FABRICATION OF SOLAR POWERED

HYBRID VEHICLE SPLICED WITH

HYDRAULIC PUMP

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
ANISH RAJA.J 412512114012
DEV ANAND.A 412512114036
GOWRI SHANKAR.R 412512114051
GOWTHAM.B 412512114052

In partial fulfillment for the award of the

degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI SAIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2016
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “FABRICATION OF SOLAR POWERED

HYBRID VEHICLE SPLICED WITH HYDRAULIC PUMP” is the bonafide
work of the following students who carried out the project work under my supervision.

ANISH RAJA.J 412512114012

DEV ANAND.A 412512114036
GOWRI SHANKAR.R 412512114051
GOWTHAM.B 412512114052

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. A. Rajendra Prasad Mr.M.C.ANAND CHAKARAVARTHI
Head of the Department Supervisor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Sairam Engineering College, Sri Sairam Engineering College,
Chennai - 600 044. Chennai - 600 044.

Submitted for Design & Fabrication Viva-Voce Examination held on

…....................... at Sri Sairam Engineering College, Chennai-600 044.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere gratitude to our beloved Founder Shri.MJF.

Ln.LEO MUTHU, for his kind inspiration and supporting us with the
necessary infrastructure for completion of this project.

Our heartfelt thanks to CEO Mr. SAI PRAKASH LEO MUTHU and
beloved Principal Dr. C. V. JAYAKUMAR, for their help and for the advice
they shared upon us.

We wish to express our gratefulness and gratitude to our beloved Dean

(R&D) and Head of the Department Dr. A. RAJENDRA PRASAD, for his
encouragement, support and guidance.

We also thank our project coordinator Prof. S. SURESH,

Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his
continuous support and guidance.

We express our indebtedness and sincere thanks to our guide

Mr. M.C. ANAND CHAKARAVARTHI, Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, for his assistance throughout the course of our
project.

We also express our sincere gratitude to all the Teaching and non-
teaching faculty of our Department of Mechanical Engineering who
contributed directly or indirectly to our project.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO:

ABSTRACT 7
LIST OF FIGURES 8
LIST OF TABLES 9

1. INTRODUCTION 10

1.1 GASOLINE ELECTRIC HYBRID VEHICLE 11

1.2 HYBRID VEHICLE WITH SOLAR PANEL 12

1.3 NECESSITIES OF CENTRI FUGAL PUMP

IN HYBRID VEHICLE 13

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 15

3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 21

4. COMPONENT AND ITS DESCRIPTIONS 23

4.1 SOLAR PANEL 24

4.2 BATTERY 36

4.2.1 LEAD ACID WET CELL 37

4.2.2 CONSTRUCTION 38

4.3 D.C MOTOR 40

4.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERAION OF DC MOTOR 41

4
 4.3.2 ELECTRO MAGNETS AND MOTOR 43

4.3.3 COMMUTATORS AND BUSHES 46

4.4 TWO STROKE ENGINE 48

4.4.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF ENGINE 48

4.5 CHAIN SPROCKET 48

4.5.1 SPROCKET FOR PINION 48

4.5.2 ROLLER CHAIN 50

4.5.3 SPECIFICATION OF SPROCKET 50

4.5.4 SPECIFICATION OF AXLE 51

4.6 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 51

4.7 THE FRAME 53

5. CALCULATIONS 55
5.1 ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS 55
5.2 SPROCKET CALCULATIONS 64
5.3 TORQUE CALCULATION OF CHAIN 65

6. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 66

7. COST ESTIMATION 67

7.1 MATERIAL COST 67

7.2 OVERHEAD CHARGES 68

5
 7.3 TOTAL COST 68

8. CONCLUSION 69

9. REFERENCES 70

6
 ABSTRACT

The progress of automobiles for transportation has been intimately

associated with the progress of civilization. The automobile of today is the result
of the accumulation of many years of pioneering research and development. In
the modern trend, automobiles have certain disadvantages such as fuel cost
relative to mileage, pollution and less efficiency.

The main vision of this project is to decrease the fuel cost relative to
mileage and to control the pollution incurred to the atmosphere through increased
usage of automobiles. This project “FABRICATION OF SOLAR POWERED
HYBRID VEHICLE SPLICED WITH HYDRAULIC PUMP” is to club the two
technologies of an Internal Combustion Engine with the Electric main drive. The
goal of this project is to implement the most efficient and less polluting vehicle. In
our project the hybrid electric vehicle model combines the Spark Ignition engine of
a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle,
resulting in twice the fuel economy of a conventional vehicle. That is, the model
gets energy from solar energy which is saved in a battery and then using the energy
to drive the motor. The motor in turn drives the pump which is coupled to the rear
wheel of the vehicle. This hybrid electric vehicle concept can be implemented for
two wheelers with water pumping system by using solar energy stored in the
battery.

7
 LIST OF FIGURES

NUMBER TITLE PAGE NO:

Fig 1.1 Basic block diagram 12

representation of the
hybrid solar vehicle
Fig 1.2 Mechanical water pump 14

Fig 4.1 Solar Panel 24

Fig 4.2 Layout of battery 39

Fig 4.3 Battery 39

Fig 4.4 DC Motor 40

Fig 4.5 Magnetic Function 41

Fig 4.6 Magnetic Field 43

Fig 4.7 Electro Magnet 44

Fig 4.8 Armature 45

Fig 4.9 Commutator and Bushes 46

Fig 4.10 Sprocket with Bearing 49

Fig 4.11 Roller Chain Drive 50

Fig 4.12 Centrifugal pump 53

Fig 4.13 Frame (Material : MS) 53

Fig 4.14 Block Diagram 54

8
 LIST OF TABLES
NUMBER TITLE PAGE NO:

4.1 SPECIFICATION OF 50
SPROCKET
4.2 SPECIFICATION OF 51
AXLE
7.1 MATERIAL COSTS 67

9
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The Energy is one of the most vital needs for human survival on earth. We are
dependent on one form of energy or the other for fulfilling our needs. One such
form of energy is the energy from FOSSIL FUELS. We use energy from these
sources for generating electricity, running automobiles, etc. But the main
disadvantages of these FOSSIL FUELS are that they are not environmentally
friendly and they are exhaustible. To deal with these problems of FOSSIL FUELS,
we need to look at the NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES of energy. With regard
to this idea we have designed an Electrical vehicle that runs on solar energy. The
vehicle designed is a three-wheel drive and can be used for shuttle and short
distances. As these vehicles for the future of the automotive industry, we need to
concentrate on improving their design and making them cost effective. This vehicle
is an initiative in this direction.

