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MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

AURANGABAD

B.A.LL.B. (HONS.)

SEMESTER - IV

PROJECT
FOR
POLITICAL SCIENCE– II
On the topic:

NATIONAL POWER IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

BY: SOUMYA THAKUR

ROLL NO: 50
SUBMITTED TO:-

K. VINAY KUMAR

(FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE)


INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION

2. NATIONAL POWER

3. ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER

4. CONCLUSION

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION

: THE CONCEPT OF POWER

The Concept of power has been an inseparable element with the life of man and his interaction with the
world since the dawn of the civilization. In its simplest form power can be defined as the ability to
influence others or in a broader sense, the strength or capacity that provides the ability to influence the
behaviour of other actors in accordance with one’s own objectives. According to Hans J. Morgenthau,
“the struggle for power is universal in time and space and is an undeniable fact of experience”. However
the concept of power should not be contradicted with “influence”. While power is the possession of a
certain potential element, influence is its practical use to create an impact.

The form and the shape of power have been subjected to change with the evolution of mankind in to the
modern times. In the early days of human life power was exercised through violence. The constant wars
during the Greek and Roman civilizations especially between the city states of Athens and Sparta prove
this fact. Centuries later with the industrial revolution, a powerful and influential class of bourgeoisie
emerged wielding economic power. Thus the epicentre of power changed from violence to wealth. In the
modern century which is still considerably influenced by the power of economy, there is also a trend in
which knowledge is wielding power hand in hand with wealth or economy.

2. NATIONAL POWER

The concept of power also has its linkages to international relations because power is “vital and
inseparable feature of the state system”. However in the context of international relations power is related
to states and its involvement with other states and thus is called national power. The importance of
national power is not confined to super powers or great powers but all the states in the international arena
including the small powers.

Before analysing about national power it is worthwhile to distinguish between the tiers of power
hierarchy. A super power is a state that wields immense power in the international system that it has
almost no equals. The present world has only one super power that is USA. Below superpowers are
generally accepted powerful states that exert much power on the international system. According to the
World Bank they are the states with high income, better standards of living, relatively less population and
high Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In the contrary small powers that comprise of a majority of states in
the world today have low income levels, high populations and a low GDP. They are not yet powerful
enough to make an impact to the international relations such as most Asian and African States.

However nations, may they be powerful or small, seek power for their own benefit or “for most, power
like money is instrumental, to be used primarily for achieving or defending other goals like prestige,
security or territory”. Morgenthau says,
“All policies domestic and international reveal three basic patterns, that is all political phenomena can
be reduced to one of three basic types. A political policy seeks either to keep power, to increase power or
to demonstrate power”

States may resort to use the national power acquired from its myriad of elements such as economy,
military power and geographical potentials, in order to influence other states in the region or even the
entire international system. For this they may employ hard power, a rather violent form of influence as
against soft power which is the use of non-violent means of influence. For example the USA has long
been practicing hard power to influence the world by waging war whereas the emerging giant China
prefers to use soft power like its best known Strategy of String of Pearls via providing economic aid
which is non-violent yet very influential.

National power is a relative concept and should not be considered absolute. There is no other yardstick to
gauge the power of states other than its comparison with other states. Moreover one country may not
wield the same amount of power and influence over all the other states. For instance a European
developed state like France or the United Kingdom (UK) have relatively more power than India but,
before the USA both France and the UK will appear less powerful. This relativity is also caused in terms
of elements of power. That is a state with a high economic power will have relatively less military power
as in the case with Belgium.

National power is also subject to growth and decline. If one traces back the history of international
relations, some states that were formerly powerful have now become powerless, powerless states have
gained power, and some states have been able to sustain their power throughout. The former great
civilizations of Greek and Rome have long been declined, the Soviet Union who represented one
powerful polar during the bi-polar world of Cold War has disintegrated. Japan and Germany despite their
devastation during the Second World War (WWII) have acquired power and Middle East states became
powerful after discovering oil and founding the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
USA has been able to considerably sustain their super power status since its first involvement after
casting aside the isolationist policy in the international affairs during the First World War (WWI).

