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UNIT I CASTING PROCESSES Methods of production processes

Methods of production processes – Production: Converting raw material
comparison – sand casting – mould, pattern, to the finished product.
Casting die – pattern allowances – materials – types –
2 and 3 box moulding process – steps Broadly classified as
involved – core function and core making – I. Casting
runner, riser, gate-purpose – construction, II. Forming
principle, merits, demerits and applications
of die casting, shell moulding, investment III. Fabrication

casting, centrifugal casting, continuous IV. Machining

casting, squeeze casting.

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Methods of production processes Methods of production processes Methods of production processes

Casting
❖ Very oldest process
❖ Only process where liquid metal is used.
❖ Prepare the mould cavity, pour the molten
metal, & remove after solidification.
❖ Used for small batch to very large scale
batch.
❖ Example: Green sand casting, shell
Moulding, Investment casting etc.
Forming
❖ Solid state manufacturing process involving
minimum amount of material wastage and faster
production.
❖ Metal is heated slightly above the solidus
temperature and then large force is applied such
that material flow and the required shape are
obtained.
❖ Set of shape is controlled by die.
❖ Used for large scale production rate
❖ Example: Rolling, Drop Forming, Extrusion,
Drawing etc.
Fabrication
❖ Secondary process.
❖ Involves joining pieces either permanently
(or) temporarily so that they would
perform the necessary function.
❖ Achieved by either (or) both of heat and
pressure and (or) a joining material.
❖ Example: Gas Welding, Thermit Welding,
Soldering, Brazing etc.

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Methods of production processes Casting Process – An Overview Advantages

Material Removal Process
❖ The unwanted material is removed in the form of
chip from the parent material by a harder tool to
obtain the desired shape.
❖ More energy is consumed; also a lot of waste
material is generated in the form of chip.
❖ Very good dimensional accuracy, good surface
finish.
❖ Example: Turning, Drilling, Milling, Grinding, etc.
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a
liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and
then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also known as a casting, which
is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the
process.
Casting materials are usually metals.
Almost all metals can be cast.
Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult to make by
other methods
Molten material can flow into very small sections so that
intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result,
many other operations, such as machining, forging, and
welding, can be minimized or eliminated.
It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or
non-ferrous.
As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large
saving in weight can be achieved.
The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple
and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is
the ideal process.
There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can
only be processed this way.
Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the
casting process.

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Limitations Casting Process – An Overview Steps in Making Sand Castings

Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made
by sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique.
Basic steps in making sand castings:
Many new casting processes have been developed which can Patternmaking
take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy
and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting Core making
process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding
process, and shell molding process.
Molding
The metal casting process is a labor intensive process Melting and pouring
Cleaning

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Steps in Making Sand Castings
Pattern making: The pattern is a physical model of
the casting used to make the mold. The mold is
made by packing some readily formed aggregate
material, such as molding sand, around the pattern.
When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides
the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled with metal
to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow,
as in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns,
referred to as cores, are used to form these cavities.
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Schematic representation of a sand mould
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Steps in Making Sand Castings
Core making: Cores are forms, usually made of
sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form
the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void
space between the core and mold-cavity surface is
what eventually becomes the casting.
Molding: Molding consists of all operations
necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten
metal. Molding usually involves placing a molding
aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting
frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold
cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and
finishing and closing the mold.
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Casting Process
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Steps in Making Sand Castings
Melting and Pouring: The preparation of molten
metal for casting is referred to simply as melting.
Melting is usually done in a specifically designated
area of the foundry, and the molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where the molds are
filled.
Cleaning: Cleaning refers to all operations
necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess
metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale
are removed to improved the surface appearance of
the casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires,
parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection
of the casting for defects and general quality is
performed.
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Basic Terminology
Pattern: A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a
replica of the final product and is used for preparing
mould cavity
Riser: A column of metal placed in the mold to feed
the casting as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known
as a "feed head."
Runner: The channel through which the molten
metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Cores: A separated part of the mold, made of sand
and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the casting.
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Basic Terminology
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or
bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the molding
structure, it is referred to by various names such as
drag – lower molding flask, cope – upper molding
flask, cheek – intermediate molding flask used in
three piece molding.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten
metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal
into the mold.
Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape
of air and gases.
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Open Mould and Closed Mould
Open mould in which the liquid metal is simply poured until
it fills the open cavity.
Closed mould the closed mold is provided to permit the
molten metal to flow from outside the mold cavity. The closed
mold is more important categories in production casting.
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Basic Terminology
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal
enters the casting cavity.
Parting Line: This is the dividing line between the
two molding flasks that makes up the mold. It
permits removal of the pattern and shows how and
where to open the mold.
Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without
losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture
of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate
proportions.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
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Pattern
A pattern may be defined as a model or a form around which
the sand is packed to give rise to a cavity known as mold
cavity in which when molten metal is poured, the result is the
cast object. lt is the model or replica of the object to be cast
with various allowances.
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Basic Terminology
Chaplet: A metal support used to hold a core in
place in a mold. Not used when a core print will
serve.
Binders: Materials used to hold molding sand
together.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the
top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured.
Shrinkage: The decrease in volume when molten
metal solidifies.
Mould: The mould contains a cavity whose
geometry determines the shape of cast part. Mould
material should posses refractory characteristics
and with stand the pouring temperature
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Pattern
Function:
➢ A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making
a casting.
➢ A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if
the casting requires a core and need to be made hollow.
➢ Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in
the mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
➢ Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth
surfaces reduce casting defects.
➢ A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of
the castings.
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Types of pattern Types of pattern Types of pattern

