ANZ Technical Guide Heat Exchanger Desig PDF

ANZ Technical Guide
ANZ-TG-B-0027 Rev. 0
Heat Exchanger Design Guide
Approved ANTHONY TUCS

CHIEF PROCESS ENGINEER – PETROLEUM
AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
Rev Effective Author Document Checked Description

Date Initial and Date Initial and Date
0 Dec 2014 BTS 30/11/2014 SGV 30/11/2014 Issued for ANZ Region
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Page 1 of 123 ANZ-TG-B-0027 Heat Exchanger Design Guide
ANZ Technical Guide
CONTENTS
1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE ................................................................................................. 6
2. DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................. 6
3. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 7
4. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES .............................................................................. 7
5. ACTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................. 7
6. HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE SELECTION.................................................................. 7
6.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers ............................................................................................ 9
6.3 Double Pipe .................................................................................................................. 10
6.4 Plate and Frame Exchanger.......................................................................................... 11
6.5 Air Cooled Exchanger .................................................................................................. 16
6.6 Plate Fin Exchanger...................................................................................................... 18
6.7 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger.................................................................................... 18
6.8 Spiral Type Exchanger ................................................................................................. 19
7. CODES AND STANDARDS ......................................................................................... 21
7.1 Codes............................................................................................................................ 21
7.2 Standards ...................................................................................................................... 21
8. DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS ................................................... 21
8.1 Routing of Shell Side and Tube Side Fluids ................................................................ 22
8.1.1 Fluids for Tube Side Flow.................................................................................... 22
8.1.2 Fluids for Shell Side Flow.................................................................................... 22
8.2 Optimising Pressure Drop ............................................................................................ 23
8.3 Selection of Shell and Tube Type ................................................................................ 24
8.3.1 Shell Types ........................................................................................................... 24
8.3.2 Front Head Types ................................................................................................. 25
8.3.3 Rear Head Types .................................................................................................. 26
8.3.4 Fixed Tube sheet Exchangers............................................................................... 28
8.3.5 U-Bundle Heat Exchangers .................................................................................. 29
8.3.6 Floating Head Exchangers.................................................................................... 30
8.4 S&T Exchangers Tubes and Tube Layout.................................................................... 30
8.4.1 Tube Outside Diameter ........................................................................................ 30
8.4.2 Tube Wall Thickness............................................................................................ 30
8.4.3 Tube Length ......................................................................................................... 31
8.4.4 Number of Tube side Passes ................................................................................ 31
8.4.5 Tube Pattern Layouts............................................................................................ 31
8.5 S&T Exchangers Baffles and Bundle Entrance............................................................ 32
8.5.1 Baffle Cut ............................................................................................................. 32
8.5.2 Baffle Spacing ...................................................................................................... 32
8.5.3 Bundle Entrance ................................................................................................... 32
8.5.4 Bundle Clearance ................................................................................................. 34
8.5.5 Sealing Strips........................................................................................................ 35
8.6 Alternative Shell and Tube Exchanger Design Features .............................................. 35
8.6.1 Helical Baffles...................................................................................................... 35
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8.6.2 Tube inserts .......................................................................................................... 36

8.6.3 Modified Tube Geometry..................................................................................... 36
8.6.4 Enhanced Tube Surfaces ...................................................................................... 37
8.6.5 RODbaffle ............................................................................................................ 37
8.6.6 EMbaffle Heat Exchanger .................................................................................... 38
8.6.7 Ferrules................................................................................................................. 38
8.7 TEMA R, C and B Designations .................................................................................. 38
8.7.1 Corrosion Allowance............................................................................................ 39
8.7.2 Gaskets ................................................................................................................. 39
8.7.3 Shell and Tube Thickness .................................................................................... 39
8.7.4 Grooving............................................................................................................... 39
8.7.5 Nozzle Connections.............................................................................................. 39
8.7.6 Bolt Size ............................................................................................................... 40
9. S&T EXCHANGERS - DESIGN PARAMETERS TO CHANGE............................ 40
10. S&T HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATIONS ..................................................... 40
10.1 Preliminary Design....................................................................................................... 40
10.2 Detailed Heat Exchanger Calculations and Rating ...................................................... 42
11. GUIDELINES FOR SETTING EXCHANGER TERMINAL TEMPERATURES43
11.1 Shell and Tube Exchangers .......................................................................................... 43
11.2 Design Ambient Temperature ...................................................................................... 44
11.3 Compact Heat Exchanger Designs ............................................................................... 45
12. OTHER DESIGN PARAMETERS .......................................................................... 45
12.1 Vibration....................................................................................................................... 45
12.2 Over design or over surface.......................................................................................... 46
12.3 Common Heat Exchanger Materials and Corrosion Allowances................................. 46
12.4 Turndown ..................................................................................................................... 47
12.5 Cleaning ....................................................................................................................... 47
12.5.1 Off-line Mechanical Cleaning .......................................................................... 47
12.5.2 Chemical Cleaning ........................................................................................... 47
12.5.3 On-line Mechanical Cleaning........................................................................... 48
13. AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS DESIGN .................................................. 48
13.1 Forced Draft vs. Induced Draft Fans ............................................................................ 49
13.1.1 Induced Draft.................................................................................................... 50
13.1.2 Forced Draft ..................................................................................................... 51
13.2 Air Cooler Controls...................................................................................................... 52
13.3 Air Cooler Components ............................................................................................... 52
13.3.1 Bay.................................................................................................................... 52
13.3.2 Tube Bundle ..................................................................................................... 53
13.3.3 Fins ................................................................................................................... 54
13.3.4 Typical Design Parameters............................................................................... 54
13.3.5 Box header........................................................................................................ 55
13.3.6 Tube Arrangement and Type............................................................................ 56
13.3.7 Fans .................................................................................................................. 56
13.3.8 Cleaning ........................................................................................................... 56
13.4 Layout........................................................................................................................... 57
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14. OTHER HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN AND RATING ..................................... 58

14.1 Double Pipe / Multi-tube Heat Exchangers.................................................................. 58
14.2 Plate Heat Exchangers.................................................................................................. 58
14.3 Other Exchanger Designs ............................................................................................. 59
15. REBOILERS AND VAPORISERS .......................................................................... 59
15.1 Reboiler Selection ........................................................................................................ 59
15.2 Reboiler Configurations ............................................................................................... 61
15.2.1 Kettle Reboiler ................................................................................................. 61
15.2.2 Internal / Stab-in Reboiler ................................................................................ 63
15.2.3 Vertical Thermosyphon.................................................................................... 64
15.2.4 Horizontal Thermosyphon................................................................................ 67
15.2.5 Once-through Natural Circulation Reboiler ..................................................... 68
15.2.6 Pump-through Reboilers .................................................................................. 68
15.3 Thermosyphon Reboiler Circulation ............................................................................ 72
15.4 Tower Bottoms Design................................................................................................. 72
15.4.2 Net Bottoms Feed Systems............................................................................... 73
15.4.3 Gross Bottoms Reboiler Feed........................................................................... 75
15.4.4 Mixed Bottoms Reboiler Feed ......................................................................... 76
15.5 Reboiler Design Considerations................................................................................... 77
15.5.1 Once-through versus natural circulation thermosyphon reboilers.................... 77
15.5.2 Fouling ............................................................................................................. 78
15.5.3 Vaporisation ..................................................................................................... 78
15.5.4 Viscosity Limitations ....................................................................................... 78
15.5.5 Tower Level ..................................................................................................... 78
15.5.6 Percentage Vaporisation................................................................................... 79
15.5.7 Entrainment Coefficients.................................................................................. 79
16. CONDENSERS........................................................................................................... 81
16.1 Selection ....................................................................................................................... 81
16.2 Steam Condensers ........................................................................................................ 82
APPENDIX A - SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS ESTIMATES.............................. 83
Number of shells ...................................................................................................................... 83
Shell ID..................................................................................................................................... 84
Estimate Tube side Pressure Drop............................................................................................ 85
Velocity Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 86
APPENDIX B – AIR COOLER ESTIMATES.................................................................... 88
Estimate pressure drop ............................................................................................................. 88
Air Cooler Design Criteria ....................................................................................................... 88
APPENDIX C: TEMA SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGER DESIGNATIONS............. 89
APPENDIX D: TEMA S&T HEAT EXCHANGER SELECTION GUIDELINES ........ 93
APPENDIX E: MTD CORRECTION FACTORS ............................................................. 95
APPENDIX F: TEMA FOULING FACTORS .................................................................. 106
APPENDIX G: COMPLETION OF S&T HEAT EXCHANGER PROCESS
DATASHEET ....................................................................................................................... 111
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APPENDIX H: COMPLETION OF P&F HEAT EXCHANGER PROCESS

DATASHEET ....................................................................................................................... 116
APPENDIX I: COMPLETION OF AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER PROCESS
DATASHEET ....................................................................................................................... 119

ANZ Technical Guide
1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE
The purpose of this practice is to provide a standard guideline for Process

Department work on heat exchangers. Adherence to this Practice is important for
design, checking, and overall quality assurance.
Specific areas covered are:
 General guidelines for the selection of heat exchanger type
 General guidelines for the design of heat exchangers
 Completion of Process Data Sheets for heat exchangers
 Comprehensive list of codes and standards for heat exchangers
2. DEFINITIONS
Boiler An exchanger that generates steam

Chiller A chiller cools a fluid with a refrigerant to a
temperature below that obtainable using air or cooling
water as the heat sink. Common refrigerants are
ammonia, Freon, ethylene and propylene.
Cooler A unit that exchanges heat between a single phase
process stream and water or air
Condenser A condenser is a unit in which a process vapour is
totally or partially converted to liquid.
Direct Contact A unit in which vapour is condensed by direct contact
Condenser heat exchange with droplets of water
Evaporator A unit specifically designed to concentrate solutions by
vaporising some of the water or solvent
Forced Circulation A reboiler unit where a pump is used to force the
Reboiler boiling medium through the exchanger
Heater A unit that adds enthalpy, usually without a change of
phase, to a stream using a utility as the heat source
Kettle Reboiler A reboiler where only the vapour is returned to the
tower
Reboiler A vaporiser that provides latent heat of vaporisation to a
fractionation tower
Steam generators A type of vaporiser used to produce steam as the vapour
product
Super heater A unit that heats steam above its saturation temperature
Surface Condenser A shell and tube unit used for the condensation of
exhaust steam from steam turbines or engines
Thermosyphon A reboiler unit where sufficient liquid head is provided
reboiler so that natural circulation of the boiling medium is
maintained
Vaporiser A heat exchanger unit that converts liquid into vapour

ANZ Technical Guide
3. REFERENCES
ANZ-TG-B-0002 Process Engineering Design Criteria Document

