. J. Clin. Pathol.
Am. J. Hum. Genet.
Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol.
Am. J. Pathol
Am. J. Physiol.
Anim. J. Vet. Res.
Anal. Biochem.
Anal. Chem.
Anim. Behav.
Anim. Freed. Abstr.
Anim. Feed Sci. Technol.
Anim. Prod.
Ann. Hum. Genet.
Annu. Rev. Biochem.
 121

Annii. Rev- Pharmacol. Toxicol.

Annu. Rev- Physiol
Antibiot. Chemother. (Basel)
Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
Appl. Microbiol.
Aust. J. Agric. Res.
Aust. J. Exp. Agric.
Biochem. J.
Biochemistry
Biochim. Biophya. Acta
Biol. Reprod.
Blood
Br. J. Nutr.
Br. Vet. J.
Camel n.l.
Can. J. Anim. Sci.
Can. J. Res. Sect. D Zool. Sci.
Cell
Clin. Toxicol.
Domest. Anim. Endocrinol.
Endocrinology
Eur. Assoc. Anim. Prod. Publ.
Fed. Proc.
Feedstuffs
Fertil. Steril.
Food Res.
Food Teclmol.
Gastroenterology
Genetics
Grass Forage Sci.
Growth
Horm. Behav.
Immunology
Infect. Immun.
J. Agric. Sci.
J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.
J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr.
J. Anim. Sci.
J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem.
J. Clin. Endocrinol. & Metab.
J. Dairy Sci.
J. Food Compos. Anal.
J. Gen. Physiol.
J. Nutr.
J. Nutr. Biochem.
J. Physiol. (Lond.)
J. Physiol. (Paris)
J. Range Manage.
 122

J. Reprod. Fertil.
J. Sci. Food Agric.
Lab. Anim.
Lipids
Livest. Prod. Sci.
Meat Sci.
Metabolism
Methods Enzymol
Mol. Cell. Endocrinol.
N. Z. J, Agric. Res.
Nature (Lond.)
Nature (Paris)
Neth. J. Agric. Res.
Neuroendocrinology
Nutr. Abstr. Rev.
Nutr. Metab.
Nutr. Rep. Int.
Nutr. Res.
Obstet. Gynecol.
Pharmacol. Rev.
Physiol. Rev.
Prof. Anim. Sci.
Recent Prog. Horm. Res.
Reprod. Fertil. Dev.
Residue Rev.
S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci.
Sci. Agric.
Science
Steroids
Theor. Appl. Genet.
Theriogenology
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
Vet. Res.
Vet. Res. Commun.
Vitam. Horm.
World Anim. Rev.
Z. Tierz. Zuechtungsbiol.
Zentralbl. Veterinaermed. Reihe A

Tables
When possible, tables should be organized to fit across the page (similar to the text), so that the page can
be read without turning it sideways. Tables are numbered consecutively in Arabic numbers; each table
begins on a separate page. All parts of tables should be typed double-spaced. Tables should be inserted in
the manuscript after the literature cited section. Tables should specify whether composition and analyses
are provided on an "as-fed" or a "dry matter" percentage basis.

Titles of tables should be descriptive enough to be able to stand alone. With the exception of proper
nouns or parenthetical, abbreviated units of measure or acronyms that are ordinarily capitalized, only the
 123

first letter of "Table" and the initial letter of the title should be capitalized. A period should follow the
table title. Every column must have a heading (e.g., Ingredient, Trait, Fatty acid, Item. etc.). Side-type
titles, providing rows as column headings, can be employed. Only the first letter of the first word of each
column heading is capitalized. The abbreviations for "weight" and "average" (wt and avg, respectively)
should be used only in tables. Present data in a simple, straightforward manner. Do not present the same
data in both tabular and graphic form. When presenting data in graphic form, be sure that each mean and
some index of variation is provided in the figures, the figure legend, or the text. Avoid graphs presenting
less than five means. Present such values in the text. If data are discussed in the text but are not included
in the tables or figures, specify "(data not shown)" in the text.