This leads to another feature of national power which shows its situational nature or its dynamism over
being static. The possession of a high national power does not mean that a state always can influence
states that have relatively less national power, but everything depends on a given situation. Not only
powerful states may sometimes be obliged to give in despite the immense power they wield but also small
states may succeed in exercising power against powerful states. The best known examples are the
Vietnam War in which the small impoverished state of Vietnam defeated the Super power USA and the
Iran Hostage Crisis in which the USA had to give in to revolutionary group of Iranian students who took
into hostage American diplomats. Similarly states that have national power may sometimes prefer to
refrain from exercising it due to concerns of destruction and due to the pressure from the international
community. The best example is USA and Israel not using their nuclear weapons against the bitterest of
their enemies in the Middle East.

National power also comprises of potential and actual power. States may have power within its territory
but it is the conversion of this potential power to practice or to actual power which makes them truly
powerful. For the USA the isolationist policy effectively contributed to increase potential power within
the state which later helped them to turn it into actual power during WWI and later to sustain power and
influence globally. Similarly OPEC assisted oil rich Middle Eastern states to claim a say in international
affairs by turning potential oil resources into an asset powerful enough to influence the super power USA
(Yom Kippur war and the Oil Crisis of 1973). However some other states, mostly Asian states with the
potential power elements such as natural resources have not yet been able to climb up the power ladder
simply due to their inability to turn the potentials to actual power.

While national power is a collective whole of different elements such as economy and military
preparedness, the presence or absence of one factor does not result in the acquisition or decline of national
power. In simple sense, one factor alone cannot decide whether a state is powerful or not because as
already discussed national power is a relative rather than an absolute concept. Therefore the large
population of India, the sophisticated army of Switzerland, the large landmass of Brazil or the industries
of Belgium do not alone raise them up to the status of Super powers. This error that occurs when one
element is used to decide the entire degree of a state’s national power is defined as the “fallacy of the
single factor” by Morgenthau. Thus power should always be understood in a multidimensional
interrelationship. This is understood more given the globalized nature of the contemporary world because
every state both powerful and small depends on each other. USA may be a super power due to the
possession of economic power and military power but yet it has to depend on the OPEC for oil as a
natural resource.

3. ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER

According to the U.S. Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, “National Power is the sum of all
resources available to a nation in the pursuit of national objectives 4. Therefore the evaluation of national
power is difficult and it can only be done in terms of various elements of power. However they are rather
difficult to be categorized likewise though it is done for the sake of study. This classification is done by
different scholars in different perspectives. Morgenthau divided them as “relatively stable elements”
(geography, natural resources) versus “elements that are subject to change” (economy, population). As for
Organski, elements of national power can basically be classified as “natural” (geography, natural
resources) and “social” (economy, military capability). In the contrary Couloumbis and Wolfe divided
them as “tangible” (natural resources, military strength) and “intangible” (leadership, nationalism). E. H.
Carr divided them into three categories as military power, economic power and power over opinion.
Nevertheless for the purpose of analysis elements of national power can be generally divided as below.
3.1 GEOGRAPHY

“The foreign policy of a country is determined by its geography”- Napoleon

Geography has been a bane and a boon for politics and international relations throughout history. But its
influence is undisputedly accepted. The unchanging influence exerted by geography including, the
location, the size of the land, climate on international relations despite the advancement of other spheres
of influence is significant. The best proof of this influence is the birth of a new field of study as
“geopolitics” which directs to the study of politics in relation to geography. Geopolitics decides how
various factors of a state’s geography determine a state’s foreign policy options and its position in the
hierarchy of states5. The term geopolitics was coined by the Swedish political scientist RudolfKjellen in
1930s but it was brought to spotlight by Alfred Mahan and John McKinder in the 19th century. Mahan
wrote in “The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1600-1783” how naval power was the key to
national power in the contemporary world and how a state with the authority in high seas can have the
authority in international relations. This factor can easily be proved by the naval power of contemporary
super powers, especially the UK. Their naval power helped them discover new lands and their
establishment of colonies around the world made them the greatest empire wielding immense power.
Similarly in 1919 Mackinder added to Mahan’s thesis by his famous Heartland Theory in which he
argued that the state that controlled the territory between Germany and Siberia, bound by Volga River, the
Arctic Ocean, the Yangtze River and the Himalaya mountain range could control the world both
geographically and politically. “Who rules Eastern Europe commands the Heartland. Who rules the
Heartland commands the World-Island (Eurasia-Africa). Who rules the world-island commands the
world”.