ANZ-SOP-2300 Preparation of Project Design Criteria
TEMA Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers’
Association
API STD 521 Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems
API STD 660 Shell and Tube Exchangers for General Refinery
Service
API STD 661 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery
Service
API STD 662 Plate Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service
AS 1210 Pressure Vessels
AS 1228 Pressure Equipment - Boilers
ASME Section VIII Pressure Vessel Code
ASME Section I Boiler Code
HEI Heat Exchanger Institute Standards
B1601 S&T Heat Exchanger Process Datasheet
B1602 P&F Heat Exchanger Process Datasheet
B1603 Air Cooled Exchanger Process Datasheet
Process Spreadsheet Aircool.xls (Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Sizing)
Process Spreadsheet Hx-ac.xls (Air Cooled HE Sizing and Costing)
4. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
The process engineer shall be responsible for following this procedure when
designing heat exchangers.
5. ACTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
This specification is designed to aid the process engineer in specifying and

analysing heat exchangers and services. Detailed exchanger rating and design will
be the responsibility of the mechanical department and the vendor. The process
engineer will supply all the process information and work closely with the
mechanical department to determine the actual mechanical configuration, the
overall heat transfer coefficient, and the overall surface area.
6. HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE SELECTION
The first step towards specifying a heat exchanger for a particular service is
selection of the type of equipment. The following sections list the typical areas of
application and limitations of the various types of exchangers. In cases where two
or more types of exchangers are applicable for a service, the basis of selection is
usually economics.
Types of heat exchanger design are as follows:
 Shell and Tube (low fin tubes)
 Shell and Tube (plain tubes)
 Plate
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 Spiral
 Double Pipe
 Air Cooler
 Convection Banks
 Graphite
Past experience shows that Double Pipe, Air Cooler and Shell and Tube types are
the most frequently used. The use of proprietary equipment, such as Plate or Spiral
type exchangers, is usually restricted to special applications. The following table
provides some general guidelines for heat exchanger selection. The following
sections provide more detail.
Exchanger Type Consider Using for Comments
Shell and Tube Most applications
Finned tube S&T exchangers where outside tube resistance is Clean services only
appreciably higher than inside.
Air Cooler When heat cannot economically be recovered and air Air cooler CAPEX often higher but
coolers are more economical than S&T coolers. air coolers often more cost
effective on a life cycle basis (refer
to Section 6.4)
Double Pipe Small heat transfer areas (< 20 m2) Especially suited for high pressures
in tube.
Multi-tube Heat transfer areas in the range 20 to 50 m2
Gasketed Plate and Frame Temperature cross or close approach applications. Design temperature and pressure
Easy to clean and expand capacity. Compact design. limitations.
Welded Plate Temperature cross or close approach applications. Only for clean services. Higher
Compact design. Design T&P than gasketed P&F.
Brazed Plate Small duties and clean services. Temperature cross or Fluid compatibility with brazing
close approach applications. Low cost. material.
Brazed Aluminium Plate Multi-fluid applications with close approach Clean fluids only. Temperature
Fin temperatures. Compact design. limitations and material
compatibility issues.
Printed Circuit Temperature cross for high design temperature and Very clean services
pressures. Very compact design.
Spiral Plate Counter-current design. Fouling services or slurries.
Spiral Tube Small duties. Low cost. Tube side fluid should be clean.
Coils Heat recovery in flue gas ducts. Box coolers for
product cooling. Pipe coils sprayed with water
directly.
Direct Contact Very corrosive or dirty condensing fluids. Where
mutual solubilities of coolant and condensing fluid
allows.
Graphite Extremely corrosive fluids Design T&P limitations.
The following table includes some general guidelines for the degree of
compactness that can be expected from the various exchanger types.
Exchanger Channel Size Area Density
Shell and Tube 10 – 50 mm 100 m2/m3
Plate Type 5 mm 200 m2/m3
Plate-fin 2 mm 1000 m2/m3
Printed Circuit Heat 1 mm 2000 m2/m3
Exchanger (PCHE)
The following table gives some general guidelines on the pressure and
temperature limitations of the various exchanger types. Note pressure and
temperature limits may be increased with the use of special materials.
Exchanger Temperature °C Max. Pressure kPa(a)
Shell and Tube -25 to 600 140,000
Gasketed Plate Frame -35 to 180 2,500
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Brazed PHE -195 to 200 3,000

Welded PHE 350 7,000
Spiral HE 400 1,800
Plate-fin (PFHE) Cryogenic to 65 9,000
PCHE -200 to 900 100,000
6.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers
These are the most commonly used type of exchanger in refineries and
petrochemical plants. They are cost effective for moderate to large applications,
are relatively easy to clean, can be custom designed and different types of design
and configuration are available including cross-flow and true counter-current flow.
Advantages:
 Extremely flexible and robust design
 Easy to maintain and repair
 Can be designed to be dismantled for cleaning
 Many worldwide suppliers (e.g. Stelform, HEI)
 Most commonly used design.
Disadvantages:
 Require large plot (footprint) area
 May not be economical for pressures below 1400 kPag and temperatures
below 200°C (competition from plate and frame heat exchangers)
 Not particularly suited to high thermal efficiency duties
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

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6.3 Double Pipe
The use of Double Pipe Heat Exchangers is normally restricted to small, single
phase, heating and cooling services. Partial vaporization or condensing is also
possible. When steam is used as a heating fluid, total condensing can also be used.
Double Pipes are normally more economical than shell and tube exchangers in the
range where the required surface area is less than 20 m2. In the range of 20 to 50
m2, the economics favour Multi-tube Heat Exchangers. Multi-tube Heat
Exchangers are a special type of shell and tube exchanger, usually having a
counter-current flow arrangement. Above 50 m2, Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
become the most usual selection.
In a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger, the fluid with the lower film heat transfer
coefficient is normally routed through the annulus of the unit. By adding finned
surface to the outside of the inner pipe, the disadvantage of the lower film heat
transfer coefficient can be overcome.
When a fluid is corrosive, it is normally routed through the inner tube. This way,
only the inner tube need be fabricated from expensive alloy material. If the
corrosive fluid were routed through the annulus, both the outer and inner pipes
would require alloy material.
Similarly, a very high pressure fluid is routed through the inner pipe. The logic
being that this limits the thicker material to the inner pipe only. With the high
pressure fluid in the annulus, both the inner and outer pipes would have to resist
the stress induced by the high pressure.
On many occasions, a compromise in fluid routing will have to be made. For
example, the corrosive fluid may have a film coefficient much less than the non-
corrosive fluid. A judgement must then be made between the advantage of using a
lower surface area and the disadvantage of fabricating both the inner and outer
pipes from alloy material. In these cases, it is advisable to include a note on the
data sheet, "The vendor may reverse the fluid routing if it is economical to do so".
A double pipe exchanger should also be considered in scenarios where avoidance
of burst tube failure is required. However such designs shall be constructed of
schedule pipe with no internal welds, the higher pressure fluid shall be routed
through the inner pipe and the potential for failure due to corrosion has been
mitigated. Refer to API Standard 521 Section 5.19.6.
Advantages:
 Easy to obtain counter current flow
 Can handle high pressure
 Many worldwide suppliers.
Disadvantages:
 Expensive for large duties (above 1 MW)
 Difficult to seal again after maintenance
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Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Bare Tube Finned Tube
Multi-tube (bare)
Multi-tube (finned)
Double Pipe & Multi-tube

Exchanger Tube
Arrangements
6.4 Plate and Frame Exchanger
These are constructed from a series of plates hung vertically and clamped in a
press or frame. Gaskets direct the streams in alternate plate channels. Plates are
corrugated to give points of support and to increase turbulence. They were
developed first for use in the food industry but now are widely used in other
applications.
Advantages:
 Competitive in cost with shell and tube below 1,400 kPag
Disadvantages:
 Gasket temperature limit -25 to 175 °C
 Gasket selection limited by fluid type
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 Frames pressure limit 2,400 kPag.

There are a number of different types of Plate Heat Exchangers:
Gasketed Plate and Frame: - This type of unit has a series of pressed plates with a
gasket on each side. The plates are all removable for cleaning and may have wide
gaps between them to allow small particles within the fluid to pass. These
exchangers will not be fire resistant due to the gasketing material and may not be
suitable for toxic fluids, due to the potential for leakage of fluids at the gasketed
surfaces. They will generally be cheaper than a shell and tube heat exchanger,
particularly where stainless steel, alloy, nickel or titanium metallurgy is required.
Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

ANZ Technical Guide
The maximum allowable design temperature (< 180°C) and pressure (< 2,400
kPag) will be dependent on the gasket material selected. The gasket material will
be selected on the basis of chemical compatibility with the process fluid.
Common gasket materials include:
Gasket Material Uses Avoid Max Temp °C

Nitrile (NBR) Oils and water Oxidants 110
Acids
Aromatics
Alcohols
Alkalis
Resin cured butyl (IIR) Acids Petroleum oils 140
Strong alkalis Chlorinated HCs
Strong H3PO4 Dissolved Cl2
Dilute mineral acids Oxygen rich demin water
Ketones Strong oxidants
Amines
Water
Ethylene Propylene Oxidizing agents Oils 160
(EPDM) Dilute acids Hot and conc. acids
Amines Very strong oxidants
Water Chlorinated HCs
See IIR fluids also
Viton (FKM, FPM) Water Amines 110
Petroleum oils Ketones
Many inorganic acids Esters
See NBR fluids Organic acids
Liquid NH3
Note: Always consult the heat exchanger vendor and/or materials specialist on
gasket material suitability

ANZ Technical Guide
Semi-welded Plate and Frame: - This type of unit has a series of pressed plates
with a gasket on one side and is welded on the other side. The fluid used on the
welded side must be extremely clean since there is no way of mechanically
cleaning inside the welded edge joints. The welded side has the advantage of
being able to handle higher design pressures and may be more suitable for toxic or
hazardous fluid services. The gasketed side may have wide gaps between the
plates to allow small particles in the fluid to pass.
Semi-welded Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

ANZ Technical Guide
All-welded Plate Exchangers: - These units are welded on both sides and can
operate at high pressures. These exchangers can only be used for clean services.
The welded plates can be held within a frame as per the gasketed plate and frame
exchangers or within a shell as in the so-called plate and shell heat exchanger
design. Typical fabricators of All-Welded Plate Exchangers are Packinox,
Barriquand, Sondex, Alfa Laval (Compabloc).
Welded Plate Heat Exchangers

ANZ Technical Guide
Brazed Plate Heat Exchangers: - This design has a plate structure similar to that of
a conventional plate-and–frame heat exchanger, but the plate pack is brazed
together using copper (or nickel) as the brazing material, eliminating the need for
gaskets or a frame. Plates can be made from stainless steel or higher alloys. These
exchangers are used for small duties in clean services and can be significantly
cheaper than other exchanger designs.
Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
6.5 Air Cooled Exchanger
In an air-cooled exchanger, air is either blown across finned tubes (forced draught
type) or sucked across finned tubes (induced draught). They should be considered
for use in cooling and condensing services. Air coolers are also used in both
vacuum and pressure condensing stream services.
Air cooled exchangers for vacuum steam condensing have special design features
to allow for efficient steam/condensate separation and possible freeze protection
in colder plant locations.
The use of air coolers should always be considered when there does not need to be
a close temperature approach between the process outlet temperature and the
maximum dry bulb ambient air temperature. Where close approaches are required
between the process and the ambient temperatures, water trim cooling should be
considered.