Omit the zero to the left of the decimal point. Use only meaningful digits. If there is no datum for a
particular entry, insert a dash. If an explanation is necessary, use an abbreviation in the body of the table
(e.g., ND) and explain clearly in footnotes what ND stands for (not determined, not detectable, not dis-
cernible, etc.).

References to footnotes in a table are specified by superscript lowercase letters independently for each
table. The final letters of the alphabet may be used to designate significance of differences to avoid
overlap with other footnotes. The preferred order of superscripts is as follows: 1) title, 2) column
headings, 3) row headings, and 4 ) body of table. The dagger symbol (†) and asterisks (*, **, ***) are
used only to designate a significance level between two means in a given row or column. By convention,
these are understood to imply the following: † designates P<10; * designates P < .05; ** designates P<
.01 and *'** designates P<.001. Do not use vertical lines in tables.

Presentation of pooled standard errors, the general basis for statistical comparison of means, is recom-
mended when variance is homogeneous. These are provided in a separate column or row. Standard
errors can be attached to each mean by + signs when variance or SE are heterogeneous (e.g., unbalanced
experiments or unequal numbers of observations in treatment means). When variances are heterogeneous
and are mathematically transformed before statistical analysis, specify the transformation method by a
tabular footnote but back-transform the data before presenting them in tables. When means separation
procedures are used, the preferred statement in the footnotes is "Within a row (or column), means
lacking a common superscript letter differ (P<.05)” other P-values may be specified. Alternative wording
may be misinterpreted or erroneous. Specifying treatments in the statistics footnote can simplify
comprehension.

Figures
For assistance with production of figures, refer to Scientific Style and Format and to Steps Toward Better
Scientific Illustrations (Alien Press, Lawrence, KS). Figures should be prepared with bold lines and
should be lettered in India ink or by other means so that the original, a glossy photograph, or the
computer output will reproduce clearly when reduced to fit in either one or two columns. Scale of
lettering and intensity of lines should remain readable when reduced in size for publication. When
preparing figures, use clearly defined symbols and the following types of lines: ——‚...,–.–.– . Be sure that
the reader will be able to distinguish which line is which. In the case of bar graphs, maximize the
contrast between fillers. For example, shaded fillers and close-lined or checked fillers will all appear
shaded when a figure is reduced for publication. Symbols and abbreviations used in the figure must be
defined in the figure legend or within the figure itself.

All lettering and abbreviations must conform to the JCS Style and Form. Zeros should not appear to the
left of decimal points. Units in axes should not be placed in parentheses; when units follow a term or
 124

phrase they should be preceded by a comma. TYPED MATERIAL ON FIGURES IS NOT

ACCEPTABLE. Either the original figure (if no larger than 22 x 28 cm) or a clear photograph with good
contrast should be submitted. Figures generated by plotters and laser printers are acceptable if line width,
symbols, and layout meet requirements specified for figures. High-quality reproductions of figures must
be placed with each copy of the manu script for examination by each reviewer. Each figure should be
identified on the back near the edge with the author's name and figure number: designate which edge is
the top of the figure.

Figures should not be mounted on any backing material. Multipart figures should be designated by
lowercase letters (la, 1b, 1c, 2a, etc.).

Photomicrographs must have their unmagnified size designated. This can be either within the photo or,
alternatively, the original width of the total unmagnified field can be designated in the figure legend.
Enlargement or reduction during publication makes size designation of photomicrographs (e.g., l,000x)
meaningless.

Figure legends should be typed on a separate sheet and identified with the figure number in Arabic
numerals.