3.2 Location of the state.

An important aspect of geopolitics is the location of a state. It is the strategic location of a state that
matters other than its relative location. A state surrounded by sea, mountains or other natural boundaries
will have a different degree of power than a state which is surrounded by other states. Location affects a
country’s culture and economy because it allows influence by surrounding cultures. It also decides
whether a state becomes a land power, sea power or simply a battle ground or a buffer zone like Tibet
between China and India. Location contributes to security of a state as in the case with Switzerland whose
location near the entrance to many other states and its being surrounded by the Alps Mountains assure its
security.

The location of England near the continent of Europe but as a separated land shielded her from
continental struggles and helped develop her unique culture. American continent’s location far from
Europe separated by the Atlantic Ocean facilitated its isolationist policy and Russia’s location in the
fringes of the West and lack of secure borders help to explain its historically difficult relations with the
West. However the location of USA, UK and Russia has made them immune to land attacks and their
coastlines assist them to improve their naval power.

The location of the state is not only relevant for powerful states. For example, Afghanistan’s location
close to Asia, China and Central Asia and its being landlocked make it prone to invasion
3.3 Size and topography

The size of a state is important because it can support a large population and facilitate large scale
agricultural activities and industries. At the same time a large landmass can hold more natural resources.
The size of the land and its impact on security of the state is also significant because while small states are
vulnerable to invasions a state with a large landmass may be less prone to external attacks. The best
example is Russia whose immensely large land area has historically protected it from attacks, the most
notable ones being the failed attempt of Napoleon to invade Russia in 1800s and the more recent
Operation Barbarossa by Germany during the WWII. That may be why historically states attempted to
increase their claim of land which explains Adolf Hitler’s obsession to expand the land area claimed by
Germany with his so-called policy of finding “living space” or “lebensraum” for Germans. The most
current example to prove how even already powerful states are in the quest of more land area is Russia
and its leader Vladimir Putin’s Eurasian Dream. On the contrary states like Nepal and Tuvalu were a
constant victim of invasions due to their small land area.The topography is also contributing for national
power via

its contribution to economy. According to Palmer and Perkins, “as a prime determinant of climate and
rainfall, topography has an obvious and important bearing on economy and culture”.

For instance, a state’s rivers may facilitate economic activities and perhaps help to define its territorial
boundaries. Plains and valleys are contributory for agriculture like the great European Plain in Russia
where world’s finest wheat fields are found. The Himalaya range providing security to China and India,
the Pyrenees range protecting Spain and the English Channel securing UK are some advantages of their
respective topographies. However it should be noted that the isolation of Burma for a long time was also
due to a topographical reason; mountain ranges.

3.4 Climate

While location, size and topography decide climate of a land, climate decides economic, social and
military aspects of a state. It is a generally accepted truth that world’s most powerful empires and even
now the most powerful state actors of the international system such as USA and other European states are
found in the temperate zone. The mild climate of this zone is favourable for living, facilitates agricultural
and industrial activities and enhances the productivity of people. In the contrary the small states in the
tropical zone of earth which are exposed to heat and relatively high rainfall are generally considered weak
due to this impact of climate despite their possession of other power elements such as natural resources
and a high population. However it is the unique climate of South East Asia with constant monsoonal rains
which posed a considerable disadvantage to USA in its lost in Vietnam War while bringing victory to the
small and powerless Vietnam. Moreover there are some regions on earth which are completely
unfavourable for human inhabitation such as the frozen snowy poles of north and south and the deserts of
the Middle East (Sahara desert), of South America (Atacama desert) and Australia whose two thirds of
the land comprising of deserts (Great Sandy and Great Victoria deserts) result in extremely hot climate.
Most of these are found in small states which hinders their achievement of national power.
01. Natural Resources and Raw Materials

The distinction between natural resources and raw materials is defined in different ways. Palmer and
Perkins “make it clear that natural resources and raw materials are not the same” 7 while Morgenthau
defines raw materials and food as sub categories of natural resources. In this discussion however they
shall be discussed under natural resources. Natural resources according to Palmer and Perkins are “gifts of
nature” including minerals, flora and fauna and soil. These resources are assets which have a potential
value not only at times of war but in the constant course of economy, industrial activities and a state’s
interaction with the international system. Natural resources are not equally distributed in the world
creating interdependence among state for natural resources.