Loose piece pattern
One piece pattern Sweep pattern
Used when the pattern cannot be
For both green sand and dry sand.
Inexpensive withdrawn when embedded
Made on a wooden board which sweeps the
Made up of one (or) more loose piece.
Simplest shape of the casting into the sand all round the
Main body is first removed and then circumference.
Usually wood loose parts are removed.
The pattern rotates about the post. Once the
Made up of single piece More labor and time consuming. mould is ready, sweep pattern and the post is
Match plate pattern removed.
Split pattern
Consist of a match plate, which is a For producing large casting of circular section
Intricate pattern, withdrawing the flat plate on which a number of split and symmetrical shapes.
pattern from the mould pattern is fastened and there is gate, Gated pattern
runner attach to it.
Separated by means of parting line No. of patterns are connected by a common gate
Separate machine for cope and drag
Used for mass production of smaller size
Aligned by dowel pins and then assembled.
Usually used in machine molding. Skeleton pattern
Upper box is called as cope and Preferred for producing small castings Made from wooden strips Less material cost
rower box is called as drag. on mass scale, accurate casting at Few large casting
faster rate.
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Pattern material Pattern material Pattern material - Wood

Factors to be considered Pattern material should be Advantage Disadvantage
Number of casting to be produced Easily worked, shaped and joined
Inexpensive. Shrinkage & swelling.
Required dimensional accuracy and surface finish Light in weight
Easy availability. Poor wear resistance.
Nature of molding process Strong, hard and durable
Easy to machine. Cannot with stand rough
Method of molding (hand or machine) Resistant to wear and abrasion
Light in weight. handling.
Shape, size, complexity of the casting Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions Low strength.
Easy to join by gluing,
Casting design parameters Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in hence complex shape can
Chance for further order temperature and humidity be obtained.
Available at low cost
Easily repairable .

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Pattern material - Metal
Advantage
More strength & accurate.
Don't absorb moisture,
hence retain their shape.
Long life.
Don't warp.
Greater resistance to
abrasion.
Rapid production in large
quantity.
Good surface finish.
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Pattern allowance
A pattern is always larger in size with final
casting, since it carries various allowances due
to mechanical and metallurgical effects. The
various allowances are
Shrinkage allowance
Machining allowance
Draft or taper allowance
Distortion allowance
Shake allowance
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Pattern material - Plastics
Disadvantage
Relatively expensive.
Tendency to get rusted.
Not easily repaired.
Heavier than wooden.
Aluminum cannot
withstand rough handling.
Cast iron is hard, brittle &
hence easily breaks.
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Pattern allowance
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Pattern material – Plaster & Wax
Advantage Disadvantage Plaster - Advantage Wax - Advantage
Durable. Fragile, hence lighter Made up of plaster of paris Provide good surface finish
Provide a smooth surface. section needs or gypsum cement in water Higher accuracy of casting
reinforcement. High compression strength.
Moisture resistance. Mould cavity doesn't
Doesn't change in shape / May not appreciable in Gypsum cement expands damage, since the pattern
size. jolting and molding on solidification; hence is removed by melting the
machine.
Light weight, good strength. shrinkage of casting can be wax
completely set off Application in investment
Easy to make.
Smooth surface finish, casting process
Wear and corrosion hence reproduce clearly
resistance. defined contours
High strength is achieved
by reinforcement
Easily machinable in wood
working tools
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Pattern allowance
Shrinkage allowance All cast metal shrink and contract Machining allowance
volumetrically after solidification and hence oversize is made
by an amount equal to shrinkage. The metal shrinkage is of
Castings get oxidized-in the mould and during
two types: heat treatment and scales
Liquid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume when To remove surface imperfections and roughness
the metal changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus from casting
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed
the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold. To achieve exact casting dimensions
Solid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume caused To improve the surface finish
when metal loses temperature in solid state. To account for
this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the
material. For example steel contracts to a higher degree
compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a
shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for
the pattern.
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Pattern allowance Pattern allowance Pattern allowance