Miscellaneous Usage Notes

1. Use only the metric system (System International d'unites). When a term must be expressed in
nonmetric (e.g., avoirdupois) units for clarity (e.g., bushel weight), give such values in parentheses
after the metric value.
2. When denoting percentages, the percent symbol (%) follows the numeral with no space: if the
number must be spelled because it begins a sentence, the word percent must be spelled out.
"Percent" cannot stand alone, but must be preceded by a number; when not preceded by a number,
the form of the word is "percentage" and is always followed by "of."
3. The words "Table" and "Figure" are capitalized in the text when referring to a specific table or
figure. Use Arabic numerals, not Roman numerals, to designate tables, figures, experiments,
groups, etc. Terms such as lot, experiment, trial, group, diet, treatment, etc., should be capitalized
and followed by an Arabic numeral when referring to a specific item. The word '"experiment"
should be capitalized and abbreviated (Exp.) preceding a numeral, except in headings or
manuscript titles or at the beginning of a sentence.
4. Avoid redundancy in giving the statistical significance of differences (i.e., do not use some form of
the word "significance'" together with a probability statement). For example, write "birth weight
was greater (P<.05) when pregnant camels were supplemented with barley" instead of" birth
weight was significantly (P<.05) greater pregnant when camels were…..”
5. Calculations of efficiency should usually be expressed as output divided by input (e.g., gain/feed,
not feed/gain). This avoids the spurious positive and negative infinity values when gain is zero or
negative. It also avoids the confusion and wording problems associated with discussing an
improvement as being a decrease. However, because gain/ feed varies with rate of gain, the slope
of a regression (added gain/unit of added feed) can be provided in addition to gain/feed. To avoid
decimals, gain/feed can be expressed as gain (g)/ feed (kg).
6. Numerals
a) Never begin a sentence with numerals. Supply another word or spell out the number, along
with any unit of measure that follows it.
b) units of measure immediately preceding or following a numerical value must be abbreviated
(e.g., 7 kg, d 32), unless they begin a sentence. Note that numbers and units that function as
 125

adjectives (e.g., 7-kg camels, d-32 measurements, 100-ml flask) are treated like any other
hyphenated adjective. If a word intervenes between the numeral and its unit, the unit is
spelled out, not abbreviated (e.g., 14 consecutive hours: three consecutive days).
c) 0mit the zero to the left of the decimal point.
d) Use words for numbers one through nine when they precede nouns other than units of meas-
ure but use numerals for numbers larger than nine (e.g., four animals, two times, 14 lots, 28
camels). When a series includes numbers both above and below 10, use numerals for all.
e) Ordinal numbers up to ninth should be spelled out in the text; they may be abbreviated in
tables. Abbreviate higher ordinal numbers (e.g., 12th, 32nd).
f) The terms "twofold" up to "ninefold" are written as one word. Use numerals for 10 and
higher (e.g., 10-fold, 300-fold) as well as for all decimal numerals (e.g., 8.5-fold). Exercise
care when using "-fold" to designate a response. If a treatment causes a twofold increase, the
second treatment mean must be three times that of the first.
g) Avoid the use of multiplying factors (e.g., x 106; x 10-6) in table columns or rows because
of uncertainty whether the data are to be, or have already been, multiplied by these factors.
Avoid ambiguity by stating units (e.g., numbers of bacteria, millions /ml).
h) Dates are written with the name of the month followed by the numeral of the day (e.g.,
October 4, not October fourth or 4th of October). Months of the year are spelled out.
i) Do not use a slant line for "per" when more than a single slant line occurs in the expression
(e.g., use 5 mg/(g/d) or 5 5mg.g-1.d-1 instead of 5 mg/g/d, but g/d is acceptable).
Mathematically, "per" usually implies division. When two "per" occur consecutively, it is
unclear precisely what is being divided by what.
j) Do not use a hyphen to indicate inclusiveness (e.g., use 12 to 14 mg or wk 3 and 4, not 12-14
mg or wk 3-4).
k ) Report time on the 24-h system and omit the h (e.g., 1410 rather than 2:10 p.m. or 1410 h).
1) Use commas in all numerals in both text and tables for values with four or more digits
except for numerals designating time of day. m convert "mg %" to other units, such as mg/l
or mg/ml; use "mol/100 mol" rather than "molar percent."
l) When tabulating values for growth or intake, express values for a standard time period for a
single animal such as weight gain/day, not weight gain/period or weight gain/pen; use mean
feed intake/day, not feed intake/(pen-day).
7. Do not capitalize seasons of the year.
8. Leave spaces around all mathematical operation signs in text and in equations (e.g., n = 8, P < .05,
a + b). For negative numbers, leave no space between the negative sign and the number.
9. Use chemical symbols for elements if they appear more than once in the manuscript. Formulas for
simple compounds (e.g., NaCl, HNO3, NH4OH) are acceptable.
10. Commas and periods generally should be placed inside final quotation marks.
11. "Live weight," "body weight," "birth weight," and "litter weight" are written as two words.
Although "wt" may be used in tables it should not be used in the text.
12. Use "longissimus muscle" instead of "longissimus dorsi."
13. Use "and(or)" not. "and/or."
14- Mass number precedes chemical symbols (e.g., 14C or 13II). unless spelled out (e.g., carbon-14,
iodine-131). In an isotopically labelled compound (the isotope prefix in brackets precedes and is
attached directly to the part of the name to which it refers (e.g., sodium [14C] format, [3H]
estradiol).
15. Refer to simple-stomached animals as non-ruminants.
16. Use generic terms and names where possible. Include in parentheses within the text the brand
name, the company name, and the company location for all substances and equipment mentioned.
 126