But the mere possession of natural resources is not sufficient unless a state is capable to turn it to an
actual power. That is the reason why the less powerful states of the tropical zone despite their abundance
in natural resources have failed to acquire relatively sufficient national power. Lack of technological
expertise, ignorance and strategy are main reasons behind this failure because the best use of natural
resources can be achieved with its effective fusion with technology. That is precisely why the USA has
reaped advantages of its availability of natural resources and advanced technology which has helped to
elevate itself to the position of a super power while tropical states with natural resources, such as most
African states with diamond and gold mines and Asian states still remain comparatively powerless. A
wide variety of resources in these states, such as oil reserves, maritime resources such as rare metals,
gems and diamonds remain unexplored.

The advancement of technology and the industrialization have increased the demand for natural resources
and raw materials. Palmer and Perkins defined raw materials as opposed to natural resources as something
to be produced themselves such as rubber and cotton. However these two terms are defined, they are
equally important for economy and war. Even a former French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau once
said “one drop of oil is worth one drop of blood of our soldiers”.8

Other important mineral resources include cobalt, quartz and even uranium and plutonium. Iran’s

possession of uranium mines within their territory, in Saghand, Gachin and Yazd has fuelled their nuclear
research.9 Presently Crimea’s richness in crude oil has brought it to the attention of Russia and the reason
why many Asian states like China and Laos claim for Spratley island is also to claim its natural resources
as a potential element to enhance national power.

02. Population

The term population does not only direct towards the number of people living in a state but it is a term
that encapsulates age, ethnicity and other demographic factors. While a large population is an important
factor that decides national power, it is not the primary factor. Having a large population is only effective
as long as the population can contribute to the nation’s betterment in agriculture, industries and even
military. On that scenario the large but contributory population of China and USA has a comparative
advantage over the population of India which does not entirely contribute. However states like Japan and
Singapore are blessed with their productive population despite being less in numbers.
In most small or developing states high population growth has become a hindrance to achieve more
national power because it leads to poverty, unrest and insecurity. Their population growth is very high
that these states do not possess adequate resources to thrive its people. At the same time the ethnic
diversity in most of these states often result in ethnic strife which poses adverse effects on the
enhancement of power. For example multi-ethnic Sri Lanka underwent a three decade long ethnic
conflict, a time and resources that were spent would have been sufficient for it to gain more power. In the
contrary less diverse population of Sweden contributes to its peaceful lifestyle.

03. Military Power

Military power is the longest surviving element of national power. For centuries states have paid more
attention to national security and therefore, military preparedness has been their priority. A traditional
idea regarding war is its victory or defeat is a decisive factor of the entire national power. But in the
present context the definition of military power can hardly be confined likewise. Military power today is
not only about the possession of advanced weaponry but also about strategic planning, good leadership
and the public support.

However despite the determination of the UNO to “to save succeeding generations from the scourge of
war”man’s inherent lust for blood and the never ending power struggle fuelled by mistrust among states
have dragged the world into a security dilemma and an arms race. It is also the powerful nations with
military capabilities that rule the world other than organizations like the UNO. Centuries before G. Lowes
Dickinson pointed out the absurdity of reliance of every state on power was “to defend itself from attack”.
In such a context military power has become a vital element of national power.

States that possess nuclear power have an enormous advantage over non-nuclear powers. India and
Pakistan despite their scarcity of other elements have much power and influence due to their nuclear
arsenals. Similarly, the military exercise of Abel Archer 83 was a contemporary controversy simply
because it was believed to be a preparation of a real nuclear strike. It was so realistic that other states put
their armies in alert, showing how powerful and influential military preparedness, particularly that of a
nuclear power can be.