ANZ Technical Guide
Advantages:
 Air is always available
 Maintenance costs are normally less than for water cooled systems
 In the event of power failure they can still transfer some heat due to natural
convection
 Simple mechanical design due to pressure on the air side being close to
atmospheric
 Fouling of the air side can normally be ignored
Disadvantages:
 Noise
 May need special features for cold weather protection
 Cannot cool to the same low temperatures as cooling water
If equipment capital costs alone are considered, it is most unlikely that Air
Coolers would be cheaper than water cooled Shell and Tube exchangers. Other
capital and operating costs must be considered in a true air versus water cooling
study. For example, costs to be considered in a water cooling system must include
the following:
 Shell and Tube Exchanger capital cost
 Cooling water distribution piping cost
 Make-up raw water cost
 Water treatment cost
 Cooling tower cost
 Cost of cooling water pumps
 Cost of exchanger foundations
 Cooling tower blowdown treatment and disposal cost
 Cost of cooling tower foundations
 Cost of electrical wiring to pumps
 Pumping cost
Similarly, in an Air Cooled system, the following costs must be included.
 Air cooler capital equipment cost
 Cost of process piping headers
 Cost of air cooler motors
 Electrical distribution cost to air cooler motors
 Cost of power
 Cost of air cooler foundations

ANZ Technical Guide
6.6 Plate Fin Exchanger
Plate fin exchangers are formed by vacuum brazing aluminium plates separated by
sheets of fining. They have a high area density so are usually small in size and
weight. One unit may contain a number of fluid streams, any of which may be in
single or two-phase flow.
These units are capable of handling high pressure fluids, however the fluids have
to be very clean in order to avoid blockage. Brazed Aluminium Plate Fins are
limited to 10°C maximum log mean temperature differences to avoid excessive
thermally induced stress on the exchanger and the maximum allowable design
temperature is usually low (< 120°C). Brazed or diffusion bonded stainless steel
and titanium plate-fin heat exchangers have been used to a limited extent in the
CPI, for higher design temperatures and pressures.
They can be easily designed to process five or six different process streams and
can deal with very small temperature approaches.
Advantages:
 More economic than shell and tube exchangers at low temperatures
 Can handle multiple streams
 Flow configuration can be cross flow or counter flow
 Can achieve tight temperature approaches
Disadvantages:
 Fluids must be clean
 Specialist vendor required
Brazed Aluminium Plate-fin Exchanger
6.7 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger
Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers (PCHE) are formed by chemically etching flow
passages onto flat plates and then stacking and diffusion bonding the plates
together. Various combinations of cross flow and counter flow can be achieved
within the plate pack. The resultant flow passages are very small, so this
exchanger design is suitable only for very clean services. Maximum design
temperature and pressures achievable are very high (900°C and 100,000 kPag).
This is the most compact heat exchanger design.
ANZ Technical Guide
Advantages:
 Can handle multiple streams
 Flow configuration can be cross flow or counter flow
 Can achieve tight temperature approaches
 Wide range of fluids
 Compact design
Disadvantages:
 Fluids must be clean
 Thermal cycling can cause problems
6.8 Spiral Type Exchanger
Spiral Plate heat exchangers are formed by rolling two strips of plate into a clock
spring shape. This forms two helical flow passages.
The use of Spiral Plate heat exchangers is useful in high fouling services. Since
there is only one flow path for each fluid, there is no risk of blockage due to flow
mal-distribution. The unit is compact and can sometimes be used as a condenser
on the top of a column.
Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger
Spiral Tube heat exchangers are a series of stacked helical coiled tubes, connected
to manifolds, then inserted into a shell. They are typically selected because of their
economical design for small duties.

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Spiral Tube Heat Exchanger
Advantages:
 Can handle high fouling fluids
 Compact design
Disadvantages:

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7. CODES AND STANDARDS
7.1 Codes
The following lists the various types of exchangers and their relevant design
codes:
Shell and tube exchangers: generally covered by ASME Section VIII and AS 1210
Pressure Vessel Codes.
Air Cooled Heat Exchangers: Headers are generally designed per API STD-661
‘Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service’ but can be ASME or
AS 1210 stamped if required.
Surface Condensers: Usually designed per Heat Exchanger Institute (HEI)
standards but can be built and stamped to ASME Section VIII or AS 1210, if
required.
Steam Generators: Covered by ASME Section I and AS 1228, boiler code, on the
steam side.
Other heat exchanger designs (including plate and frame heat exchangers): Can
generally be ASME code stamped, however the design features of some heat
exchanger designs may not allow ASME code stamping (e.g. some welded plate
heat exchangers). In these cases, this should be identified as soon as possible in
case the project design criteria would preclude selection of this heat exchanger
design on this basis.
7.2 Standards
The following lists the various types of exchangers and their relevant design
standards:
Shell and tube exchangers: TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers’
Association) and API STD-660 ‘Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers for General
Refinery Service’.
Air Cooled Heat Exchangers: API STD-661 ‘Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for
General Refinery Service’.
Surface Condensers: HEI (Heat Exchanger Institute) Standards for Steam Surface
Condensers.
Plate Heat Exchangers: API STD-662 ‘Plate Heat Exchangers for General
Refinery Service’
8. DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
The following issues should be considered before a shell and tube exchanger
design is fixed:
This section is applicable for most types of shell and tube exchanger duties. Care
should be taken when applying these rules to specialist type services that will have
their own specific design requirements e.g. FCCU Catalyst Coolers.

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8.1 Routing of Shell Side and Tube Side Fluids
The correct routing of shell side and tube side fluids involves consideration of
material selection, fouling characteristics and pressure and temperature levels. In
some services, there will be cases, where both fluids have reasons for being routed
on the same side. In such cases judgement, experience and compromise must be
used.
8.1.1 Fluids for Tube Side Flow
Corrosive Fluids requiring alloy materials to resist the corrosion are best routed
through the tubes of an exchanger. Shell, tubes, tube sheets, baffles, and tie-rods
would all need to be made from the expensive alloy material if the corrosive fluid
were routed through the shell of the unit. With tube side flow only the channels,
tube sheets, and tubes need to be made from the alloy. Routing the corrosive fluid
through the tubes therefore saves the cost difference between an alloy shell and
alloy channels.
Highly Fouling Fluids should be routed through the tubes. Mechanical cleaning of
the inside of the tubes can be done without removing the tube bundle from the
shell. Removal of the tube bundle would be necessary if the fouling fluid was
routed through the shell.
High Pressure and High Temperature Fluids are best routed through the tubes.
This limits the need to design for the more arduous conditions to the channels,
tube sheets, and tubes. If the fluid routing was reversed the shell, tube sheets, and
tubes would have to be designed for the high pressure/ high temperature condition.
Routing the fluid through the tubes saves the cost difference between a high
pressure/ high temperature shell and high pressure/ high temperature channels.
This may however be irrelevant, if it is decided to set the design pressure of the
shell and tube side the same to reduce the effect of tube failure.
8.1.2 Fluids for Shell Side Flow
Condensing and Reboiling Services use the large free areas available on the shell
side of an exchanger to best effect. Higher condensate loadings are possible with
shell side flow as compared to tube side flow. With boiling fluids, higher heat
fluxes are also possible when the boiling takes place in the shell.
Highly Viscous Fluids generate more turbulence when flowing on the shell side as
compared to the tube side. This allows a higher heat transfer coefficient and a
consequent saving in surface area can be achieved. Pressure drop is also limited
Low Allowable Pressure Drop Services can be handled best on the shell side
because of the ability to open up the baffle pitch, use split shell side flow, or use
double, or triple, or no tubes in the window baffle designs.
Low Coefficient Services are best on the shell side as cross flow gives higher
coefficients than in plain tubes.

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8.2 Optimising Pressure Drop
Higher pressure drop across an exchanger results in a higher heat transfer

coefficient and therefore a smaller surface area. However, there is a practical limit
to the maximum useable pressure drop. The velocities and turbulence produced by
the use of excessive pressure drop can sometimes result in mechanical damage
due to vibration.
There is also an economic barrier to using excessively high pressure drops. This
barrier is reached when the pumping or compression cost increment associated
with the higher pressure drop exceeds the savings in equipment cost.
It is not practical to establish general rules for design methods for optimizing
pressure loss versus equipment costs. This is because of the large variety of fluids
handled, the variation in energy and equipment costs. In critical services an
investigation may be necessary. Such investigations will in essence consist of
producing designs for different pressure drops and making equipment versus
energy cost comparison for each design.
Energy can often be saved by the exchanger designer by carefully examining each
design. Cases where the heat transfer coefficient of one stream controls the surface
area offer a particular opportunity for energy savings. The heat transfer rate
associated with the non-controlling stream, may in such cases be reduced, without
affecting the required surface area. This reduction in heat transfer rate brings a
corresponding reduction in pressure loss and the associated pumping costs.
Some process circuits involve the use of both carbon steel and alloy heat
exchangers. Cost savings can often be achieved by allotting a higher proportion of
the total available pressure drop to the alloy units. This results in the exchangers
with the more expensive materials being proportionally smaller than the carbon
steel units.
In some instances, the minimum velocity requirements for the exchanger may
govern the pressure drop.
Typical maximum allowable pressure drops are shown in the following table. The
effects of fouling on specific systems should also be taken into consideration
before using these values. Always consult the Process Design Criteria for project
related limits.
Service Max Allowable Pressure Drop
(kPa)
Cooling Water 70 (1)
Liquid, < 25 cP (tube side) 50 – 100
Liquid, < 25 cP (shell side) 35 – 70
Liquid, > 25 cP (tube side) 170
Liquid, > 25 cP (shell side) 100
Vapour, Vacuum tower condenser 3 – 12 mm Hg
Vapour, Vacuum 3
Vapour, Atmospheric 3 – 14
Vapour, > 1 atm 14– 35 (2),(3)
Notes:
1. For large cooling water systems it may be necessary to undertake a study to
determine the economical maximum allowable pressure drop.
2. Economics will favour lower allowable pressure drops at lower pressures.
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3. For high pressure applications, higher pressure drops may be allowed (35 – 70
kPa) in specific applications.
8.3 Selection of Shell and Tube Type
The mechanical design of construction of Shell and Tube exchanger is usually

based on the TEMA standards. TEMA supplements the ASME Pressure Vessel
Code. TEMA exchangers have a three letter designation e.g. BES, meaning Front
Head Type – Shell type – Rear Head Type.
Refer to Appendix C for a listing of the TEMA designations.
8.3.1 Shell Types
Shell types are as follows E, F, G, H, J, K and X

E-type shell is a one-pass shell and generally provides the lowest cost / best
performance solution. Inlet and outlet nozzles are located on opposite ends of the
shell. It is the most common shell type.
F-type shell is a two pass shell with a longitudinal baffle. It gives pure counter-
current flow with two tube passes which can be used to avoid temperature crosses
and long exchangers. However, longitudinal baffles are difficult to seal with the
shell especially with re-inserting the shell after maintenance. A full-penetration
weld between the longitudinal baffle and the shell can be specified to eliminate the
problems associated with leaking seal strips. In this case the longitudinal baffle
and tubes should be located in the horizontal plan to permit removal of the tube
bundle while the baffle remains in place.
G-type shell is a split flow design. It provides a temperature approach advantage

while enhancing shell side film coefficients. It gives a higher LMTD correction
factor than 2-pass shells. It is often used in condensing and thermosyphon designs
where the shell side pressure drop is low.
H-type shell is a double split flow. It helps to minimise shell side pressure and is
often used for shell side thermosyphon applications.