Around 93% of today’s automobiles run on petroleum based products, which are
estimated to be depleted by 2050. Moreover, current automobiles utilize only 25%
of the energy released from petroleum and rest is wasted into the atmosphere.
Despite recent efforts to improve fuel efficiency and reduce toxic emissions in cars,
emissions have continued to increase steadily in the past two decades. For the
preservation of gasoline for future and increasing the efficiency of vehicle an
electric vehicle can be a major breakthrough. An electric vehicle is pollution free
and is efficient at low speed conditions mainly in high traffic areas but battery
charging is time consuming. Moreover, it cannot provide high power required by

10
drives during high speed conditions or in slopes of hilly areas. Gasoline engine
proves its efficiency at higher speeds in high ways and waste a lot of energy in
urban areas. A hybrid vehicle solves these problems by combining the advantages
of both the systems and uses both the power sources at their efficient conditions.
The objective of this project aims at better utilization of fuel energy and reduces
dependence on non-renewable resources using latest technology. The
implementation involves development of HEV that uses battery as well as gasoline
power for propulsion of vehicle.

1.1 GASOLINE ELECTRIC HYBRID VEHICLE:

A 'gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle' is an automobile which relies not only

on gasoline but also on electric power source. In HEV, the battery alone provides
power for low-speed driving conditions. During long highways or hill climbing,
the gasoline engine drives the vehicle solely. Hybrid electric vehicles comprise of
an electric motor, inverter, battery as the electric drive and an internal combustion
engine with transmission connected as gasoline based drive. It is to achieve better
fuel economy and reduce toxic emissions.

Sun is one among the main source of energy for the vehicle. Energy from
the Sun is captured by the solar panels and is converted to electrical energy. The
electrical energy, thus formed is being fed to the batteries that get charged and is
used to run 24V DC high torques DC series motor. The shaft of the motor is
connected to the rear wheel of the vehicle through chain sprocket. The batteries are
initially fully charged and thereafter they are charged by panels. This helps in
completing the charging-discharging cycle of the batteries, which is very important
for the proper working of batteries.

11
1.2 HYBRID VEHICLE WITH SOLAR PANEL

BASIC FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM

Fig 1.1 Basic block Diagram Representation of hybrid vehicle with solar
panel.

Solar cars are powered by the sun's energy. The main component of a solar
car is its solar array, which collect the energy from the sun and converts it into
usable electrical energy. The solar cells collect a portion of the sun's energy and
stores it into the batteries of the solar car. Before that happens, power trackers
converts the energy collected from the solar array to the proper system voltage, so
that the batteries and the motor can use it. After the energy is stored in the batteries,
it is available for use by the motor & the motor controller to drive the car. The
motor controller adjusts the amount of energy that flows to the motor to correspond
to the throttle. The motor uses that energy to drive the wheels.

12
1.3 NECESSITIES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP IN HYBRID VEHICLE

ENGINE combustion will lead to high temperature. This temperature is

transferred to the engine parts, namely piston, cylinder head, liners, valves, etc.
This temperature will make the engine parts to expand thermally, results in thermal
stresses. Also overheated engine may cease the engine. In order to prevent this
damage, a cooling system is required. Thus the main objective of the cooling
system is to maintain the operating temperature of the engine. Mostly, engines are
cooled using liquid coolant (water + additives) that run through the heat exchanger.
Water may contain salt, chemical or sediment which blocks the coolant path and
also may result in chemical damage to the engine. The efficiency of water cooled
engines mainly depends upon the heat exchange taking place between coolant and
cylinder. The cooling system [1] -[5] will have a radiator to dissipate the heat from
the coolant to the atmosphere, fan to circulate the air to the radiator, centrifugal
mechanical pump driven by the crankshaft to circulate the coolant, temperature
control device to maintain the coolant temperature, pipes to circulate the water etc.

The coolant is circulated by a centrifugal pump driven by crankshaft. A

centrifugal pump has an impeller which rotating on a casing. The fluid will enter
through the centre and exists through gap between casing wall and impeller. As
impeller rotates, the velocity of fluid has both radial and tangential directions and
also both pressure and velocity will increase. However, the various issues faced in
mechanical water pump as listed in [6], [7] includes: variable speed is not possible,
switching on / off at required amount of time is not possible, increased power loss,
increased fuel consumption. Mechanical water pump work with constant flow rate

13
(i.e. flow rate cannot be varied) and variable heat transfer rate. During cold and
warm up conditions, there is no need for cooling but since the mechanical water
pump is permanently driven, power loss occurs and thus reduces the fuel
efficiency. In order to overcome these limitations, it is proposed to convert the
mechanical water pump into electrical water pump.

The various assumptions made while running the test setup include: Engine
is made to run at no load condition, the flow rate is measured at the engine outlet
before going to the radiator, Thermostat valve is removed from the engine, bending
losses are considered to be negligible.

Fig 1.2 Mechanical Water Pump

ADVANTAGES

 The solar vehicles are the future of the automobile industry.

 They are highly feasible and can be manufactured with ease.
 The main advantages of a solar vehicle are that they are pollution less and are
very economical. Since they cause no pollution they are very eco-friendly and
are the only answer to the increasing pollution levels from automobiles in the
present scenario.

14
 By harvesting the renewable sources of energy like the solar energy we are
helping in preserving the non-renewable sources of energy.
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Sermaraj. M, in his paper “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF PEDAL
OPERATOR RECIPOCATING WATER PUMP” has discussed that a person
can generate four times more (1/4 horse power (hp)) by pedaling than by hand –
cranking. At the rate of 1/4hp, continuous pedaling can be done for only short
periods, about 10 minutes. However, pedaling at half this power (1/8 hp) can be
sustained for around 60 minutes. The main use of pedal power today is still for
bicycling at least in the high- power range (75 watts and above of mechanical
power). In the lower-power range there are a number of use of pedal power for
agriculture, construction, water pumping, and electrical generation that seem to be
potentially advantages, at least when electrical or internal-combustion engine
power is unavailable or very expensive.