The use of technology in improving military power is a modern necessity because in a highly advanced
world use of armaments should fuse with technological innovations. The best example is the military and
technological innovations of the USA. Its spy drones are considered the stealthiest even to avoid radar
detections. Yet, a state’s obsession in military power as that can be explained in a defensive realist stand
point can have negative effects. For instance, excessive military budget can cause economic downturns in
the long run. The current economic crisis of the USA is partly attributed to its over expenditure on
military affairs.

Morgenthau questioned whether a state should strive to develop large scale armaments instead of
developing a small but better equipped army through military research. Given the declining public
support for war and the takeover of military power by economic power as the most important element
Morgenthau’s argument would make more sense. On that scenario, the question whether India and
Pakistan should enhance their economy and develop a better equipped army instead of developing nuclear
weapons, looms.

04. Psychological elements


The evaluation of psychological elements is the most difficult among elements of national power because
they are subjective. Among these psychological elements, national character can be evaluated in the
manner other states gauge one state and according to general notions. For example, ordinary Americans
are more concerned of personal liberties than of politics or international affairs. Thus they hardly question
the actions of their government in international affairs but they stand against social injustice. Similarly
Russians admire nationalism, Englishmen have their own historical pride, Japanese are efficient and duty
conscious, Germans are well disciplined, Chinese are pragmatic and South Asians due to their hot and
extreme weather are considered lethargic. These respective characteristics of nationalities have evidently
influenced them to enhance or diminish their national power. For example, the efficiency of the Japanese
helped Japan to rise again after the devastation by two nuclear attacks while the lethargy of Asians have
resulted in the lack of national power in most of its small states. It should be noted that these are generally
accepted characteristics by man but that it is impossible to bracket people of a particular nationality
having a particular character trait. However sometimes obsession of a specific national character can also
be disadvantageous. The nationalism and patriotism of Germans were propelled by Adolf Hitler to a point
that it reached jingoism which caused the death of millions of Jews and a devastative war worldwide.

National will or moral is another factor of the psychological element. National will or national moral
refers to the determination as a state to achieve a certain national goal. Sometimes national will as a
psychological factor can be more powerful than all the other elements of national power. A very good
example to show how the collective national will or moral can lead to incredible victories is the Vietnam
War in which Vietnamese could defeat the super power USA which had far better military equipment and
national power than Vietnamese guerrilla tactics. But will power won over. The stability in neoliberal
countries like Cuba, Egypt, Iraq and Venezuela that have national moral despite the opposition by the
Western world is another example. Germany under Hitler’s Nazi rule and Italy under Mussolini’s Fascist
rule are examples for collective national moral although it later went to extremes.

National integration or nationalism is what brings people of different ethnicities under one flag. As
long as people are unified as a nation despite their ethnicities, it constitutes much national power which
minimizes external influence. But in the present world lack of integration and sense of nationalism in
small powers have been disadvantageous for them. For example, Iraq and Afghanistan were vulnerable to
invasions due to their lack of integration and disputes with Kurdish minority. Rwanda has a very less
integration because of its long term conflicts between Hutu majority and Tutsi minority (about 10 per
cent). On the contrary thanks to the high degree of national integration, China and North Korea has
remained immune to external influence.

05. Propaganda

Propaganda is an important element of national power because it acts as a catalyst to reconcile conflicting
opinions both at home and abroad. It is used as a strategy of influence both positively and negatively but
in the real context of international relations the technique of propaganda is used with a negative
connotation. According to Palmer and Perkins there are several methods of propaganda 14.

 Methods of presentation: Use of propaganda to gain acceptance. They often depict a


biased image of the actual situation instead of giving a neutral picture. Propaganda
campaigns carried out by the two super powers during the Cold War are examples
 Techniques for gaining attention: Use of speeches, declarations and other programmes to
gain attention. Embassies using cultural programmes and attachés to popularize their home
country, the British Council propagating England and English language, the Alliance
Française promoting French culture and the US info agency promoting American
influence worldwide are examples.
 Devises for gaining response: Use of propaganda to appeal to basic emotions such as
justice and liberty
 Methods of gaining acceptance: Trying to establish a link with people and states that have
similar views (communist states with other communist states, capitalistic states with other
capitalist states, Pakistan with Muslim states)

The Radio Hanoi used by the Vietnamese against USA during the Vietnam War, Voice of America and
the famous symbol of US influence “Uncle Sam”, Nazi propaganda used to justify holocaust are some
other examples that manifest the importance of propaganda as an element of national power to both
powerful and small states.