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J-type shell is a single split flow with two inlets and one outlet. It is used to
minimise vibration for shell side condensation. It has a low pressure drop so is
often used for vacuum condensation applications.
K-type shell is a kettle type providing disengagement space for the shell side fluid
leaving the exchanger as vapour. It is used for reboilers, where separate outlets are
required for the shell side outlet vapour and liquid streams, and for chillers, to
ensure that the vapour refrigerant leaving the exchanger is dry.
X-type shell is a cross flow design with a single inlet and single outlet. It is used
for vacuum condensation applications.
8.3.2 Front Head Types
Front Head types are as follows: A, B, C, D and N

A-type has a removable channel and removable cover. It is the standard for dirty
tube side applications where access to the tubes and tube sheet is frequently
needed and/or removing the bundle for cleaning. It is used with fixed tube sheet,
U-tube and removable bundle exchangers.
B-type has removable channel and integral ellipsoidal cover and cylinder. It has a
low construction cost and is good for clean tube side applications. It is used with
removable baffles. Its construction reduces leak points.
C-type has a channel integral with the tube sheet bolted to the shell for bundle
removal. There are two types; the first is attached to the shell with a flanged joint
and is used with removable and U-tube bundles. The other is integral with the
shell and is used with fixed tube sheet exchangers.

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D-type has an integral channel and tube sheet with a forged construction. The
channel cover is attached by high pressure bolting. It is used when the tube side
design pressure exceeds 7,000 kPag.
N-type has a flat cover and non-removable bundle. The head is integral with the
head and shell cylinders. It is a low cost solution when using clean shell side
fluids not requiring access to the bundle.
8.3.3 Rear Head Types
There are three basic types of shell and tube heat exchangers:
 Fixed Tube Sheet Type (Type L, M, N)
 U-Tube Type
 Floating Head Type (Type P, S, T, W)
Several variations of each of the basic types are available. Selection of the type,
which has the lowest number of main girth flanges, usually gives the lowest
capital cost.
A fixed tube sheet can be used if the temperature difference is low. Other types
should be used to allow for thermal expansion. Bellows can be added to the shell
to allow for expansion but these are special items which have pressure limitations
(max 8,000 kPaa)
L-type has a channel and removable cover. It is the standard for dirty tube side
applications where access to the tubes and tube sheet is frequently needed and/or
removing the bundle for cleaning. The bundles are not removable from the shell.
M-type has an ellipsoidal cover and cylinder. It has a low construction cost and is
good for clean tube side applications. It is used with removable baffles. The
bundle is not removable from the shell.

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N-type has a flat cover and non-removable bundle. The head is integral with the
head and shell cylinders. It is a low cost solution when using clean shell side
fluids not requiring access to the bundle.
S-type is a floating head with backing device. The rear shell cover must be
removed prior to bundle extraction. A floating tube sheet is contained between a
split-ring and a tube sheet cover.
T-type is a pull through floating head. The bundle may be pulled without
removing the rear shell cover. A floating tube sheet is bolted directly to the tube
sheet cover.
Both S&T type heads provide the capability to remove the tube bundle for
servicing. These types allow the bundle (tubes) to expand independently of the
shell and therefore help reduce thermal design stresses. Both designs result in the
loss of available shell area for tubes due to internal flanges and bolting.
P-type is an outside packed floating head. The head is integral with the tube sheet
with a stuffing box against the shell.
W-type is an externally sealed floating head. It is limited to one or two tube pass
applications since it is impractical to provide a pass partition plate. A packed joint
is used to separate the shell and tube side fluids.
The P&W types are a lower cost floating rear head solution than the S&T types
but they are limited to lower operating temperatures and pressures due to the
packed joint design (typically 2,400 kPag limit). They should never be used with
hydrocarbons or toxic fluids due to the leaking tendency of the packed joints.

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U-tube is a simple, cost effective design but it is difficult to clean the inside of the
tubes. The U-tube, like that of floating head designs, has low thermal expansion
stresses so no expansion joint is required. Its construction reduces leak points.
8.3.4 Fixed Tube sheet Exchangers
Fixed Tube sheet Exchangers of the TEMA rear head types L, M and N, are
generally considered to be the lowest capital cost shell and tube exchanger. The
most common is a BEM design. The tube sheets are extended to form the shell
girth flanges. Only one main girth flange is required on each channel.
The use of fixed tube sheet units is limited to services which do not require
mechanical cleaning of the outside of the tubes. Fixed tube sheet units are also
limited to services where the differential expansion between the tubes and the
shell is relatively small. Higher differential expansion can be accommodated if an
expansion joint is incorporated in the shell. The cost of such an expansion joint
tends to alter the economics of the fixed tube sheet design adversely to such an
extent that an equivalent U-Bundle design would be preferable.
Where frequent mechanical cleaning of the inside of the tubes is required,
removable channel covers may be needed. That is, either an AEL or a NEN unit
may have to be used. If the channel nozzle sizes are not large (250mm or less), the
use of a BEM unit is permissible. Before the heads can be removed the piping
connections must first be uncoupled. After the heads are removed mechanical
cleaning of the inside of the tubes is possible. With channel nozzle sizes greater
than 250mm, the first alternative choice to a BEM unit could be a NEN type.
Access to the inside of the tubes is gained by removing the flat channel cover. The
piping connections need not be disturbed. A radial clearance of 40mm between the
outside of the outermost tube and the inside diameter of the channel is necessary
on a NEN unit. This clearance is required to ensure that re-expansion of the tubes
in-situ is possible.
Some clients do not like the potential maintenance difficulty in repairing tube to
tube sheet joints in a NEN unit. This operation is made somewhat more difficult
by the fact that the operator must work inside or partially inside the channel when
doing the work. Despite this, successful repairs and/or initial tube rolling or

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welding are both possible in NEN designs. When a client objects to the use of
NEN types, an AEL configuration must be used.
This type allows the complete channel to be removed from the tube sheet, thereby
exposing the tube to tube sheet joints for maintenance. This ease of maintenance,
however, adds an additional channel main girth flanged joint, as compared to
using a NEN type.
Consideration must always be given to using all welded, fixed tube sheet, designs
when the diameter is large (over 1150mm) and the tube side design pressure is
high (over 3,500 kPag). In such units, access to the tube to tube sheet joints for
potential maintenance is gained through a manway in the channel dished head. In
an all welded design the cost of the large main girth flanges is replaced by the cost
of flanged man ways. More important than this, the risk of leakage and possible
plant shutdown because of a large, leaking flange is eliminated.
8.3.5 U-Bundle Heat Exchangers
U-Bundle Heat Exchangers are second only to BEM fixed tube sheet units from an
investment cost standpoint. Generally the cost of forming the U-bends slightly
exceeds the cost of the additional tube sheet and channel required for the fixed
tube sheet type, although this might not be true for all shops. However, the
investment cost difference between the two types is small. The selection of one
type over the other is normally made on the basis of an engineering, rather than an
economic judgement.
U-bundle exchangers are not used in services where mechanical cleaning of the
inside of the tubes is required. However, certain clients may accept this. An
example would be the use of cooling water on the tube side.
U-tubes should also be avoided in slurry services where there is a danger of
blockage or erosion of the U-bends. U-bundle units are particularly useful for
clean tube side services. They are also effective in services where there is a large
differential expansion between the shell and the tubes.
An all welded U-bundle design may be used in large diameter (above 1150mm),
and in high pressure services (above 3,500 kPag) if the bundle need not be
removed for cleaning. Access to the tube to tube sheet joints for possible
maintenance is through a manway in the channel dished head. The channel pass
partition plate is offset as shown below to allow entry into the channel. The "D"
shaped partition plate is bolted in sections small enough to pass through the
manway.
An all welded channel can also be used for large diameter units with high pressure
on the tube side only. In units of this design, the shell flange is attached by studs
screwed into the back of the tube sheet. Such a design gives the flexibility of
examining the outside of the tube bundle. The shell is normally on wheels and
removed from the bundle. In conventional units, the tube bundle is always
withdrawn from the fixed shell.

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8.3.6 Floating Head Exchangers
Floating Head Exchangers are the highest capital cost shell and tube unit. This is
due to the number of main girth flanges that must be provided. They are
recommended when high thermal stresses exist due to high temperature
differences between the hot and cold streams.
Outside Packing Floating Head Exchangers are of rear head types P and W, Split-
ring Floating Head Exchangers are of rear head type S and Pull-through Floating
Head Exchangers are of rear head type T.
Floating Head units of the AES type are used almost universally in Oil Refinery
work. They are not so frequently used in Chemical plants. Floating Head units are
used when a combination of a removable bundle and straight tubes is required.
Straight tubes are essential for units in which rodding of the tubes for cleaning
purposes is required.
For design pressures below 4,100 kPag, a split ring type of design (S type rear end
head) is normally used. However, some clients prefer an Outside Packed Floating
Head construction (P type rear end head). It is best to restrict the use of outside
packed floating head units to services where leaks at the packed gland will not
pose any safety hazard.
For design pressures above 4,100 kPag, a pull through floating head must be used.
This allows the floating head flange to be bolted directly to the rear tube sheet.
This type of joint is more suitable at higher pressures than a joint using a backing
ring type device. Because of handling difficulties most clients impose a limitation
on the size of removable bundle units. This size is normally no greater than
1150mm diameter. Where the duty requires more surface than can be installed in a
single shell, multi shell units are used.
8.4 S&T Exchangers Tubes and Tube Layout
Tube design and selection is often controlled by required area, velocity and
pressure drop limitations. Occasionally other constraints such as maximum tube
wall temperatures are specified e.g. to prevent coke accelerated corrosion or
polymerisation.
Tube design and layout should also ensure that dead zones in the exchanger are
minimised as these can lead to corrosion problems.
8.4.1 Tube Outside Diameter
TEMA lists nine standard tube sizes ranging from 6.35 mm to 50.8mm
The most common sizes used are;
 16 mm (0.625”)
 19.05 mm (0.75”)
 25.4 mm (1”)
8.4.2 Tube Wall Thickness
The following table lists the standard wall thicknesses and their preferred
application. API 660 Section 7.6 lists the minimum tube wall thicknesses to be
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used in design. The minimum wall thickness for carbon steel and low-alloy steels
is 2.11 mm.
BWG in mm Preferred Application
20 0.035 0.89 Titanium
18 0.049 1.24
16 0.065 1.65 ¾” Alloy
14 0.082 2.11 ¾” CS and 1” Alloy
12 0.109 2.74 1” CS
10 0.134 3.40
8.4.3 Tube Length
TEMA standard lengths are 2.44 m (8 ft), 3.05 m (10 ft), 3.66 m (12 ft), 4.27 m
(14 ft), 4.88 m (16 ft) and 6.1 m (20 ft)
6.1 m (20 ft) is usually the sensible maximum length specified for petroleum
refinery and chemical plant applications where space is restricted
8.4.4 Number of Tube side Passes
Generally the more tube side passes the better as the coefficient increases but at
the expense of pressure drop. The exception is single pass E shells and 2-pass F
shells where the flow is true counter current.
8.4.5 Tube Pattern Layouts
Use 90° (square) or 45° (rotated square) tube layout if shell cleaning is required
Use 30° or 60° tube layout if shell cleaning is not required as these layouts give a
greater number of tubes per shell as well as a higher shell side film coefficient.
The shell side pressure drop is also higher than for a 90° or 45° arrangement.
30°
Triangular – 30° Square – 90°
60°
45°
Rotated Triangular – 60° Rotated Square – 45°