The Text Book about “Plug-in hybrid and solar vehicles” by Toyota
Automobiles Ltd., explains the Hybrid vehicles as an interesting variant of the
electric vehicle is the triple hybrid vehicle—the PHEV that has solar panels as well
to assist.

The 2010 Toyota Prius model has an option to mount solar panels on the
roof. The power a ventilation system while parked to help provide cooling. There
are many applications of photovoltaic in transport either for motive power or as
auxiliary power units, particularly where fuel, maintenance, emissions or noise
requirements preclude internal combustion engines or fuel cells. Due to the limited

15
area available on each vehicle either speed or range or both are limited when used
for motive power.

A comparative study of three different configurations for a hybrid solar vehicle has
been recently presented and development at the University of Salerno in 2008. The
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) system that consists of mechanical engine, electric
motor and batteries has gained increased interests because of the interest’s
drawback of IC engine such as pollution. For used Advance control strategy of
control the pollution level of city by using total electric operated system of vehicle
and perform the preliminary test and road test of a vehicle.

Karen et al (1999) presented a simulation and modeling package developed at

Texas A&M University, V-Elph 2.01. V-Elph was written in the Matlab/Simulink
graphical simulation language and is portable to most computer platforms. They
also discussed the methodology for designing vehicle drivetrains using the V-Elph
package. An EV, a series HEV, a parallel HEV and a conventional internal
combustion engine driven drivetrain have been designed using the simulation
package. Simulation results such as fuel consumption, vehicle emissions, and
complexity are compared and discussed for each vehicle.

Ma Xianmin (2002) developed a novel propulsion system design scheme for

EVs requiring high power density. The theory analysis 21 mathematical models
of EV are first set up based on the vehicle dynamic characteristics, then the whole
system is divided into seven function blocks according to power flow, the
simulation models are formed in the MATLAB language. The simulation results
are verified in a PDM AC-AC converter, which shows that the suggested method is
suitable for EV.

16
Brian (2007) created a model in MATLAB and ADAMS to demonstrate its
fuel economy over the conventional vehicle. He used the Honda IMA (Integrated
Motor Assistant) architecture, where the electric motor acts as a supplement to the
engine torque. He showed that the motor unit acts as generator during the
regenerative braking. He used a simple power management algorithm in the power
management controller he designed for the vehicle.

Cuddy and Keith (2007) performed a parallel and series configured hybrid
vehicles likely feasible in next decade are defined and evaluated using a flexible
Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR). Fuel economies of two diesel powered
hybrid vehicles are compared to a comparable technology diesel powered internal
combustion engine vehicle. The fuel economy of the parallel hybrid defined is 24%
better than the internal combustion engine vehicle and 4% better than the series
hybrid.

Bauml and Simic (2008) discussed the importance of vehicle simulations in

designing the hybrid electric vehicles. A series hybrid electric vehicle simulation
with the simulation language Modelica was developed. They explained the
simulation approach. They concluded with some of the simulation results
emphasizing the simulation importance.

Zhou and Chang (2008) established powertrain dynamic simulation model of

an integrated starter/generator (ISG) hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) using
Simulink. The parallel electric assist control strategy (PEACS) was 22 researched
17
and designed. The analysis of dynamics performance and fuel economy of the
model was carried out under the FTP drive cycle, which can provide a design
reference for the setup of the powertrain test bench. The results show that the fuel
consumption can be effectively reduced by using the designed PEACS with the
state-of-charge of the battery maintaining in a
certain scope.

Kuen-Bao (2008) described the mathematical modelling, analysis and

simulation of a novel hybrid powertrain used in a scooter. The primary feature
of the proposed hybrid powertrain is the use of a split power-system that consists
of a one-degree-of-freedom (dof) planetary gear-train (PGT) and a two-dof PGT to
combine the power of two sources, a gasoline engine and an electric motor.
Detailed component level models for the hybrid electric scooter are established
using the Matlab/Simulink environment. The performance of the proposed hybrid
powertrain is studied using the developed model under four driving cycles. The
simulation results verify the operational capabilities of the proposed hybrid system
:

Design and control [of] the ancillary system for hydraulic hybrid vehicle (HHV)
Mohamed E. Abdelgayed
The University of ToleDo

The hybrid hydraulic vehicle (HHV) is a new technology that uses hydraulic power
in conjunction with the conventional vehicle internal combustion engine (ICE) in
order to improve fuel economy for road vehicles propulsion. In addition to

18
propulsion, a portion of the hydraulic power can be used to drive hydraulic
accessories, through a
power take -off point. A power take -off method with HHV decreases the cost of
implementation on the vehicle as the main power source is readily available. The
transferred power, with the appropriate interface using controlled hydraulic circuit,
drives the accessories system.
This research preliminary analysis investigates three proposed systems: hydraulic
intensifier, hydraulic transformer, and pump/motor configuration or hydrostatic
system.
The research studies the systems efficiencies and the impact of these systems on
the main hydraulic circuit. The impact is measured by the system ability to isolate
the hydraulic accessories fluid from the main circuit fluid in order to maintain the
main circuit iv Performance.

The hydraulic intensifier and the hydraulic transformer do not isolate the main
source fluid from the load fluid effectively. The estimated effi
ciency is around 55% for the hydraulic intensifier while it is around 90% for the
hydraulic transformer. Accordingly, both of them are not suitable for the
application. A hydrostatic transmission or the pump/motor configuration provides
complete isolation as the load fluid is separated from the source fluid. In addition
efficiency expected to be in range of 80% to 90%. Consequently, the hydrostatic
transmission system design is used in this application.

A comprehensive analysis is performed on the hydrostatic transmission. The

analysis starts by defining two pressure working ranges from hydraulic tools
manufacturer’s datasheets; the low pressure at 2,000 psi and the high pressure at
10,000 psi. After selection of loading pressure, the design of the driving pumps,
19
and hydraulic motor with the control valve is performed. The analysis includes
controller design to the system in order to maintain the load demand.