17. Refrain from using awkward compound adjectival phrases before nouns.
18. Use italics to designate genus and species (Bos taurus) and botanical varieties (Medicogo sativa
var. Potomac). Designations for botanical cultivars should be either preceded by cv. or enclosed in
single quotation marks. (Festuca arundinacea cv. Kentucky 31 OR Festuca urundinacea cv. Ken-
tucky 31). When an epithet is transferred from its original position or changed in rank the original
author's name is placed in parentheses followed by the name(s) of the author(s) responsible for the
change (Cynodon danctylon (L.) Pers.).
19- When measurements are transformed from word terms into numeric form for statistical analysis
(e.g., Good +; Slightly Abundant; Moderately Tender), present the numeric means, not the word
means, in all tables or figures. Specify by a footnote or in the legend the word term for two points
within the range of numeric values (e.g., 400 = Good and 467 = Good +).
20. Cite centrifugal force in units of g, not as rpm.
21. Animals often eat "ad libitum," but if animals are fed "ad libitum,'' this means that they are fed at
the convenience of the researcher. Use a phrase such as "Animals were given ad libitum access to
feed. . . ." or- "Animals were allowed to consume their diets on an ad libitum basis."
22. "As" and "since" are not suitable substitutes for "because." "Since" should be used only to indicate
time. "Since it snowed" has two interpretations.
23. "Comprise" should not be mistaken for "compose" or "make up." The whole comprises its parts,
never vice versa. "Comprised of" is meaningless.
24. The terms data, feces, digesta, and viscera are plural. Species is either singular or plural.
25. A diet is a feedstuff or a mixture of feedstuffs; a ration is the daily allotment of diet.
26. "Utilize" in its general sense is synonymous with "use," and "use" is preferable. "Utilize" should be
chosen only in its narrower sense, as when a feed ingredient is utilized by the animal. For example,
"six camels were used in Exp. 2,'' "LSD procedures were used," BUT "nitrogen utilisation was im-
proved in camels.
27- The phrases "it should be noted that," "we found that,'' "we determined that," or "we demonstrated
that" add nothing but, length to a manuscript.
28. Avoid jargon unfamiliar to scientists from other disciplines (e.g., dry, open, ugly, cross, teaser,
gomer). Do not use the term "head" to refer to an animal or group of animals. Instead, use animal,
camel, ewe, goat, mare, steer, heifer, cattle, etc.
29. Use the proper adjectival or adverbial form of words that modify nouns (e.g., ruminal fluid, not
rumen fluid: ruminally degraded protein, not rumen degraded protein).
30. Avoid bi- as a prefix because of its ambiguity. The term biweekly means both twice per week and
once every 2 wk.
31. Place the word "only" carefully within the sentence when you describe results, "Only two
treatments had positive effects" differs from "Two treatments gave only positive effects."
32. The terms "interesting," "recent," and "at the present time" reflect opinions or contribute noth-
ing to reader understanding. Avoid these terms.
33. "If" introduces conditional clauses; "whether" carries an implicit "or not."
34. "While" is not a substitute for "whereas," "although," or "but." "While" indicates temporal
simultaneity.
35. "That'" is restrictive; "which" is not; "which" is always preceded by a comma.
36. Quantitate is not a word. The verb form is quantify; the noun is quantity or quantification; the
adjective is quantitative or quantifiable; the adverb is quantitatively.
37. Prostaglandin should be abbreviated when necessary as PG, and the series (i.e., A, B. .., J), double
bond (i.e., 1, 2, or 3). and conformational (i.e., ∝) designations should be added to correctly
identify the specific prostaglandin (e.g., PGF2∝ ).
 127