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8.5 S&T Exchangers Baffles and Bundle Entrance
The usual baffle types are single segmental or double segmental. Single segmental
baffles are standard. Double segmental baffles are specified if a lower pressure
drop is required. Other baffle types include rod baffles (really a grid support not a
baffle), triple segmental, disc and doughnut and helical / spiral flow inducing.
Various options exist for the specification of tubes in the windows region of the
baffle. Tubes in the window region can be specified for single and double
segmental baffles but it means that the tubes are unsupported so this design should
not be used for applications where vibration is expected to be a problem.
Intermediate tube supports can be specified. These increase cost but no area is lost
which is the case for ‘no tubes in window’ (NTIW) designs.
8.5.1 Baffle Cut
The normal range of baffle cuts for segmental type baffles is:
Single segmental 15-45%
Double segmental 22-42%
Triple segmental 28-38%
Baffles are typically arranged with a vertical cut (side / side flow) for shell side
condensers and with a horizontal cut (up / over flow) for all other applications.
8.5.2 Baffle Spacing
Segmental baffles are normally spaced at 20% of the shell diameter. The
minimum recommended spacing is 50mm. Small baffle spacing can reduce the
cross flow fraction due to leakage.
8.5.3 Bundle Entrance
TEMA has recommended mass velocity limits at the bundle entrance. When these
are exceeded, impingement protection is required to protect the tubes from
erosion.
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Typically impingement protection is required for the following services:

 Saturated vapours or two phase fluids
 Non-corrosive, non-abrasive, single phase fluids with ρv 2 greater than 2232
kg/ms2 (1500 lb/fts2)
 Corrosive, abrasive with ρv2 greater than 744 kg/ms2 (500 lb/fts2) or liquids
at boiling point
Impingement protection can be by either a plate or solid rods. Improperly
designed impingement plates can cause vibration problems. Often rods can be
more effective at eliminating vibration. In either case the exit area needs to be
sufficient to reduce the exit ρv2 to below the above values.
Whether protection is fitted or not, shell entrance and exit area must be such that
ρv2 does not exceed 5953 kg/ms2 (4000 lb/fts2).
The following techniques can be used to control entrance mass velocities to ensure
that the ρv2 does not exceed 5953 kg/ms2 (4000 lb/fts2):
 Remove tubes within the nozzle projection area
 Remove tubes to have equivalent flow area to that of the nozzle
 Use dome entrance
 Use distributor belt (vapour belt)

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8.5.4 Bundle Clearance
The following clearances are recommended by TEMA.

Tube/baffle: For baffle pitch < 457 mm, use diametrical clearance of 0.8 mm
For baffle pitch > 457 mm, use diametrical clearance of 0.4 mm
Baffle/shell: From 2.5 to 8 mm (diametrical) depending on shell diameter
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Bundle/shell: Type L, M, N, P, U, W, use 13mm

Type S from 36 to 54 mm (diametrical) depending on shell
diameter
Type T. Use Type S clearance + 76mm
8.5.5 Sealing Strips
Sealing strips are used to reduce leakage and bypass between the tube and baffle
and shell and baffle. Leakage and bypass reduce the cross-flow through the
exchanger and hence lower the coefficient. They also cause axial mixing which
may reduce the mean temperature difference of the exchanger.
8.6 Alternative Shell and Tube Exchanger Design Features
These features and options are typically used for revamps rather than new designs.
Clients often have specific designs that they will not approve based on previous
bad experiences.
8.6.1 Helical Baffles
ABB Lummus Heat Transfer offers helically baffled tube bundle designs for shell
and tube heat exchangers. These baffles create near plug flow conditions on the
shell side and have found applications in revamps where improving shell side heat
transfer without significant pressure drop increase is required. They also help to
support the tubes which can reduce vibration issues. However, the bundle can be
difficult to remove.
The Helixchanger is primarily suited to applications where the shell side heat
transfer resistance controls, where the shell side pressure drop is important and
where shell side fouling considerations are important. They can be designed with
‘E’ or ‘J’ or special multi-pass shells with multi-pass bundles.

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Helical Baffles
8.6.2 Tube inserts
Turbulators can be inserted into the tube to promote turbulence. These devices are
most effective with high viscosity fluids in a laminar flow regime. They are also
used to promote boiling in sub cooled regions of a reboiler. In some cases, the
turbulators may reduce fouling tendency on the tube side. Tube side pressure drop
will be increased.
Tube inserts and modified tube geometry
8.6.3 Modified Tube Geometry
Many vendors have developed modified tube geometries including corrugations,

twisting and spiral fluting. These tube geometries promote turbulence and enhance
boiling at the expense of higher pressure drop. Twisted tubes touch and support
each other every 80mm or so. Baffles are therefore not required. They provide
axial flow and are thermally effective.

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Tube inserts and enhancements
8.6.4 Enhanced Tube Surfaces
Longitudinal and transverse finned tubes are the most common type of enhanced
tube surfaces. Longitudinal fins are common in double pipe exchangers or un-
baffled shell and tube heat exchangers, where flow is along the axis. Low-fin
(transverse fins) can be used in a wide variety of heat exchanger surfaces. UOP
HiFlux (or equivalent) tube surfaces provide a porous metallic layer on the tube
surface (sintering) which enhances boiling. Fluids must be non-fouling to allow
use of these tube surfaces.
Finned tubes
8.6.5 RODbaffle
RODbaffle tube bundles consists of a series of shell side baffles, each constructed
of an array of support rods. The benefits of RODbaffle tube bundles are lower

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shell side pressure drop and reduced flow induced tube vibration. This was
developed by Phillips Petroleum in the 1970s
RODBaffle
8.6.6 EMbaffle Heat Exchanger
This is similar to the RODbaffle heat exchanger. It was developed by Shell Global
Solutions. Expanded metal is used to form baffles.
8.6.7 Ferrules
Ferrules are used typically on boilers to protect the tube and tube sheets from
erosion corrosion, due to turbulence and/or excessively high metal temperatures.
They are inserted inside the tube at the inlet tube sheet. Ferrules may be
manufactured from high alloys or ceramics.
Ferrules
8.7 TEMA R, C and B Designations
There are three TEMA type designations, R, C and B that apply to shell and tube
heat exchangers.
TEMA R designation refers to exchangers used in the petroleum industry.

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TEMA C designation refers to exchangers used in commercial and general process

applications.
TEMA B designation refers to exchangers used in the chemical process industries.
The following sections list the differences between R, C and B Type Designations
8.7.1 Corrosion Allowance
Corrosion Allowance on carbon steel components is different between the three

designation types. For type R, it is 3.2mm (1/8") on all non-tubular surfaces, and
for types C, and B, it is 1.6 mm (1/16") on all non-tubular surfaces. For alloy
materials, the corrosion allowance for all types is 0 mm.
8.7.2 Gaskets
Gasket Types for type R exchangers below 2,070 kPag (300 psig) design pressure
may be any type providing they allow an adequate seal and are not crushed under
the required bolt load. Types C and B require composition (usually compressed,
non-asbestos fibre) gaskets for design pressure below 2,700 kPag (300 psig).
The gasket material requirements for all three types having design pressures of
2,070 kPag (300 psig) and above are as follows: Metal jacketed, solid metal or
type agreed to by the client.
Gasket Joint Details: Type R requires confined gaskets whereas types C and B
require either confined or unconfined gaskets.
8.7.3 Shell and Tube Thickness
Minimum Shell Thickness is different between type R and types C, and B. TEMA
tables R-3.13 and CB-3.13 should be consulted for differences.
Minimum Tube sheet Thickness criteria vary between the three designations.
TEMA paragraphs R /C / B -7.131 define the respective differences.
8.7.4 Grooving
Tube Hole Grooving is required for all non-strength welded tube to tube sheet
joints for types R, and B designations but only for design pressures over 2,070
kPag (300 psig) and/ or temperatures in excess of 180°C (350°F) for type C. See
TEMA paragraphs RB-7.44 and C-7.44 for dimensional requirements.
Pass Partition Grooves shall be provided on all type R exchangers. Grooves are
only required on C, and B types for design pressures over 2,070 kPag (300 psig).
8.7.5 Nozzle Connections
Pressure and Temperature Nozzle Connections for type C exchangers have to be

specially requested from the fabricator. For types R, and B they must be provided
by the vendor.
For pressure connections a 20mm (3/4") NPS must be provided in nozzles 50 mm
(2") diameter and above for type R exchangers. A 12mm (1/2") NPS must be
provided in nozzles 50mm (2") diameter and above for type B.
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For temperature connections a 25mm (1") NPS must be provided in nozzles

100mm (4") diameter and above for type R, and B exchangers.
Note that specific client requirements may govern the size and type of test and
instrument connections.
8.7.6 Bolt Size
Minimum Bolt Size for type R exchangers is 20mm (3/4") diameter, for type C it
is 12mm (1/2") diameter, and for type B it is 16mm (5/8") diameter.
9. S&T EXCHANGERS - DESIGN PARAMETERS TO CHANGE
Use the following table to adjust exchanger design inputs when confronted with
the limiting parameters listed.
Adjusted High High Low Low Temp. Cross Vibration
Parameters Pressure Pressure Coefficient Coefficient Indication
Drop Shell Drop Tube Shell Side Tube Side
Side Side
Baffle Type Double / triple - Single - - Double / triple
segmental segmental segmental
Shell Type J or X type - E or F type - E, F or G J or X type
shell shell type shell shell
Tube Pattern Rotated - Triangular - - Rotated
Square or Square
Square
Tube Diameter Increase to 1” Increase to 1” Decrease to Decrease to - Increase to 1”
or 1.25” or 1.25” 0.625” or 0.5” 0.625” or 0.5” or 1.25”
Baffle Cut Use 30% to - Use 15% to - - -
40% 20%
Tube Pitch Increase to 1.4 - Limit to TEMA - - Increase to 1.4
to 1.5 x tube std spacing to 1.5 x tube
OD OD
Fluid Allocation Switch Sides Switch Sides Switch sides Switch sides - Switch sides
Arrangement Increase # of Increase # of Increase # of - Increase # of Increase # of
exch. in exch. in exch. in exch. in exch. in
parallel parallel parallel parallel parallel
# of Tube Passes - Limit to one - Increase # of Limit to one -
tube pass tube passes tube pass
Tube Type Plain Plain Externally Internally - -
enhanced enhanced
10. S&T HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATIONS
10.1 Preliminary Design
The following section should only be used for preliminary sizing of heat
exchangers.
The design equation for any heat exchanger is:
Q = UO AO FT LMTD
Where;
Q = Heat transferred (W)