The hydrostatic transmission system design is modeled and then simulated using
MATLAB/SIMULINK. The model simulation incorporates several loading cases
in order to define the time required to drive the hydraulic accessories efficiently.
The model result reports the maximum operating time and the input power
consumption rate for each load case. The input power consumption rates and the
assumed efficiencies are verified by comparing to the manufacturer’s datasheet
values and to the model output efficiencies. Conclusions and recommendations are
provided at the end of this research

20
 CHAPTER 3

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The working principle of hybrid vehicle basically involves two processes,
the first process involves when the vehicle is running by means of internal
combustion engine and the second process involves when the vehicle is running by
means of an electric motor which gets energy from the solar panel. When the
vehicle is driven at the outside of city the vehicle is powered by means of internal
combustion engines. The power from the engine is taken from the pulley and then
it rotates the wheel. During this process the vehicle is charged by means of a
generator used. The power is generated through generator is by connecting the
generator shaft with the shaft of the wheel by means of chain drive itself.

When the vehicle is driven inside the city, the vehicle is powered by means
of a motor. The power to run the motor is supplied from the battery, as the battery
is already charged when the vehicle running on the internal combustion engine.
During this process the speed of the vehicle will be less and there is no smog
forming pollutants produced during the vehicle runs. For that we are using the
turbine for generating the power with the help of emission gas and the power will
directly stored to the battery.

When the vehicle is powered by means of electric motor the power

from the internal combustion engine will be disconnected from the shaft by
loosening the belt. The mileage of the vehicle while running on the electric motor
is mainly depends upon the time of charging and also depends upon the capacity of
the battery.

21
 In this process the motor cum generator serves as motor as well as
generator. It serves as a motor when the vehicle is running by means of battery and
it serves as a generator when the vehicle is running by means of internal
combustion engine it is combined to solar energy it will be getting on saved to the
battery. By using the water pump through chain drive from engine to pump the
water for agricultural process.

22
 CHAPTER 4

COMPONENTS AND THEIR DISCRIPTION

1. SOLAR PANEL
2. BATTERY
3. DC MOTOR
4. WIRING SETUP
5. FRAME SUPPORT
6. TWO STROKE ENGINE
7. CHAIN SPROCKET
8. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
9. FRAME

4.1 SOLAR PANEL:

23
 Fig 4.1 Solar panel

• Model Type=KL010

• Peak power Pmax=3W

• Peak current Imax=0.59A

• Max power voltage Vmp=17.1v

• Open Circuit Voltage Voc=21.5v

• Short Circuit Current Isc=0.65A

A solar array is created from individual solar cells as opposed to one made
of prefabricated solar panels. It enhances the students' learning and can result in a
lighter solar array. Cells can be bought from either Siemens or ASE Americas.
Both sell the terrestrial-grade cells that are permitted in the Winston Solar
Challenge, and the cost for terrestrial-grade cells are much lower than space-grade
cells, though terrestrial-grade is less efficient. Each solar cell should produce .5
volts at about 3 amps at peak sunlight. The number of cells to use depends on their
size and the allowable solar area per Winston rules. Solar cells should be wired in

24
series on a panel and should be divided into several zones. For example, if you
have 750 solar cells, you might want to wire 3 sets of 250 cells, each zone
producing about 125 volts. If one zone fails, two other zones are still producing
power. The solar array voltage does not need to match the system voltage of the
motor if you use power trackers. Power trackers convert the solar array voltage to
the system voltage. They are essential in a solar car. Be sure to verify with the
power tracker vendor the necessary array voltage to feed the power trackers. If the
car drives underneath shade, the power trackers automatically adjusts the power to
match system voltage, allowing the system to run as efficient as possible. Power
trackers are available from AERL.

Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar hot water panel, or
to a set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected and mounted on
a supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged, connected assembly of solar
cells. Solar panels can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to
generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each
module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and
typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a module determines the
area of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 watt module
will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few solar
panels available that are exceeding 19% efficiency. A single solar module can
produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple
modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an array of solar
modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.

Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based

25
crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon.
The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or
the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.
Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-
film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage

and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that
take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic
conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one
another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage
photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial

module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is

focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of
cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective
way.

Efficiency:

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity

from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher
efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design

26
concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams
onto different cells tuned to those ranges.

This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.

Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of
multijunction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record
for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator
solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future,
with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three
junctions.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module

efficiency) is around 21.5% in new commercial products typically lower than the
efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar
modules [disputed – discuss] have power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22
W/ft2).

Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the efficiency of a

solar panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface
with aluminum Nano cylinders similar to the ridges on Lego blocks. The scattered
light then travels along a longer path in the semiconductor which means that more
photons can be absorbed and converted into current. Although these nanocylinders
have been used previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light
scattering occurred in the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed
strongly.

Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum,
while the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered
by the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost

27
significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less
costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the increase in current
makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without "compromising power
conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material consumption".

 Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP(Maximum

power point) value of solar panels
 Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing
MPPT process: solar inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve)
from the solar cell and applies the proper resistance (load) to solar
cells to obtain maximum power.
 MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP
voltage(V mpp) and MPP current(I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar
panel and the higher value can make higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more

output than normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series
determined by the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas light
effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel contributes its
maximum possible output given the available sunlight.

Crystalline silicon modules:

Most solar modules are currently produced from solar cells made of
polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon accounted
for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production.

Thin-film modules:

28
 Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies.

Rigid thin-film modules:

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the
same production line.

The cell is created on a glass substrate or supersaturate, and the electrical

connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate
or supersaturate is laminated with an encapsulate to a front or back sheet, usually
another sheet of glass.

The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of
6-12%.

Flexible thin-film modules:

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line
by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible
substrate.

If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then

monolithic integration can be used.

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be

used.

29
 The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent
colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer
suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially
available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple
junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on

compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July
2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar
Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.

The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the
residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology
progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage
sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residential use.
Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the
photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar
concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.

Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are
much more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be broken
by bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per square foot
than standard rigid solar panels.

The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution
in the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019,
surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.

30
Smart solar modules:

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This

enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module
individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault
detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a
DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from
solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate
for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes
the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but
not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.

Module performance and aging:

This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by

verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only
of original research should be removed. (August 2013)Module performance is
generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m²,
solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W),

open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes),
maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power,
Wp, and module efficiency (%).

Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best
suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were
only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes as
lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific

31
voltage at which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to
make sure the module is compatible with a given system.

Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can
produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be
measured with a meter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its
disconnected cable.