Draft or taper allowance
This allowance is given to all surface perpendicular to
parting line.
It helps to remove the pattern from the tightly packed
molding sand without damaging the mold cavity.
It imparted on internal as well as external surface
Distortion allowance
Distortion can be eliminated by constructing the pattern
distorted in the opposite direction.
It is given to U or V shaped casting, long thin casting, arms
possesses unequal cooling, portion of casting cooling faster,
irregular shape etc.
Shake allowance
A pattern is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a
wooden piece for easy removal.
This lead to increase the size of the mold cavity.
Hence a negative allowance is provided on the pattern
particularly for large casting.

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Core and Core Prints Core and Core Prints Classification of casting Processes
Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of 1. Conventional Molding Processes
various sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained 1. Green Sand Molding
by using cores. So where coring is required, provision should 2. Dry Sand Molding
be made to support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints 3. Flask less Molding
are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added 2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes
projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on 1. Shell Molding
which the sand core rests during pouring of the mold. The core 2. Sodium Silicate Molding
print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can 3. No-Bake Molding
support the weight of the core during the casting operation. 3. Permanent Mold Processes
Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed 1. Gravity Die casting
horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity. 2. Low and High Pressure Die Casting
A typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with core and 4. Special Casting Processes
core print is shown in Figure. 1. Lost Wax
2. Ceramics Shell Molding
3. Evaporative Pattern Casting
4. Vacuum Sealed Molding
5. Centrifugal Casting

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Green Sand Molding
Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in
metal casting operations. The process utilizes a mold made of
compressed or compacted moist sand. The term "green"
denotes the presence of moisture in the molding sand. The
mold material consists of silica sand mixed with a suitable
bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.
Advantages
Most metals can be cast by this method.
Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of
metal or alloy used
Disadvantages
Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is
not good and machining is often required to achieve the
finished product.
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Sand Mold Making Procedure
The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding
board.
The drag is placed on the board (Figure (a)).
Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a
non sticky layer.
Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers;
then the drag is completely filled.
The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand
rammers. The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too
hard or soft.
After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a
straight bar known as a strike rod.
With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full
depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of
gases during pouring and solidification.
The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board
exposing the pattern.
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Molding Material and Properties
A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for
manufacturing molds and cores. They include molding sand,
system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and
core sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their
processing properties. The properties that are generally
required in molding materials are:
Refractoriness: It is the ability of the molding material to
resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that
it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the
silica sand is highest.
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Sand Mold Making Procedure
Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the
help of locating pins. The cope flask on the drag is located aligning
again with the help of pins (Figure (b)).
The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the
pattern.
A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small
distance from the pattern. Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an
appropriate place.
The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in
the same manner as performed in the drag.
The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is
scooped out at the top to pour the liquid metal.
Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in
the form of paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners
which would give the finished casting a good surface finish.
The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring (see
(Figure (c))
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Molding Material and Properties
Permeability: During pouring and subsequent solidification of
a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated.
These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal
during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the
steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases
are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be
entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To
overcome this problem the molding material must be porous.
Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases
that are generated inside the mold cavity.
Green Strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is
termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the
ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the
mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the
constructed mold retains its shape.
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Molding Material and Properties Molding Sand Composition Molding Sand Composition
Dry Strength: When the molten metal is poured in the mold, The main ingredients of any molding sand Binder
the sand around the mold cavity is quickly converted into dry
sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of are: Base sand, Binder, and Moisture Binders are of many types such as:
the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses • Clay binders,
the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold
• Organic binders and
cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the Base Sand: Silica sand is most commonly • Inorganic binders
metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
used base sand. Other base sands that are Clay binders are most commonly used binding
Hot Strength: As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand
would reach at a high temperature when the metal in the mold also used for making mold are zircon sand, agents mixed with the molding sands to provide
is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand the strength. The most popular clay types are:
to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
is cheapest among all types of base sand Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and
Collapsibility: The molding sand should also have
collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified and it is easily available. Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water
cracks in the castings. Besides these specific properties the which increases its bonding power.
molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have
good thermal conductivity.
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Molding Sand Composition Die Casting Classification