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UO = Overall heat transfer coefficient, based on outside area, (W/hr.m 2.°C)

AO = Outside heat transfer area (m2)
FT = MTD (Mean temperature difference) correction factor
LMTD = Log mean temperature difference (°C)
 t  t 2 
LMTD   1 
 ln t1 t 2  
And;
∆t1 = Terminal temperature approach (either hot or cold end)
∆t2 = Terminal temperature approach (opposite end to ∆t1)
Initial estimates of required heat transfer area can be determined by using these
equations.
Values of FT can be determined by referring to the charts in Appendix E. For
pure counter current flow or co current flow or if one of the streams is isothermal,
FT = 1.0. Note that the MTD correction chart for 1 shell pass and two tube passes
is also valid if the shell side flow direction is reversed and also for 1 shell pass and
any number of tube passes.
The other charts in Appendix E with multiple shell passes are also valid for 2 or
more tube passes. If the calculated MTD correction factor is less than 0.75 – 0.8
(inefficient exchanger design), an alternate heat exchanger configuration and/or
multiple shells should be employed.
Note that the MTD correction factor is only valid when the heating and/or cooling
curves are approximately linear. A weighted MTD correction factor can be
calculated by dividing the heating and/or cooling curves into approximately linear
sections and using the formula below:
 Q 
 overall
 LMTD 
WeighedFT 
 Q   Q   Q 
  Zone1    Zone 2  .....    ZoneN
 FT LMTD   FT LMTD   FT LMTD 
Overall heat transfer coefficient (UO), based on the outside surface area, is
calculated from the component heat resistances using the following formula:
1 1 A0 Ax
   0  R0  R I
U 0 h0 AI hI Aw k
Where;
UO = Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside heat transfer area,
(W/hr.m2.°C).
hO = Outside convective heat transfer coefficient, (W/hr.m2.°C)
hI = Inside convective heat transfer coefficient, (W/hr.m2.°C)
AO = Outside heat transfer area, (m2)
AI = Inside heat transfer area, (m2)
AW = Heat transfer area of wall, (m2)
x = Wall thickness, (m)

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k = Wall thermal conductivity, (W/hr.m.°C)

RO = Outside fouling resistance, (hr.m2.°C/W)
RI = Inside fouling resistance, (hr.m2.°C/W)
Note: This equation does not account for heat transfer due to radiation. In some
high temperature applications, there may be a significant heat transfer due to
radiation.
TEMA fouling factors for common services are provided in Appendix F. If actual
fouling factor plant data is available for a specific heat exchanger service, this
should be used in preference to the indicative fouling factors in Appendix F.
10.2 Detailed Heat Exchanger Calculations and Rating
The equations in Section 10.1 and Appendix A can be used for preliminary
estimation of the heat exchanger heat transfer area for a shell and tube exchanger.
Alternatively use can be made of the process simulation packages heat exchanger
modelling.
Process engineers are often involved in the preliminary design of heat exchangers
and the checking of vendor designs. Detailed thermal design is the responsibility
of the heat exchanger vendor.
HTRI Xchanger Suite is the usual software used for exchanger design and rating.
HTFS is available through the HYSYS Aspentech interface.
HYSYS simulation package can be used for preliminary heat exchanger design
especially when using the HTFS module. However this can be less rigorous than
modelling using HTRI and in some cases can lead to significant inaccuracies
especially in for example high viscosity fluids, condensing and boiling services. It
should also be noted that the majority of shell and tube exchanger vendors design
using HTRI and not HTFS. Some differences can occur when designing using
these two software packages.
HYSYS simulation package includes short cut heat exchanger methods. They
should be used during the conceptual stage when evaluating different equipment
arrangements and different temperature ranges.
The following short cut methods are available in HYSYS:
 End Point
 Weighted
 Steady State Rating
 Dynamic Basic
 Dynamic Detailed.
The End Point Method is based on the standard heat exchanger duty equation
defined in terms of overall heat transfer coefficient; area available for heat
exchange and the log mean temperature difference. The main assumptions of the
model are that ‘U’ remains constant and the specific heats of both the shell and
tube side streams are constant.
The model treats the heat curves for both sides of the exchanger as linear so it
should not be used for phase change applications. It is useful when evaluating
different equipment arrangement or different temperature ranges. It however
requires a good estimate of heat transfer coefficient and does not provide a reliable

ANZ Technical Guide
estimate of pressure drop or velocity related problems. Other limitations include

no cost estimate and a poor estimate of physical dimensions.
The Weighted Method is a UA method based on an interval calculation. It can be
used for phase change applications. The heating curves are broken into intervals
and an energy balance is performed along each interval. LMTD and ‘UA’ are
calculated for each interval and are then summed to calculate the overall ‘UA’ of
the exchanger. Limitations of this method include no cost estimate and various
geometry configurations cannot be considered.
It is only available for counter-current exchangers and is essentially an energy and
material balance model. The geometry configurations which affect the Ft
correction factor are not taken into consideration in this model.
The Steady State Rating Method is an extension of the End Point Method to
incorporate a rating calculation. The geometry of the exchanger is specified. It can
be used in place of the dynamics method and is faster. This method can
underestimate duty and the shell side pressure drop is often poorly estimated. It
should only be used for linear or near linear heat curve problems.
The Dynamic Basic Method uses the same assumptions as the End Point Method.
Both pressure drops and ‘UA’ are required as input. Geometry is not required.
This method is an over simplification and is therefore not recommended.
The Dynamic Detailed Method is an extension of the Weighted Method and
divides the exchanger into a number of heat zones, performing an energy balance
along each interval. Detailed geometry is required.
The following common limitations apply to all shortcut methods: the design is
limited to ‘E’ and ‘F’ shells, there is no vibration calculation or velocity related
checks, no cost estimate and often a poor estimate of pressure drop.
More rigorous methods (HTFS or HTRI) should be used when the following is
required: an accurate simulation of the exchanger, accurate pressure drops, cost
estimate, equipment weight estimates, vibration analysis, accurate rating of
existing equipment for replacement service and tube sheet and setting plans.
HTFS+ should be selected as the heat exchanger model for rigorous methods.
For more information refer to the HYSYS Operations Guide Section 4.4 ‘Heat
Exchanger’
11. GUIDELINES FOR SETTING EXCHANGER TERMINAL

TEMPERATURES
11.1 Shell and Tube Exchangers
On a shell and tube heat exchanger the temperature approach (temperature

difference at a terminal point), may be as little as 3-6 °C. In cases where there is
phase change, care must be taken to check for limiting temperature approaches
within the exchanger.
If a very large temperature cross is required, as often found on Feed/ Effluent
exchangers, then the following logic must be used to determine the most
economical design.

ANZ Technical Guide
 Try a counter-current design using a single flow pass on both the shell side
and tube side.
 If the tube side velocity is unacceptably low, try using an F-shell using two
shell side passes and two tube side passes. U tubes are very usual in this
arrangement.
 If it is still difficult to obtain reasonable tube side velocity, then multi-tube
passes will have to be used with multiple shells in series to overcome the
temperature cross. Each single multi-tube pass shell can handle zero
temperature cross.
11.2 Design Ambient Temperature
If a project design criteria is not available for the design ambient air temperature,
use an air temperature which is equalled or exceeded only 5% of the time, on
average, during the four consecutive warmest months, as determined by the mean
wet bulb temperature.
The cold end approach should not be less than 12°C on these units since the
calculated heat transfer efficiencies of the cold fins do not allow a smaller value.
For plain tubes the temperature approach may be reduced to 6°C.

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11.3 Compact Heat Exchanger Designs
The following temperature approaches can be assumed for compact heat

exchanger designs:
Exchanger Type Minimum Practical Temperature Approach °C
Plate and Frame 3
Spiral 3
Double Pipe 3
Printed circuit 1
Plate-fin 1
12. OTHER DESIGN PARAMETERS
12.1 Vibration
Tube vibration is generally as a result of one or more of the following:

 High fluid velocities
 Large tube unsupported span
 Tube material defects
 Manufacturing Process
 Exchanger design / application
There are two types of vibration:
Tube movement vibration is a result of motion of the tubes. The tubes vibrate at
their natural frequency as a result of the shell side fluid flowing over them. It can
cause physical damage to the tubes.
Acoustical vibration when the acoustic frequency approaches the tube natural
frequency. This usually only causes noise.
Typically, baffles can be used to eliminate movement vibration without increasing
the exchanger shell diameter.
The following design recommendations may help to avoid movement vibration
issues.
 Increase the tube diameter. The change from a small diameter tube to a
larger diameter will significantly increase the relative stiffness of the tubes
which will inhibit tube movement vibration.
 Decrease the unsupported span of the tubes. The unsupported span of the
tube is one of the primary factors affecting tube movement vibration. (There
is however a minimum baffle spacing refer to Section 8.5)
 Increase the tube spacing. By increasing the tube spacing the cross flow
velocity is reduced.
 Change to a different baffle style. Multisegmental baffles reduce crossflow
velocity over segmental baffles.
 Change shell type. Divided flow shells can reduce crossflow velocity.
Acoustic vibration can produce loud noise but seldom causes tube damage. The
following may eliminate acoustic vibration:
 Change tube layout. The majority of acoustic vibration problems have been
observed in bundles with 45° layout.
 Add deresonating baffles
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 Reduce the maximum unsupported span length of the tubes.
12.2 Over design or over surface
Additional margin on surface area, heat duty or flow rate should be provided as
specified in the project Process Design Criteria.
Care should be taken to ensure that the specified over-design does not create
operational issues. For example, an over-surfaced steam heated exchanger could
produce sub-cooled condensate on the outlet side leading to hammer when
operating at reduced rates with clean tubes.
12.3 Common Heat Exchanger Materials and Corrosion Allowances
Materials of Construction and Corrosion Allowances should be selected as per the