38. Avoid the use of the term "symptom(s)" in describing evidence of disease or a condition in
animals. Use the term ''sign(s)''. Symptom implies a subjective perception by the (human) patient.
39. Use "toxic" or " toxicity" as appropriate, to refer to the quality of being poisonous. Use "toxicosis,"
to refer to any disease condition resulting from poisoning.
40. Avoid the use of the general terms "higher" and "lower" if more functional descriptive terms can
be used.

Word Abbreviations
The use of author-defined abbreviations and acronyms is discouraged. unless included in the list of
abbreviations in each JCS issue or in these guidelines, each alleviation must be defined the first time it is
used in the abstract and again in the body of the manuscript. There is no need to define symbols for
elements or simple compounds. Abbreviations in the titles of papers and tables and in text headings
should be avoided. Do not begin a sentence with an abbreviation, acronym, or symbol. Use of
abbreviations and acronyms in the abstract should he limited. Abbreviate units of measure immediately
adjacent to numerals. Units of measure are not abbreviated when they follow a spelled-out number at the
beginning of a sentence. All abbreviations are written as singular even though they may be plural (e.g.,
yr; not yrs: VFA, not VFAs); number is indicated by verb choice.

List of Abbreviations
The following is a partial list of acceptable abbreviations. For a more extensive list, refer to Scientific
Style and Format. Use of three letter abbreviations for amino acids (e.g., Ala) is acceptable in JCS.

Physical units
Item Unit
°C degree Celsius
cal calorie
Ci curie
Da dalton
dpm disintegrations/minute
Eq equivalent
g gram
ha hectare
Hz hertz
IU international unit
J joule
L liter
lx lux
m meter
M molar (concentration)
mol mole
N normal (concentration)
Pa pascal
ppb parts/billion parts
ppm parts/million parts
t metric ton (1,000 kg)
V volt
W watt
 128

Units of time
Item Unit
s second
min minute
h hour
d day
wk week
mo month
yr year

Statistical symbols and abbreviations

Term Term
CV coefficient of variation
df degree(s) of freedom
F F distribution (variance ratio)
LSD least significant difference
n sample size (used parenthetically or in footnotes)
P probability
r simple correlation coefficient
r2 simple coefficient of determination
R multiple correlation coefficient
2
R multiple coefficient of determination
s2 variance (sample)
SD Standard deviation (sample)
SE standard error
SEM standard error-of the mean
t t-(or Student) distribution
x mean (sample)
α probability of Type I error
β probability of Type II error
µ mean (population)
σ standard deviation (population)
σ2 variance (population)
χ2 chi-squared distribution
a the symbols †, *, ** and *** are normally used to show significance at the P = .10, .05, .01 and .001
levels respectively.
.10, .05, .01 and .001 Significance at other levels should be specifically designated .
 129

Multiplying prefixes
Item Prefix Factor
G giga- (x 109)
M mega- (x 106)
K kilo- (x 103)
Da deci- (x 10-1)
Ca centi- (x 10-2)
m milli- (x 10-3)
µ micro- (x 10-6)
n nano- (x 10-9)
p pico- (x 10-12)
f femto- (x 10-15)
a Avoid when possible.