Moisture
Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence
of the required amount of moisture. When water is
added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a
microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the
clay. The amount of water used should be properly
controlled. This is because a part of the water, which
coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding,
while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity.
Die Casting is a metal casting process that is
characterised by forcing the molten metal under
high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity
is created using two hardened tool steel dies which
have been machined into shape and work similarly
to an injection mould during the process.
Most die casting are made from non - ferrous metals
such as zinc, copper, aluminum, magnesium, lead,
tin based alloy
Depending on the type of metal, a hot or cold
chamber machine is used.

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SINGLE CAVITY DIES
As the name indicates, here the No. cavities is only
one. This means the die produces only one
component per shot.
The single cavity are used when,
With the available Die casting machine, only single cavity
die can be accommodated, w.r.t. the locking force, shot
weight and die size.
Required production is less, which does not necessitate a
multiple cavity die.
Component may require center gating.
Complexity of component is such that it requires side cores
in many directions, which may not permit more than one
cavity.
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MULTIPLE CAVITY DIES
Advantages
Production rate is high.
Unit cost per component is less.
Edged gated components can also be placed symmetrically
around the injection center line
Disadvantages
Initial investment of the is more.
With increase in number of cavities, the feed balancing and
thermal balancing becomes more complicated.
With increase in number of cavities, the design and
manufacturing becomes more complex.
These require larger capacity machines which reduces the
number shots per hour. This is because the operating
speed in larger capacity machines is less compared to that
of smaller capacity machines.
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SINGLE CAVITY DIES
Advantages
Die cost is low
Design and manufacturing is easy.
Die is smaller in size, which makes it possible for
use of smaller capacity machine.
Disadvantages
Unit cost per casting is more.
Production capacity is less.
Edged gated component in hot chamber die
casting machine will cause imbalance as they are
placed on one side of the injection centre line
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Single Cavity and Multiple Cavity Die
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MULTIPLE CAVITY DIES
The Multiple cavity dies have more than one or
several cavities and all cavities are similar or
identical, such that identical components are
produced.
Multiple cavities dies are used when,
The required production volume is large.
The available die casting machine can accommodate
more than one cavity die
It becomes economically feasible to go for multiple
die with respect to the investments unit cost price.
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HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING
In hot chamber die casting manufacture, the supply of molten metal
is attached to the die casting machine and is an integral part of the
casting apparatus for this manufacturing operation. The metal for
casting is maintained at an appropriate temperature in a holding
furnace adjacent to, if not part of, the machine. The injection
mechanism is located within the holding furnace and a substantial
part of it is therefore in constant contact with the molten metal.
Pressure is transmitted to the metal by the injection piston, which
forces it through the gooseneck and into the die. On the return stroke
metal is drawn into the gooseneck for the next shot. In this process
there is minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected,
thus minimizing the tendency for turbulent entrainment of air in the
metal during injection. Due to the prolonged contact between the
metal and parts of the injection system hot chamber is restricted to
zincbase alloys. The Zinc alloys are the most widely used in the die
casting process. They have very desirable physical, mechanical and
casting properties. They also have the ability to be readily finished
with commercial electroplated or organic coatings.
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HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING
The essential feature of this process is the independent holding and injection
units. In the cold chamber process metal is transferred by ladle, manually or
automatically, to the shot sleeve. Actuation of the injection piston forces the
metal into the die. This is a single-shot operation. This procedure minimizes
the contact time between the hot metal and the injector components, thus
extending their operating life. However, the turbulence associated with
highspeed injection is likely to entrain air in the metal, which can cause gas
porosity in the castings. The cold chamber process is used for the production
of aluminum and copper base alloys and has been extended to the production
of steel castings. Next to zinc aluminum is the most widely used die-casting
alloy. The primary advantage is it light weight and its high resistance to
corrosion. Magnesium alloy die-castings are also produced and are used where
a high strength–to–weight ratio is desirable.
The mold has sections, which include the “cover” or hot side and the
“movable” or ejector side. The die may also have additional moveable segments
called slides or pulls, which are used to create features such as undercuts or
holes which are parallel to the parting line. The machines run at required
temperatures and pressures to produce a quality part to near netshape.