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test
conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could
measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75
watts to as high as 350 watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing,
the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical
manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either rate them at
+/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.

Solar modules must withstand rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat
and cold for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a
warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power
output and 25 years at 80%.

Recycling:

Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of certain

semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently
engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules.

32
 Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled
manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and
the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is possible to
recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. This process can be performed by
flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to
those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass
for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.

Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies

such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor
materials. For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by
crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This
recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the
semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling facilities
have been created in recent years by private companies.

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together

manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module
recycling.

Production:

In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with

solar PV pricing survey and market research Company PVinsights reporting
growth of 117.8% in solar PV installation on a year-on-year basis. With over 100%
year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically
increased their shipments of solar modules in 2010. They actively expanded their
capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players. According to
PVinsights, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2010 are GW players.

33
Suntech, First Solar, Sharp, Yingli and Trina Solar are GW producers now, and
most of them doubled their shipments in 2010.

The basis of producing solar panels revolves around the use of silicon cells.
These silicon cells are not efficient enough in their current state and can only
convert solar energy in to useable power at a rate of roughly 10-20 percent. In
order for solar panels to become more efficient, and therefore more useful in the
future, researchers across the world have been trying to develop new technology to
make solar panels more effective at turning the sun in to energy.

Mounting systems:

Ground mounted:

Ground mounted photovoltaic system are usually large, utility-scale solar

power plants. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are
attached to ground based mounting supports.

Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to
secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration.
This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not
possible such as capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of
solar module systems.

Roof mounting:

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by

racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.
34
 Roof-based mounting supports include:

 Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may
use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use
weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require
through penetration. This mounting method allows for
decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse
effect on the roof structure.
 All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting
equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and
should be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions

Trackers:

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost
of mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of
the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.

Fixed racks:

Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The
fixed rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an
installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles above
ground.

35
Solar panel maintenance:

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20 percent range, is

reduced by dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar
panel. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30 percent in
high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of
physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for Nano Energy,
which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.

For non-self-cleaning solar arrays, regular cleaning from a professional

window washing company or by individuals can be performed on a regular
schedule. According to A1 the Clear Choice, a California based company that
performs commercial solar panel cleaning services, "Solar panels are similar to the
windows in your car, home or business. They get dirty from rain, dust, pollen, soot,
smog, auto emissions, chimney ashes, bird droppings, leaves and other
environmental debris. This dirt and debris blocks sunlight from being absorbed into
the panels, decreasing their efficiency. The result is less energy for use in your
business or for sale to your utility company."

4.2 BATTERY:
• Battery capacity: 12V, 1.3Ah.
• This is chargeable one
• Battery charging time: 20min.
• Working condition: 2hours.

36
 In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of
excess solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are
isolated sunshine load such as hydraulic pumps or drinking water supplies for
storage. In fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt.
Batteries seem to be the only technically and economically available storage
means. Since both the photo-voltaic system and batteries are high in capital costs.
It is necessary that the overall system be optimized with respect to available energy
and local demand pattern. To be economically attractive the storage of solar
electricity requires a battery with a particular combination of properties:
(1) Low cost
(2) Long life
(3) High reliability
(4) High overall efficiency
(5) Low discharge
(6) Minimum maintenance
(A) Ampere hour efficiency
(B) Watt hour efficiency
We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for
lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.
4.2.1 LEAD-ACID WET CELL:
Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the
type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid
(H₂SO₄). In the application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile,
for example, the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell
37
has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series
combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.
The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be
recharged. The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore
the output voltage, as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat
with excessive charge and discharge currents short ends the useful life to about 3 to
5 years for an automobile battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the
lead-acid type has the highest output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a
specified battery voltage.
4.2.2 CONSTRUCTION:
Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a
group of plates welded to a connecting strap. The plates are immersed in the
electrolyte, consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated sulfuric acid.
Each plate is a grid or framework, made of a lead-antimony alloy. This
construction enables the active material, which is lead oxide, to be pasted into the
grid. In manufacture of the cell, a forming charge produces the positive and
negative electrodes. In the forming process, the active material in the positive plate
is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative electrode is spongy lead (pb).
Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The
electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to
from the plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added
in normal service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without
provision for adding water.

38
Fig 4.2 Layout of Battery

Fig 4.3 Battery

39
4.3 D.C. MOTOR (PERMANENT MAGNET):
• Motor capacity: 12V
• Without loading: 120rpm
• With loading: 75rpm

Fig 4.4 DC Motor

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force whose direction is
given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

When a motor is in operation, it develops torque. This torque can produce

mechanical rotation. DC motors are also like generators classified into shunt
wound or series wound or compound wound motors.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

Keep the force finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually
perpendicular to one another. If the fore finger indicates the direction of magnetic
field and middle finger indicates direction of current in the conductor, then the
thumb indicates the direction of the motion of conductor.

40
4.3.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR:
Figure I show a uniform magnetic field in which a straight conductor
carrying no current is placed. The conductor is perpendicular to the direction of
the magnetic field. In figure II the conductor is shown as carrying a current away
from the viewer, but the field due to the N and S poles has been removed. There is
no movement of the conductor during the above two conditions. In figure III the
current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field.
The field due to the current in the conductor supports the main field above
the conductor, but opposes the main field below the conductor.

Fig 4.5 Magnetic Function

The result is to increase the flux density in to the region directly above the
conductor and to reduce the flux density in the region directly below the conductor.
It is found that a force acts on the conductor, trying to push the conductor
downwards as shown by the arrow. If the current in the conductor is reversed, the
strengthening of flux lines occurs below the conductor, and the conductor will be
pushed upwards (figure-IV).