Others
Item Term
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
ADF acid detergent fiber (assumed sequential
unless designated otherwise)
ADFI average daily feed intake (not to be confused with DMI)
ADG average daily gain
ADIN acid detergent insoluble nitrogen
ADL acid detergent lignin
ADP adenosine diphoapbate
AI artificial insemination
AIA acid insoluble ash
ANOVA analysis of variance
ARS Agricultural Research Service
Assoc. Association
ATP adenosine triphosphate
avg average (use only in tables, not in the text)
BLUP best linear unbiased prediction
bp base pair
BSA bovine serum albumin
Bull. Bulletin
BW body weight (not fasted unless designated otherwise)
CARDN The Camel Applied Research and Development Network
Circ. Circular
cfu colony-forming unit
CoA co-enzyme A
Co-EDTA cobalt ethylenediaminetctraacetate
Coll. College
Conf. Conference
Congr. Congress
CP crude protein (N x 6.25)
DE digestible energy
 130

DEAE (dimethylamino)ethyl (as in DEAE-cellulose

DFD dark, firm, and dry (meat)
DM dry matter
DMI dry matter intake
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
EBV estimated breeding value
Ed. Edition, Editor(s)
EDTA ethyleniediaminetetraacetic acid
EFA essential fatty acid
e.g., for example
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
EPD expected progeny difference
ET Embryo Transfer
et al. et alia
etc. et cetera
Exp. experiment (always followed by a numeral)
Ext. extension
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone
g gravity
GE gross energy
GLC gas-liquid chromatography
GLM general linear model
GnRH gonadotropin-releasing hormone
GH growth hormone
GHRH growth hormone-releasing hormone
hCG human chorionic gonadotropin
HEPES N- (2-hydroxyethy) piperazine N’-2- ethanosulfonic acid
HPLC high performance (pressure) liquid chromatography
i.d. inside diameter
i.e. that is
IGF insulin-like growth factor
i.m. intramuscular(ly)
Inst. institute
i.p. intraperitoneal (ly)
i.v. intravenous (ly)
IDMD in vitro dry matter disappearance
LD50 lethal dose 50%
LH lutenizing hormone
LHRH lutenizing hormone-releasing hormone
ME metabolizable energy
Misc. miscellaneous
Mongor. monograph
NAD nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Natl. national
NDF neutral detergent fiber
NE net energy
NEg net energy for gain
NEL net energy for lactation
 131

Nem net energy for maintenance

NEFA nonesterified fatty acid
No. number (use only in tables, not in the text)
o.d. outside diameter organic matter
PAGE polyacrylamide gel electrophoreaia
PBS phosphate-buffered saline
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PG prostaglandin
PMSG pregnant mare serum gonadotropin
PSE pale, soft, and exudative (meat)
Publ. publication
REML restricted maximum likelihood
Rep. Report
RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism
RIA radioimmunoassay
RNA ribonucleic acid
rpm revolutions/minute (not to be used to indicate centrifugal force)
s.c. subcutaneous(ly)
SDS sodium dodecylsulfate
ST somatotropin
sp., spp. one species, several species
Sta. station
Suppl. supplement
Symp. symposium
TDN total digestible nutrients
Tech. technical
TLC thin layer chromatography
Tris tris(hydroxymethyl) laminomethane
univ. university
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
UV ultraviolet
VFA volatile fatty acid
vol volume
vol/vol volume/volume (used only in parentheses)
vs versus
wt weight (use only in tables, not in the text)
wt/vol weight/volume (used only in parentheses)
wt/wt weight/weight (used only in parentheses)
x multiplied by or crossed with
 132

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Journal of Camel Science

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 134

The Camel Applied Research and Development Network

Journal of Camel Science

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