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GRAVITY DIE CASTING GRAVITY DIE CASTING GRAVITY DIE CASTING

Gravity die casting is a simple casting process which utilises reusable Pros
metallic moulds. The process is primarily used for simple shapes with
some basic coring possible. It is mostly suited to casting light alloys Good surface texture
but can also be used for steel and cast irons. Equipment costs are relatively low
The two halves of the mould are sprayed with a coating (usually No need for applied pressure, so mould designs tend to be quite
silicate based) and then put together using locating pins to align the simple
two halves and clamped. The mould is heated using gas burners prior Scrap metal can be recycled
to pouring the molten metal. The mould will typically have a runner Quick set up times
for pouring and a riser to allow the molten metal to run through, the Cons
filling process is normally aided by spraying the mould with
lubricants just prior to pouring. High percentage of scrap metal
The coating serves two purposes: High occurrence of porosity, but this can be minimized by slower
pouring
to act as a release agent that prevents the molten metal adhering
to the metal die Only good for simple 3D shapes, cannot be used for complex
shapes
to prevent premature solidification of the molten metal
There are new coatings becoming available for gravity die casting
Once poured the mould is allowed to cool before being opened to that are much longer lasting than the silicate based coatings and
release the casting. Further machining will be necessary to remove that prevent the need for constant retouching up and extend the
any excess material and heat treatment may be required dependent useful life of the moulds.
on component use.
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LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING
The process works like this, first a metal die is positioned Low pressure die casting is a metal casting process generally
above a sealed furnace containing molten metal. A refractory used in situations that require high quality manufacturing. In
lined riser extends from the bottom of the die into the molten low pressure casting, molten aluminum is slowly drawn into a
metal. Low pressure air (15 - 100 kPa, 2- 15 psi) is then metal mold or die through a riser tube while kept under
introduced into the furnace. This makes the molten metal rise constant and controlled pressure. This process helps avoid
up the tube and enter the die cavity with low turbulence. After oxidation, cold currents, and air inclusions, generally
the metal has solidified, the air pressure is released . This producing excellent surface finish and highly accurate
makes the metal still in the molten state in the riser tube to dimensions. However, it is much slower and therefore more
fall back into the furnace. After subsequent cooling, the die is costly than high pressure die casting.
opened and the casting extracted.
With correct die design it is possible to eliminate the need of
the riser also. This is because of the directional freezing of the
casting. After the sequence has been established, the process
can be controlled automatically using temperature and
pressure controllers to oversee the operation of more than one
diecasting machine.

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LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING
In the high pressure die casting process the metal is forced into a high grade High pressure die casting uses a machine to inject molten
steel tool at high speed and -pressure. The casting temperature is roughly
metal into permanent metal dies under high pressure. It is a
700°C during casting.
This equipment consists of two vertical platens on which bolsters are located
good technique for manufacturing complex parts with a high
which hold the die halves. One platen is fixed and the other can move so that degree of accuracy, particularly lightweight parts with thin
the die can be opened and closed. A measured amount of metal is poured into walls that require consistent dimensions. The high pressure is
the shot sleeve and then introduced into the mould cavity using a needed to fill the mold completely and avoid solidification
hydraulically-driven piston. Once the metal has solidified, the die is opened
and the casting removed.
during the casting process.
In this process, special precautions must be taken to avoid too many gas High pressure die casting utilizes two distinct velocities. The
inclusions which cause blistering during subsequent heat-treatment or molten metal is first pushed at a low velocity (1st velocity) in
welding of the casting product. order to avoid turbulence and the formation of bubbles. Just
Both the machine and its dies are very expensive, and for this reason pressure before the material enters the mold, the velocity increases (2nd
die casting is economical only for high volume production.
velocity) and the molten metal is injected very quickly into the
High pressure die casting is a competitive casting method when components
have requirements which cannot be achieved by other casting processes such die assembly to fill it completely.
as:
high volumes
better tolerances
smooth surface finish