41
 Now consider a single turn coil carrying a current as shown in the above
figure. In view of the reasons given above, the coil side A will be forced to move
downwards, whereas the coil side B will be forced to move upwards. The forces
acting on the coil sides A and B will be of same magnitude. But their direction is
opposite to one another. As the coil is wound on the armature core which is
supported by the bearings, the armature will now rotate. The commutator
periodically reverses the direction of current flow through the armature. Therefore
the armature will have a continuous rotation.
A simplified model of such a motor is shown in figure VI. The conductors
are wound over a soft iron core. DC supply is given to the field poles for
producing flux. The conductors are connected to the DC supply through brushes
Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple 2-pole DC electric motor. A
simple motor has 6 parts, as shown in the diagram below.
 An armature or rotor
 A commutator
 Brushes
 An axle
 A field magnet
 A DC power supply of some sort

42
 Fig 4.6 Magnetic Field
An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: a motor uses magnets
to create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the
fundamental law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have 2
bar magnets with their ends marked north and south, then the North end of one
magnet will attract the South end of the other. On the other hand, the North end of
one magnet will repel the North end of the other (and similarly south will repel
south). Inside an electric motor these attracting and repelling forces create
rotational motion.
4.3.2 Electromagnets and Motors:
To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the
electromagnet works. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can
understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario. Say
that you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire around a
nail and connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have a
North and South Pole while the battery is connected.

43
 Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the
middle of it, and you suspended it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in
the figure below. If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the
North end of the nail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you
what would happen: The North end of the electromagnet would be repelled from
the north end of the horseshoe magnet and attracted to the south end of the
horseshoe magnet.

Fig 4.7 Electro magnet

The South end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The
nail would move about half a turn and then stop in the position shown.
You can see that this half-turn of motion is simple and obvious because of the way
magnets naturally attract and repel one another. The key to an electric motor is to
then go one step further so that, at the moment that this half-turn of motion
completes, the field of the electromagnet flips. The flip causes the electromagnet to
complete another half-turn of motion.
You flip the magnetic field simply by changing the direction of the electrons
flowing in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the

44
electromagnet flipped at just the right moment at the end of each half-turn of
motion, the electric motor would spin freely.
The Armature:

Fig 4.8 Armature

The armature takes the place of the nail in an electric motor. The armature is
an electromagnet made by coiling thin wire around two or more poles of a
metal core. The armature has an axle, and the Commutator is attached to the
axle. In the diagram above you can see three different views of the same
armature: front, side and end-on. In the end-on view the winding is
eliminated to make the Commutator more obvious. You can see that the
Commutator is simply a pair of plates attached to the axle. These plates
provide the two connections for the coil of the electromagnet.

45
4.3.3 The Commutator and brushes:

Fig 4.9 Commutator and Bushes

The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is accomplished by

two parts: the Commutator and the brushes.
The diagram at the right shows how the Commutator and brushes work
together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip the direction that
the electrons are flowing at just the right moment.
The contacts of the Commutator are attached to the axle of the
electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of
springy metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the Commutator.
Putting It All Together:
When you put all of these parts together, what you have is a complete
electric motor.The armature winding has been left out so that it is easier to see the
Commutator in action. The key thing to notice is that as the armature passes
through the horizontal position, the poles of the electromagnet flip.
Because of the flip, the North Pole of the electromagnet is always above the axle
so it can repel the field magnet's North Pole and attract the field magnet's South
Pole.
If you ever take apart an electric motor you will find that it contains the
same pieces described above: two small permanent magnets, a Commutator, two
46
brushes and an electromagnet made by winding wire around a piece of metal.
Almost always, however, the rotor will have three poles rather than the two poles
as shown in this article. There are two good reasons for a motor to have three
poles:
It causes the motor to have better dynamics. In a two-pole motor, if the
electromagnet is at the balance point, perfectly horizontal between the two poles of
the field magnet when the motor starts; you can imagine the armature getting
"stuck" there. That never happens in a three-pole motor.

47
4.4 TWO STROKE ENGINE:

4.4.1 SPECIFICATION OF TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE:

Type : Two stroke engine

Cooling System : Air Cooled

Bore/Stroke : 50 x 50 mm

Piston Displacement : 98.2 cc

Compression Ratio : 6.6: 1

Maximum Torque : 0.98 kg-m at 5,500RPM

4.5 CHAIN SPROCKET:

4.5.1 SPROCKET FOR PINION:

Sprocket is the major component of this system because it is power

transmitting device. It gets power from the chain drive and makes this system to
work. It is the device which transmits the linear motion of meshing chain drive into
rotary motion by means of the tooth found on it. The sprocket with ball bearings
is said to be free wheel.

48
 Fig 4.10 Sprocket with bearing
Since it is a free wheel it allows the toothed part to rotate free from central
portion in a direction. Hence this type of sprocket is used as the rear power
transmission device in by cycle that makes the wheel to rotate and also allows
toothed area to rotate in anticlockwise when pedaled anticlockwise direction. This
action of sprocket allows attached lifting lever to adjust freely automatically or
manually when it does not engages with pushing lever properly.

Since the sprocket transmits the power from chain drive, it should
have the capability to withstand the heavy loads of engine. So to withstand those
impacts on toothed area, it is made of high carbon steel. The ball bearings are made
up of high chromium steel. Hence all these material gives following properties for
sprocket.

 Heavy duty
 Smooth running
 Tempered
 Long life

Hence the sprocket is considered as heart of this system

4.5.2 ROLLER CHAIN

49
 Fig 4.11 Roller Chain

4.5.3 SPECIFICATION OF SPROCKET:

Table: 4.1

MATERIAL High Carbon Steel

PITCH 12.7mm

WIDTH 30mm

TEETH 16

BALLS High carbon high chromium steel

balls

50
4.5.4 SPECIFICATION OF AXLE:

Table:4.2

MATERIAL Mild Steel

SHAPE Cylindrical rod

LENGTH 50mm

DIAMETER 13mm

INNER DIAMETER OF 15 mm
SUPPORTING AXLE
OUTER DIAMETER OF 17mm
SUPPORTING AXLE
LENGTH 30mm

THICKNESS 3mm

4.6 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:

A centrifugal pump is one of simplest rotating equipment in any process
plant. Centrifugal pump may be single stage (one impeller) or multistage (multiple
impeller) and can be horizontal split or barrel type or vertical type. Higher the
delivery/discharge pressure required more the number of impellers will be needed.
In centrifugal pump energy is imparted to the fluid in form of velocity or kinetic
energy and which is then converted into pressure energy of the fluid that is being
pumped. This form of energy change occurs by virtue of two main parts of the
pump. First the rotating part impeller imparts kinetic energy to the fluids and then

51
the stationary part diffuser or volute converts kinetic energy of the fluid into
pressure energy. All the forms of energy involved in a fluid flow system are
expressed in terms of Head or height of liquid column discharged by the pumps.