project Materials Selection Report or Process Design Basis Diagrams. Advice
should be sought from materials specialist if in doubt. However the following
table below provides a brief listing of common materials used in the fabrication of
heat exchangers:
Material Typical Services
Carbon Steel Non-corrosive fluids and mildly corrosive fluids. Cooling water and steam.
Low Alloy Steel (Cr-Mo) Sulphidic corrosion resistance. Elevated temperature service.
Austenitic Stainless Steel (300 series Corrosive conditions. Organic and inorganic acids. Elevated temperature hydrogen /
SS) Notes 1,2 H2S attack.
Ferritic Stainless Steels (400 Series Mercaptan sulphur resistance. Elevated temperature hydrogen / H2S attack. Mildly
SS) acidic conditions. As alternative to 300 series SS where stress corrosion cracking is
a concern
Duplex Stainless Steel Corrosive fluids with traces of chlorides
Monel (Ni Cu Alloy) HF acid service
Copper Alloys (Brass, Cupronickel) Seawater or brackish water
Nickel Alloys Mineral Acids and Cl containing acids. Hot caustic soda and hot potassium
carbonate.
Titanium Sea water
Glass Air preheaters for large furnaces
Carbon (graphite) Severely corrosive fluids
Teflon (tubing) Corrosive fluids
Aluminium Fins for air coolers. Brazed Plate Aluminium Plate fin heat exchangers. Low
temperature (cryogenic) applications (e.g. gas plant cold box or ASU)
Cladding Frequently used wherever required alloy component thickness exceeds 16mm (5/8”)
Coatings / linings Sea water and brackish water. General corrosion resistance.
Notes:
1. Heat from welding can cause chromium carbide precipitation, which can
impact corrosion resistance in some environments. Low carbon stainless steel
(e.g. 304L and 316L) would be more suitable in these cases.
2. 316 Stainless steel has 2-3% molybdenum content, which provides better
general corrosion resistance than 304 stainless steel.
For TEMA type R shell and tube heat exchangers, the corrosion allowance for
carbon steel metallurgy should be 1/8" on all non-tubular surfaces, and for TEMA
types C, and B, it is 1/16" on all non-tubular surfaces. For alloy materials, the
corrosion allowance for all types is 0.0". For plate type heat exchangers, no
corrosion allowance is provided. For air cooled heat exchangers a corrosion
allowance of 1/8” should be provided for the carbon steel non-tubular surfaces and
0.0” for alloy materials.
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12.4 Turndown
Turndown cases are often specified for heat exchangers. Slugging problems can
occur in reboiler circuits under turndown conditions and piping design should be
checked for all design, rating and turndown cases. Excessively low velocities can
lead to deposition or corrosion.
12.5 Cleaning
Heat exchangers can be cleaned by off-line mechanical techniques, chemical

cleaning or on-line mechanical techniques.
12.5.1 Off-line Mechanical Cleaning
The most common method is off-line mechanical cleaning. This is typically

achieved by hydro-blasting (high pressure water), drilling or chipping.
Occasionally, sand is injected with the water to remove hard, adherent scale. High
pressure water is most commonly used, but can erode metal surfaces and remove
protective films that may inhibit corrosion. Drilling or chipping off the scale are
labour intensive and can seriously damage the exchanger surfaces. If it is expected
that the shell side of a heat exchanger will require mechanical cleaning, it is
necessary to use a square pitch tube layout to allow access to the outside of tubes
for cleaning.
12.5.2 Chemical Cleaning
Chemical cleaning involves circulation of an appropriate chemical, either on-line

or more typically off-line, through a heat exchanger to dissolve and remove
surface deposits. Some of the advantages of chemical cleaning over mechanical
cleaning include:
 Can be rapid and effective if used properly.
 Less mechanical damage to exchanger surfaces.
 Cleaning can be performed in-situ.
The table below lists deposits that can be removed by chemical cleaning.
Typical Deposits Removed by Chemical Cleaning
Oil, grease, fats, tars and waxes

Soft carbon, coke
Silt and biological growth
Polymers and resins
Rust and magnetite
Iron Sulphide
Calcium carbonates, phosphates and sulphates
Silica
Copper and copper oxides
Nickel oxide and alumina
Common types of chemicals used for in-situ chemical cleaning include:
Acids (Note 1) Hydrochloric

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Nitric
Sulphuric
Hydrofluoric
Citric
Formic
Alkalis Caustic Soda
Ammonia
Soda Ash
Oxidants Potassium Permanganate
Sodium Hypochlorite
Solvents Aromatic
Aliphatic
Chlorinated
Others Surfactants (e.g. Zyme-flow)
Biocides
Dispersants
Complexing Agents
Note 1: Inhibitors are required to prevent attack of the acid on metal surfaces.
12.5.3 On-line Mechanical Cleaning
There are techniques available for removing of deposits on heat exchanger

surfaces during normal operation. These techniques work best if the deposits are
soft and friable. For gases, soot blowers (either sonic or jet) are used extensively
to remove deposits from the outside of furnace tubes.
Scraped surface heat exchangers can be used where the process fluid is extremely
fouling. In this case, a scraper is continuously rotating on the inside surface of a
cylindrical tube or pipe.
Other proprietary systems that exist for on-line cleaning include the passage of
sponge balls or brushes through the heat exchanger tubes under the force of
flowing fluid.
13. AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS DESIGN
The equations in Appendix B can be used for preliminary estimation of the heat
exchanger heat transfer area for an air cooler. Note that MTD correction factors
(FT) are provided for 1, 2 and 3 tube pass air coolers in Appendix E. Alternatively
use can be made of the process simulation packages heat exchanger modelling.
In-house programs (available via the Process Spreadsheet menu) “Aircool.xls”
Rev 1.1, 1996 and “Hx-ac.xls” Rev 3, 2000 can also be used for preliminary air
cooler size estimates. They should not be used for multi-phase services.
Process engineers are often involved in the preliminary design of heat exchangers
and the checking of vendor designs. Detailed thermal design is the responsibility
of the heat exchanger vendor.
HTRI Xchanger Suite is the usual software used for exchanger design and rating.
HTFS is available through the HYSYS Aspentech interface.
HYSYS simulation package can be used for preliminary heat exchanger design
especially when using the HTFS module. However this can be less rigorous than
modelling using HTRI and in some cases can lead to significant inaccuracies
ANZ Technical Guide
especially in for example high viscosity fluids, condensing and boiling services. It
should also be noted that air cooler vendors design using either HTRI or HTFS
(e.g. Jord uses HTFS only). Some differences can occur when designing using
these two software packages.
13.1 Forced Draft vs. Induced Draft Fans
There are two types of fans which are used with air-cooled heat exchangers.
Forced Draft fan: the fan is located below the tube bundle and air is pushed by the
fan across the tube bundle.
Induced Draft fan: the fan is located above the tube bundle, and air is pulled
through the tube bundle by the fan.
Client preference will often dictate which fan design to use. In general, wherever
hot air from recirculation (from hot air exit to cool air inlet) is of concern (e.g.
gusty plant sites) induced draft fans are preferred. If freeze / pour point protection
is required for the tube bundle, a forced draft will generally be used. Typically
forced draft fan designs are more often specified than induced draft designs.

ANZ Technical Guide
13.1.1 Induced Draft
Advantages:
 Better distribution of air across the bundle
 Less possibility of hot effluent air recirculation into the intake (The hot air is
discharged upward at approximately 2.5 times the intake velocity)
 Better process control and stability because the plenum covers 60% of the
bundle face area reducing the effects of sun, rain and hail
ANZ Technical Guide
 Increased capacity in the fan-off or fan failure condition, since the natural
draft stack effect is much greater
Disadvantages and Limitations:
 Possibly higher horsepower requirements if the effluent air is very hot
 Effluent air temperature should be limited to 105°C to prevent damage to
fan blades, bearings, or other mechanical equipment in the hot air stream.
When the process inlet temperature exceeds 175°C, forced draft design
should be considered because high effluent air temperatures may occur
during fan-off or low air flow operation.
 Fans are less accessible for maintenance, and maintenance may have to be
done in the hot air generated by natural convection
 Plenums must be removed to replace bundles
13.1.2 Forced Draft
Advantages:
 Possibly lower horsepower requirements if the effluent air is very hot
 Better accessibility of fans and upper bearings for maintenance
 Better accessibility of bundles for replacement
 Accommodates higher process inlet temperatures
Disadvantages and Limitations:

 Less uniform distribution of air over the bundle
 Increased possibility of hot air recirculation resulting from low discharge
velocity from the bundles, high intake velocity to the fan ring, and no stack
 Low natural draft capability on fan failure
 Complete exposure of the finned tubes to sun, rain and hail which results in
poor process control and stability

ANZ Technical Guide
13.2 Air Cooler Controls
Since air coolers are designed for maximum conditions, some sort of control is
necessary when over-cooling the process fluid is detrimental, or when saving fan
power is desired. The usual method of control is air flow control.
Common controls on air cooled heat exchangers include on/off controls for
individual fans, variable speed drives on all or selected fans, variable pitch fans or
adjustable louvers (or a combination of these).
Louvers operate by creating an adjustable restriction to air flow and therefore do
not save energy when air flow is reduced. In fact, louvers impose a permanent
energy loss, even in the open position.
336833
In cases where it is necessary to cool fluids with pour or freeze points above the
minimum ambient temperature, recirculation of warm air can be used to prevent
freezing of the fluid during cold weather. Some of the warm air leaving the tube
bundle is mixed with the correct proportion of cold incoming air to provide the
required cooling air temperature. The warm air recirculation rate is controlled via
adjustable side louvers.
Steam heating coils can be provided to heat air cooler tube bundles during start-
ups or shutdowns or to heat the cooling air during cold weather. The heating coils
are placed directly under the bundles.
13.3 Air Cooler Components
13.3.1 Bay
An air cooler bay consists of bundles, supports and fans. Multiple bundles serving
different process services can share a common bay and fans. Usually two or more
fans are specified per bay.
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13.3.2 Tube Bundle
A tube bundle is an assembly of tubes, headers, side frames and tube supports.
Usually the tube surface exposed to the passage of air has extended surface in the
form of fins to compensate for the low heat transfer rate of air at atmospheric
pressure and at a low enough velocity for reasonable fan power consumption.
The prime tube is usually round. Fins are helical or plate type and are usually
made of aluminium for good thermal conductivity. Steel fins are used for high
temperature applications.

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13.3.3 Fins
There are three fin types:

Extruded: the fins are extruded from the wall of an aluminium tube that is
integrally bonded to the base tube for the full length
Embedded: by helically wrapping a strip of aluminium to embed it in a pre-cut
helical groove then preening back the edges of the groove against the base of the
fin to tightly secure it
Wrap-on: by wrapping on an aluminium strip that is footed at the base as it is
wrapped on the tube.
The choice of fin is critical. Each type has different heat transfer and pressure drop
characteristics. The extruded fin tube affords the best protection of the liner tube
from atmospheric corrosion as well as providing consistent heat transfer from the
initial installation throughout the life of the cooler. This is the preferred tube for
operating temperatures up to 300°C.
The embedded fin also provides consistent heat transfer from the initial
installation throughout the life of the cooler. This is the preferred tube for
operating temperatures between 300°C and 400°C.
The wrap-on fin tube can be used for temperatures below 130°C. However, the
bond between the fin and the tube will loosen in time and the heat transfer is not
predictable with certainty over the life of the cooler. Wrap-on fin tubes are often
de-rated to allow for this heat transfer uncertainty.
13.3.4 Typical Design Parameters
The following list gives some typical ranges for air cooler design parameters:
Tubes are manufactured in lengths from 1.8 m (6 ft) to 18.3 m (60 ft)
Tube diameters range from 15.9 mm (5/8”) to 150 mm (6”) the most common
being 25mm (1”)
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Fins are commonly helical, 275 to 430 fins per metre (7 to 11 fins per inch),
7.9mm (5/16”) to (25mm) 1” high and 0.25mm (0.010”) to 0.89mm (0.035”) thick
The ratio of extended to prime surface varies from 7:1 to 25:1
Bundles are rectangular and typically consist of 2 to 10 rows arranged on a
triangular pitch.
The tube pitch is usually between 2 and 2.5 tube diameters
13.3.5 Box header
The box header consists of tube sheet, top, bottom and end plates and a cover
plate that may be welded or bolted on. If the cover is welded on, holes must be
drilled and threaded opposite each tube for maintenance of the tubes. A plug is
screwed into each hole and the cover is called the plug sheet. Bolted removable
cover plates are used for improved access to headers in severe fouling services.
The Plug Header is the most common type and is suitable for services up to
20,700 kPag (3000 psig). The Cover Plate Header is used in high fouling services.
It is limited to lower design pressures, typically < 2,400 kPag (350 psig). There are
width limitations for this type of design associated with ease of removal of the
bundle.
Horizontally split headers may be required to accommodate differential tube
expansion in services having high fluid temperature differences per pass. API 661
states that split headers, U tubes or other restraint relief shall be employed when
the temperature difference from the inlet to the outlet of a multi-pass bundle
exceeds 110°C.