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HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING
HIGH PRESSURE DIE CASTING VACCUM DIE CASTING
A steel die is enclosed in an airtight bell housing. The housing or
receiver has two openings: the sprue, at the bottom, through which
molten metal enters the die and the vacuum outlet at the top. The
sprue opening is submerged below the surface of the molten metal
and the vacuum is drawn within the receiver, creating a pressure
differential between the die cavity and the molten metal in the
crucible. This pressure differential causes the molten metal to flow up
the sprue and into the die cavity, where it solidifies. The die is
removed from the receiver, opened, and the casting ejected. The cycle
is then repeated with each shot producing from one to several
castings, depending on the number of cavities in the die.
By controlling the vacuum, the pressure differential between the die
cavity and the molten metal can be varied allowing for differential fill
rates necessitated by part design and gating requirements. This
results in tight control of the fill rate which also directly influences
the soundness of the casting. Through proper part design, die design
and the use of the vacuum die process, voids, shrinks, and gas
pockets can be greatly reduced or eliminated in critical areas.

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VACCUM DIE CASTING VACCUM DIE CASTING SQUEEZE CASTING

Because the sprue opening is submerged beneath the surface
of the molten metal, only pure alloy, free from oxides and
dross, can enter the die cavity. This helps to produce clean,
sound castings with minimal foreign materials that detract
from strength, appearance and machinability.
Liquid metal is introduced into an open die, just as in a closed
die forging process. The dies are then closed. During the final
stages of closure, the liquid is displaced into the further parts
of the die. No great fluidity requirements are demanded of the
liquid, since the displacements are small. Thus forging alloys,
which generally have poor fluidities which normally precludes
the casting route, can be cast by this process.
This technique is especially suited for making fibre-reinforced
castings from fibre cake preform. Squeeze casting forces liquid
aluminium to infiltrate the preform. In comparison with non-
reinforced aluminium alloy, aluminium alloy matrix
composites manufactured by this technique can double the
fatigue strength at 300°C. Hence, such reinforcements are
commonly used at the edges of the piston head of a diesel
engine where solicitations are particularly high.

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SQUEEZE CASTING SQUEEZE CASTING Centrifugal Casting

Squeeze casting is a method combining casting and forging technologies.
In contrast to other casting techniques (sand casting, die casting), in which a
molten metal is poured (injected) into the mold cavity after the two parts of the
mold are assembled, squeeze casting mold is closed after a portion of molten
metal has been poured into the preheated bottom die.
The upper die lowers towards the bottom die causing the melt to fill the mold
cavity.
The squeezing pressure is applied until full solidification of the casting.
Squeeze castings are characterized by:
low shrinkage and gas porosity;
enhanced mechanical properties because of fine grain structure caused by
rapid solidification ;
good surface quality.
Squeeze casting is commonly used for
processing aluminum and magnesium alloys.
This process is also used for fabrication of reinforced metal matrix
composites where molten aluminum infiltrates a fiber reinforcing
structure.

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Centrifugal Casting Investment casting Investment casting - Steps

Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having axial Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or
symmetry. The method involves pouring molten metal into a
cylindrical mold spinning about its axis of symmetry. polystyrene patterns
The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
As the mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite or sand may be “Investing,” or covering the pattern assembly with
used.
The rotation speed of centrifugal mold is commonly about 1000 RPM
refractory slurry
(may vary from 250 RPM to 3600 RPM). Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern
The casting solidifies from the outside fed by the inner liquid metal. material
Non-metallic and slag inclusions and gas bubbles being less dense
than the melt are forced to the inner surface of the casting by the Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the
centrifugal forces. This impure zone is then removed by machining pattern material
resulting sound castings.
Pouring
Centrifugal casting technology is widely used for manufacturing of
iron pipes, bushings, wheels, pulleys bi-metal steel-bronze bearings Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
and other parts possessing axial symmetry.