The process liquid enters through the suction nozzle of the pump and then
into eye (center) of the impeller. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid in the
space between the vanes and throws outward in the volute and provides centrifugal
acceleration. As the liquid leaves the eye of the impeller a low pressure area is
created causing more liquid to flow at the inlet.
Because the impeller blades/vanes are of curve shape, the liquid is pushed in
a tangential and radial direction by the centrifugal force. The energy created by the
centrifugal force is kinetic energy and proportional to the velocity at the edge or
vane tip of the impeller.
The higher the RPM of the impeller or bigger the size of the impeller, higher
will be the velocity of the liquid and greater kinetic energy will be imparted to the
liquid. This kinetic energy of the liquid leaving the impeller is then harnessed by
creating a resistance to the flow.
The pump volute or diffuser creates the first resistance and then in the
discharge nozzle where it gets further de-accelerated and the kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy according to Bernoulli’s principle. Therefore, the
head (pressure in terms of height of liquid column) developed shall be
approximately equal to the kinetic energy imparted at the periphery of the impeller.

52
 Fig 4.12 Centrifugal pump

4.7 THE FRAME

Fig 4.13 Frame (Material - M.S)

53
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE HYBRID VEHICLE WITH SOLAR PANEL

Fig 4.14 General Block Diagram

The components are arranged as per the block diagram and then tested for proper
functioning of the components. The vehicle is supposed to be run in two ways
either by using the conventional SI engine or by the motor coupled to the rear
wheel by suing the power generated by the solar panel and also due to the rotation
of the motor cum generator unit coupled to the roller chain.

54
 CHAPETR 5

CALCULATIONS

5.1 ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS:-

Compression ratio = (Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)/ Clearance Volume

Here,

Compression ratio = 6.6:1

∴ 6.6 = (98.2 + Vc)/Vc

Vc = 19.64

Assumptions:

1. The component gases and the mixture behave like ideal gases.

2. Mixture obeys the Gibbs-Dalton law

Pressure exerted on the walls of the cylinder by air is P₁

P₁ = (M₁RT)/V

Here,

M₁ = m/M = (Mass of the gas or air)/ (Molecular Weight)

R = Universal gas constant = 8.314 KJ/Kg mole K.

T₁ = 303 ºK

V₁ = V = 253.28 x 10¯⁶ m³

Molecular weight of air = Density of air x V mole

55
 Here,

Density of air at 303ºK = 1.165 kg/m³

V mole = 22.4 m³/Kg-mole for all gases.

∴Molecular weight of air = 1.165 x 22.4

∴P₁ = {[(m₁/ (1.165 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/253.28 x 10¯⁶

P₁ = 381134.1 m₁

Let Pressure exerted by the fuel is P₂

P₂ = (N₂ R T)/V

Density of petrol = 800 Kg/m³

∴P₂ = {[(M₂)/ (800 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/ (253.28 x 10¯⁶

P₂ = 555.02 m₂

Therefore Total pressure inside the cylinder

PT = P₁ + P₂

= 1.01325 x 100 KN/m²

56
∴381134.1 m₁ + 555.02 m₂ = 1.01325 x 100 ------------------------- (1)

Calculation of air fuel ratio:

Carbon = 86%

Hydrogen = 14%

We know that,

1Kg of carbon requires 8/3 Kg of oxygen for the complete combustion.

1Kg of carbon sulphur requires 1 Kg of Oxygen for its complete

combustion.

Therefore,

The total oxygen requires for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

= [(8/3c) + (3H₂) + S] Kg

Little of oxygen may already present in the fuel, then the total oxygen
required for complete combustion of Kg of fuel

57
 = {[(8/3c) + (8H₂) + S] - O₂} Kg

As air contains 23% by weight of Oxygen for obtain of oxygen amount of

air required = 100/23 Kg

∴Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

= (100/23) {[(8/3c) + H₂ + S] - O₂} Kg

So for petrol 1Kg of fuel requires = (100/23) {[(8/3c) x 0.86 + (8 x 0.14)]}

= 14.84 Kg of air

∴Air fuel ratio = m₁/m₂ = 14.84/1

= 14.84

∴ m₁ = 14.84 m₂-------------------------- (2)

Substitute (2) in (1)

1.01325 x 100 = 3.81134 (14.84 m₂) + 555.02 m₂

∴m₂ = 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg/Cycle

Mass of fuel flow per cycle = 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg cycle

Therefore,

58
 Mass flow rate of the fuel for 2500 RPM

[(1.791 x 10¯⁵)/3600] x (2500/2) x 60

= 3.731 x 10¯⁴ Kg/sec

Calculation of calorific value:

By Delong’s formula,

Higher Calorific Value = 33800 C + 144000 H₂ + 9270 S

= (33800 x 0.86) + (144000 x 0.14) + 0

HCV = 49228 KJ/Kg

Lower Calorific Value = HCV – (9H₂ x 2442)

= 49228 – [(9 x 0.14) x 2442]

= 46151.08 KJ/Kg

LCV = 46.151 MJ/Kg

Finding Cp and Cv for the mixture:

We know that,

Air contains 77% N₂ and 23% O₂ by weight

But total mass inside the cylinder = m₁ + m₂

= 2.65 x 10¯⁴ + 1.791 x 10¯⁵ Kg

59
 = 2.8291 x 10¯⁴ Kg

(1) Weight of nitrogen present = 77% = 0.77 Kg in 1 Kg of air

∴In 2.65 x 10¯⁴ Kg of air contains,

= 0.77 x 2.65 x 10¯⁴ Kg of N₂

= 2.0405 x 10¯⁴ Kg

Percent of N₂ present in the total mass

= (2.0405 x 10¯⁴/2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 72.125 %

(1) Percentage of oxygen present in 1 Kg of air is 23%

Percentage of oxygen present in total mass

= (0.23 x 2.65 x 10¯⁴)/(2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 21.54 %

(2) Percentage of carbon present in 1 Kg of fuel 86%

Percentage of carbon present in total mass

= (0.866 x 1.791 x 10¯⁵)/ (2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 5.444%

60
(3) Percentage of Hydrogen present in 1 Kg of fuel 14%

Percentage of Hydrogen present in total mass

= (0.14 x 1.791 x 10¯⁵)/ (2.8291 x 10¯⁴)