06. Leadership
Leadership is an equally important element in international relations and international politics because
identifying and responding to changes in the international system occurs through a head of state. Effective
leadership of certain leaders are highly acknowledged by the entire international community that it
becomes an asset or a national power to the state he belongs to. At the same time a leader with a proper
diplomatic plan and a talent to implement it has more opportunity to achieve national interests may it be
security or economic development. On the other hand a talented leader with a major public support can
even raise a powerless state to the status of a powerful state. The best example is Lee Kuan Yew who
completely transformed the small poor state of Singapore to a Newly Industrialized Country which is now
an economic giant of the South East Asian region. But unsuccessful leaders like Muammar Gaddafi of
Libya and Hosni Mubarak of Egypt were detested by their own people as displayed during the Arab
Spring.
Nevertheless, wise leadership can assist a state to initiate ties with an enemy states like Richard Nixon
who visited China with the intention of initiating diplomatic ties. A well planned, farsighted and
pragmatic leader is considered a charismatic leader.

07. Ideology
Ideology has long been used as a technique to strengthen foreign policies and to promote it worldwide.
Some states do not hesitate to employ ideologies to influence other states. Ideologies, viewed in a sense of
political action can connote its use to influence other states in the guise of a mere ideology. The USA
providing financial support to states like Nicaragua, Panama and Cambodia was merely to propagate US
capitalistic ideology against the communist ideology of their foe, the Soviet Union. Thus ideology can be
an important tool of enhancing national power of both powerful and small states. Ideologies like
democracy along with other related concepts of human rights empower states both powerful and small
states. (e.g. democratic peace theory). Nazi and Fascist ideologies during the WWII which initially gained
huge public support, the opposing ideologies of the two power blocs during the Cold War and the current
anti-capitalistic ideologies of Latin American states of Cuba, Bolivia and Venezuela against USA are
some other examples.

Ideologies can also deteriorate with time and instead of empowering a state it can cause its decline. The
best known examples are how Nazism and Fascism not only lead Germany and Italy but the whole world
to devastation and how Gorbachev’s Perestroika and Glasnost reforms partly caused the dissolution of the
Soviet Union.

However ideologies are always considered inferior or subordinate to national interest which matters more.
In order to achieve national interest states may act despite their ideologies. For example in order to ensure
security which is the most important among the national interests, states enter into alliances such as the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Counter Alliances such as Warsaw Pact without
adhering to any particular ideology.

4.CONCLUSION

“Like sovereignty and nationalism, Palmer and Perkins state, national power is a vital and inseparable
feature of the state system. Power is some kind of means by which states implement their policies,
domestic as well as foreign”15. States use different methods to exercise this power and influence over
other states, usually in a negative approach. Influence, use of force, authority and pressurising are some
such methods. However these methods vary from positive methods such as persuasion to negative and
more violent methods such as use of force.
The concept of power has evolved with time and the advancement of world and its relations. The meaning
of power and the elements that determine national power have also changed with time and trends that
modern world experiences.
The elements of national power as hitherto discussed have a capacity to change the nature of a state’s
power position. It can make a weak state powerful, a powerful state powerless or enhance the existing
power of a nation. Therefore there are some tools in order to prevent states wielding excessive power such
as actions of international organizations like the UNO, international law, Balance of Power and
disarmament. However all states, powerful and small alike should understand the fact that national power
is not solely dependent on a single factor or an element. On the contrary, as Morgenthau stated in his
theory of the fallacy of the singlefactor national power should be perceived as a collective whole
comprising of both tangible and intangible elements which are equally important. Thus the possession of
a large land mass, natural resources or a large population is not enough if a state has a weak economy or
lack military preparedness. In addition psychological elements such as leadership and national integration
should mingle with other physical elements if a state is to raise itself to a position of a powerful state, let
alone being a super power.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.yourarticlelibrary.com
 m.grin.com
 www.jstor.org

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