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Investment casting Shell moulding Shell moulding

Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3 - 6%) thermosetting phenolic
Advantages resin and liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The
Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores pattern is usually made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 °C (450 to
600 °F). The sand is allowed to sit on the pattern for a few minutes to allow
Less material required for gate
the sand to partially cure.
Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the
free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity pattern, leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the
pattern the thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8 in).
Disadvantages The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand.
More segregation of alloy component during pouring under The shell now has a tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to 3.1 MPa).
the forces of rotation The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.
Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a
Contamination of internal surface of castings with non- thermoset adhesive, to form a mold. This finished mold can then be used
metallic inclusions immediately or stored almost indefinitely.
Inaccurate internal diameter For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded with shot,
sand, or gravel to reinforce the shell.

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Shell moulding Shell moulding Continuous casting

Advantages Disadvantages
Shell molding can be completely automated for mass production.[2] The gating system must be part of the pattern because the entire
The high productivity, low labor costs, good surface finishes, and precision of mold is formed from the pattern, which can be expensive.
the process can more than pay for itself if it reduces machining costs.
The resin for the sand is expensive, although not much is required
There are few problems due to gases, because of the absence of moisture in
because only a shell is being formed.[3]
the shell, and the little gas that is still present easily escapes through the thin
shell. When the metal is poured some of the resin binder burns out on the High equipment cost.
surface of the shell, which makes shaking out easy.[1][3] Poor material strength.
Complex shapes and fine details can be formed with very good surface finish, High porosity possible.
high production rate, low labor cost (if automated).
Secondary machining often required.
Low tooling cost, Little scrap generated.
Very large parts and complex shapes can be produced. High labor cost if done manually.
Many material options.
Low tooling and equipment cost.
Scrap can be recycled.
Short lead time possible.

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Continuous casting Continuous casting Casting Defects

Steels are commonly cast in vertical continuous casting machines.

Molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to the intermediate ladle
(tundish) from which it is continuously poured into the mold at a controllable rate
keeping the melt level at a constant position.

The water-cooled copper mold (primary cooling zone) extracts the heat of the metal
causing its solidification. The mold oscillates in order to prevent sticking with the
casting.

When the casting goes out from the mold it is cooled in the secondary cooling zone
by water (or water with air) sprayed on the casting surface.

Most of vertical continuous casting machines are equipped with strand guide units
bending the casting and changing its configuration from vertical to horizontal.

The casting is continuously extracted from the mold by the withdrawal unit
followed by a cut-off unit.

The casting process begins from inserting a dummy (primary) bar into the mold.
Then a molten metal is poured into the mold where it solidifies and grips the end
of the dummy bar.
The dummy bar is disconnected from the casting after passing the withdrawal
unit.
Direct Chill (DC) casting method is used for vertical semi-continuous casting of
non-ferrous metals (Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys).
MIT
Horizontal continuous casting machine is generally used for casting non-ferrous alloys.
Horizontal continuous casting in stationary mold with graphite water-cooled molds, Twin-
roll caster and Twin-belt caster are most popular methods of this type.
Due to the water cooling (primary and secondary) solidification rate provided by
continuous casting is higher than in other casting methods therefore continuous castings
have more uniform and finer grain structure and enhanced mechanical properties.
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Gas Defects Shrinkage Cavities Molding Material Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in
the molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of
the casting. The defects in this category can be classified into
blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or
elongated cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside
the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten
metal.
Causes
The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to
lower venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design
of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size
of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and
excessive moisture present in the mold.
Metal contains gas
Mold is too hot
Poor mold burnout
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring
during the solidification of the casting. To
compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is
required. For this reason risers are placed at the
appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too
thin, too long or not attached in the proper location,
causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to
use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.
Cut and washes
These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are
caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is
caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the
molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken
care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be
overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the
result is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is
coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold.
The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.

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Molding Material Defects Pouring Metal Defects Pouring Metal Defects

Fusion A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. cavities. A mis-run results when the metal is too cold forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the
The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through
of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too
high.
freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to
and should be avoided in casting design. flow together and become one solid. If the flowing
Swell
metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together,
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may
move back causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A
but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is
proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect. called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring
Inclusions sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick
enough walls in the casting design.
Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation
products are trapped in the casting during pouring solidification.
The provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring
basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.

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Pouring Metal Defects Mold Shift

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or
by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section molding boxes have not been properly aligned.
thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be End of Unit – 1
improved by changing the composition of the metal
and by increasing the pouring temperature of the
metal.

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