= 0.886 %

Total Cp of the mixture is = ∑msi Cpi

Cp = (0.72125 x 1.043) + (0.2154 x 0.913)

+ (0.54444 x 0.7) + (8.86 x 10¯³ x 14.257)

Cp = 1.1138 KJ/Kg.K

Cv = ∑msi Cvi

= (0.72125 x 0.745) + (0.2154 x 0.653)

+ (0.05444 x 0.5486) + (8.86 x 10¯³ x

10.1333)

= 0.8 KJ/Kg.K

(All Cvi, Cpi values of corresponding components are taken from clerks table)

n For the mixture = (Cp/Cv)

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 = 1.11/0.8

n = 1.38

Pressure and temperature at various PH:

P₁ = 1.01325 x 100 bar

= 1.01325 bar

T₁ = 30ºC = 303 K

P₂/P₁ = (r)ⁿ¯¹

Where,

P₁ = 1.01325 bar

r = 6.6

n = 1.38

∴P₂ = 13.698 bar

T₂ = (r)ⁿ¯¹ x T₁

Where,

62
 T₁ = 303 K

∴T₂ = 620.68 K

Heat Supplied by the fuel per cycle

Q = MCv

= 1.79 x 10¯⁵ x 46151.08

Q = 0.8265 KJ/Cycle

0.8265 = MCv (T₃ - T₂)

T₃ = 4272.45 K

(P₂ V₂) / T₂ = (P₃ V₃) / T₃

Where,

V₂ = V₃

∴P₃ = (T₃ x P₂)/T₂

Where,

P₃ = 94.27 bar

P₄ = P₃ / (r)ⁿ

∴P₄ = 6.973 bar

T₄ = T₃ / (r)ⁿ¯¹

= 2086.15 K

POINT POSITION PRESSURE (bar) TEMPERATURE

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POINT-1 1.01325 30 ºC 303 K

POINT-2 13.698 347.68 ºC 620.68 K

POINT-3 94.27 3999.45 ºC 4272.45 K

POINT-4 6.973 1813.15 ºC 2086.15 K

5.2 SPROCKET CALCULATION:

Wire diameter = 3 mm = 0.003 m

Coil outer diameter (d) = 27 mm = 0.027m

Coil inner diameter = 21mm = 0.021m

No. of coils (n) = 17

Free length of spring (L) = ߨdN

3.14x0.027x17=1.44126 m

Span weight = 0.056+0.400 kg

= 0.456 kg

F=K×X

F = 1.732x1.21536

F = 2.105 N

5.3 TORQUE CALCULATION OF ROLLER CHAIN:

64
T = FXR

T =2.105X0.11

T =0.2315 N-m

Torque due to stand weight

Stand weight = 400 gm.

Spring weight = 56 gm.

Combined weight of spring and stand = 400+56 gm.

= 0.456 kg

Force due to stand weight =

mg sin θ = 0.456x9.81xsin500

= 3.4267 N

Torque due to stand weight

=FxR

= 3.4267x0.11

= 0.3769471

Total torque (Ta)

= 0.2315+0.376947

Ta= 0.6087 N-m.

CHAPTER 6

65
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The aspect of splicing of a hydraulic pump with the Hybrid Spark Ignition
engine is successfully completed and checked for desirable outcomes. The major
required result which is the extraction of double the amount of electric power from
the battery due to the energies from solar and mechanical means is obtained
successfully.

Further increment in efficiency of the overall structure and decreased

pollution due to suppressed emission of green house gases to the atmosphere is
attained effectively. Reduction in high overall costs for driving the vehicle due to
over usage of fossil fuels is reduced.

Since the pump is detachable when not needed, it is very simple and
robust to understand the mechanism of the vehicle by all even the illiterates.

CHAPTER 7
66
 COST ESTIMATION

7.1 MATERIAL COST:

TABLE 7.1

Sl. PARTS Qty. Material Amount

No. (Rs)
i. SOLAR PANEL, 1 Aluminum 700
and class
ii. BATTERY, 1 Lead acid and 500
plastic
iii. DC MOTOR, 2 Electronics 500
iv. WIRING SETUP, 2m Copper 400
v. FRAME SUPPORT. 1 M.S 700
vi Two stroke engine 1 Cast iron 1000
vii Chain sprocket 1 Cast iron 200
viii Centrifugal pump 1 Cast iron 700

7.2 OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + labor cost

= 4700+3000

67
 = 7700

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

= 1540

Total cost = Material Cost + machine cost + Overheads

= 4400+1000+1540

= 6940

7.3 TOTAL COST

Total cost of the project =7000

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

68
 This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and
experience, to use our knowledge. We feel that the project work is a good solution
to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

1. The “HYBRID TWO WHEELER WITH HYDRAULIC PUMP” is

working with satisfactory results.
2. The automation cost becomes very low when compared to
conventional automotives.
3. The vehicle can serve a dual purpose; both as a commercial vehicle
and also as an irrigating apparatus.
4. Simpler design and construction of the setup which helps in better
understanding of the components.
5. Easy replacement of components due to minimized usage of
unnecessary components.
6. The operating principle is simple and robust which enables in effective
operation by all. The machine can work with ease and less effort.
7. By using innovative techniques, this system can be modified and
developed based on the human need in our day to day life.

Further changes in design and addition of necessary improved components

in the future are absolutely feasible because of the simpler design and ease of
operation.

REFERENCES
1 Gupta, R.B., Automobile Engineering
2 Singh, Kirpal, Automobile Engineering, Vol -2
3 Ganesan, V., Internal Combustion Engine.
4 Ravi Krishnan.A ,Environmental science and Engineering
5 Sermaraj M , DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF PEDAL OPERATOR
RECIPOCATING WATER PUMP

69
6 The Text Book about “Plug-in hybrid and solar vehicles” by Toyota
Automobiles Ltd.,
7 Ma Xianmin , propulsion system design scheme for EVs requiring high
power density.
8 Kuen-Bao, the mathematical modeling, analysis and simulation of a novel
hybrid power train used in a scooter.
9 Bauml and Simic, the importance of vehicle simulations in designing the
hybrid electric vehicles
10 Cuddy and Keith , textbook of a parallel and series configured hybrid
vehicles likely feasible in next decade

70