ANZ Technical Guide
13.3.6 Tube Arrangement and Type
Within practical limits, the longer the tubes and the greater the number of rows,
the less the heat transfer surface costs per square metre. One or more bundles of
the same or differing service may be combined in one unit (bay) with one set of
fans. All bundles combined in a single unit will have the same air-side static
pressure loss. Consequently, combined bundles having different numbers of rows
must be designed for different face velocities.
Tube length is normally selected based on available plot space, client preferences
etc. Consideration should also be given to pipe rack widths if air coolers are
arranged on top of pipe racks.
Tube inserts are used to promote increased turbulence, mixing and wall shear
stress. The best overall performance is realised when the tube side heat transfer
film coefficient dominates the overall thermal resistance. The largest benefit is in
moderate, high viscosity services where the Reynolds number is low and laminar
flow is the predominant flow regime. Tube inserts however add significant
pressure drop.
The design of the air cooler outlet piping is affected by the number of tube passes.
An even number of passes allows all the piping to be at the same end of the
exchanger which is often preferable for layout and access purposes.
13.3.7 Fans
Even distribution of the air across the tube bundle is critical for predictable,
uniform heat transfer. This is achieved by adequate fan coverage and static
pressure loss across the bundle. Good practice is to keep the fan projected face
area to a minimum of 40% of the projected face area of the tube bundle and the
bundle static pressure loss at least 3.5 times the velocity pressure loss through the
fan ring. The fan diameter should be at least 150mm less than the bundle width.
To provide redundancy in case of mechanical unit failure and to provide the basic
control achievable by running one fan or two, a bundle or set of bundles is usually
provided with two fans.
13.3.8 Cleaning
Air borne contaminants can foul the air side of air cooler tubes. Cleaning can be
achieved by washing with high pressure water or biodegradable foam. The tubes
are sprayed on both the top and underside of the tube bundle. If cleaning is part of
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a regular maintenance activity (e.g. for dusty sites) then consideration should be
given to provision of a permanent platform around the cooler. Bundle dimensions
should also be limited such that all parts of the air cooler can be reached from the
platform.
13.4 Layout
The layout of air coolers with respect to other coolers, prevailing wind and large
structures is important to prevent hot air recirculation. This can occur when air
coolers are placed too close together in the downwind direction, placed in front of
downwind obstacles, placed at different elevations near each other, placed with
close temperature approach coolers on the leeward side and when forced draft and
induced draft designs are mixed indiscriminately. Forced draft designs have an
increased possibility of hot air recirculation compared to induced draft designs.
This results from low discharge velocity from the bundles, high intake velocity to
the fan ring, and no stack.

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14. OTHER HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN AND RATING
14.1 Double Pipe / Multi-tube Heat Exchangers
The Process or Mechanical groups do not have a specific program for design or
rating of a double pipe heat exchanger. The HTRI Xchanger Suite has been used
successfully for design of double pipe heat exchangers by specifying a single tube
and no shell side baffles.
14.2 Plate Heat Exchangers
The HTRI program “PHE” is available for design and rating of plate heat
exchangers. In general, this program is not used for plate heat exchanger design,
as it requires all of the information on the plate geometry (chevron angles, etc) as
input and this information is usually proprietary. It could be used for rating of an
existing plate heat exchanger design, but in practice, the plate heat exchanger
vendor is used for design and rating of plate heat exchangers.
Typical dimensions for plate and frame heat exchangers are provided in the
following Table:
Dimension Value
Plate thickness 0.5 to 1 mm
Distance between plates 2 to 5 mm
Hydraulic diameter 4 to 10 mm
Maximum area per plate 1.5 m2 (16 ft2)
Maximum number of plates per frame 400

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14.3 Other Exchanger Designs
For other exchanger designs, vendors will be required to provide initial design and
rating calculations.
15. REBOILERS AND VAPORISERS
The following definitions are useful when considering vapour generating

equipment:
Reboiler: Generates vapour flow for a distillation column
Evaporator: Concentrates a liquid by evaporating water or solvent
Vaporiser: Produces a vapour product (e.g. fuel gas)
Chiller: Cools a process fluid by vaporising a refrigerant
Boiler: Generates steam
For each of these services, a number of different heat exchanger designs can be
used. Section 6 provides a discussion on the heat exchanger selection in general.
The following table lists some of the common heat exchanger designs employed
for vapour generating services.
Service Application Exchanger Type

Reboilers All Shell and Tube
Stab-in
Fired heater
Spiral plate
Plate and Frame
Very clean fluids Welded Plate
Brazed Plate-Fin
Heat sensitive fluid Falling Film
Evaporators and All Shell and Tube
vaporisers Tubular evaporators
Spiral
Coiled tube
Heat sensitive fluid Film evaporators
Clean fluids Plate-Fin
Dirty fluids Submerged combustion
Flash evaporation
Chillers and Shell and Tube
refrigerant evaporators Air coolers
Plate-fin
Double pipe
Boiler Fired boiler Water tube boiler
Waste heat boiler Water tube boiler
Convective banks
Shell and Tube
15.1 Reboiler Selection
Typical distillation column reboiler arrangements are:

 Kettle Reboiler
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 Internal / Stab-in reboiler

 Vertical Thermosyphon
 Horizontal Thermosyphon
 Once through natural circulation reboiler
 Pump through reboiler

ANZ Technical Guide
15.2 Reboiler Configurations
The following issues should be considered when deciding on a reboiler

configuration to use:
15.2.1 Kettle Reboiler
Best Applications
Best applications are for clean, low pressure, narrow boiling range fluids and those
requiring high vaporisation percentages.
Advantages
 Very large areas can be provided in a single shell
 Operation is not dependent on circulation of two phase fluid through piping.
Therefore, kettle reboilers are less sensitive to changes in process conditions
 High vaporisation percentage and good vapour quality
 Easy cleaning and maintenance
 Low circulation rate
 Simple column internals
 Requires lowest tower elevation
 Equivalent to one theoretical stage.
Disadvantages
 Not recommended for potentially fouling service (particularly, when the
bottoms draw-off product is less than about 20% of the required boil-up)
 Expensive installation cost (larger shell, connection piping and level
control)
 Long residence time
 Not good for high pressure boiling
 Process side difficult to clean
 Low bottoms product hold-up
 Lower heat flux and heat transfer rate.
Remarks
 Multiple outlets can be designed to reduce shell size
 Continuous blow down can be provided to avoid accumulation of heavy and
polymerised materials and hence reduce fouling
Kettle reboilers are limited to once-through type operations as shown in the figure
below. The gross bottoms are fed from the bottom of the tower and the net
bottoms withdrawn from the reboiler. The net bottoms are independently
controlled, and the weir in the kettle maintains reboiler tube immersion as well as
the level in the bottom of the column.

ANZ Technical Guide
Kettle Reboiler
With kettle reboilers, the bottom section of the column is greatly simplified. No
baffle, trap-out, collector tray, or level control is required. Tower bottom height is
minimised since liquid hold-up and vapour disengagement occur in the kettle.
Piping is simplified, although vapour lines are much longer than those of vertical
thermosyphons.
Multiple kettle reboiler units with common inlet and discharge headers may be
used for large installations. With clean heating fluids, inexpensive U-tube bundles
are often employed rather than floating heads.
Since the horizontal cross-section of the discharge chamber of a kettle reboiler is
usually smaller than that of the column, bottoms product surge capacity is inferior
to that of most other reboiler systems. The response characteristics of the
controller and system’s hold-up are such that column level controls generally
produce steadier net bottoms outputs than those of kettle reboilers. In cases where
the net bottoms product goes to a storage or surge vessel, unsteady bottoms flow
need not be a consideration.
In other reboiler systems, vapour-liquid disengagement occurs in the lower part of
the column, with the packing or bottom plate serving to ensure efficient
separation. In a kettle, disengagement volume must be provided above the tubes.
The disengagement requirements, together with the liquid discharge hold-up
requirements, make the kettle a relatively expensive form of reboiler.
Kettle reboilers are essentially vaporisers and are frequently used with a high
vaporisation percentage. Since they tend to allow the accumulation of solids, and
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lack the high liquid velocity characteristics of thermosyphon reboilers, it is

advisable to limit the vaporisation to 70 wt. % unless the process fluid is clean. In
this way the 30 wt. % net bottoms serves as a blow down, which will help
alleviate issues with dirt accumulation.
Because of the large hold-up in the boiling section, the liquid tends to boil at a
temperature close to that of the net bottoms and thermal fouling may become
excessive. Since recirculation is avoided, kettle reboilers may be advantageous for
polymer type thermal fouling.
Kettle reboilers are also used without weirs. In this case the level is controlled by a
baffle or level control in the column. The bottoms product is then a mixture of net
and gross bottoms so that a fraction of the stripping plate is lost. In this system it
is important to avoid excessive vapour line pressure loss which will tend to
depress the kettle reboiler liquid level and uncover the upper tubes.
Kettle reboilers are expensive. They should not be used with highly viscous
liquids or in heavy fouling services.
15.2.2 Internal / Stab-in Reboiler
Internal reboiler bundles are inserted directly into the column, thereby eliminating
shell and process side piping.
Best Applications
Best applications are for clean, low pressure, narrow boiling range fluids.
Advantages
 Frequently the least expensive reboiler design
 Useful when no space available in vicinity of tower
 For very small reboiler duty
 Reduced number of leak points
Disadvantages
 Limited heat transfer area can be provided in each bundle
 Lower heat transfer rates though the utilization of enhanced heat transfer
surfaces (for clean fluids only) allows the use of internal reboilers in higher
heat duty applications
 High fouling tendency, requiring column to be shut down and drained for
exchanger cleaning
 Tube length limited by tower diameter
 Cannot be counted as a theoretical stage
Remarks
 This design is normally not recommended
In rare cases, where reboiler duties are small, it may be advantageous to specify a
bundle in a submerged trap-out in the bottom of the tower. Shell costs are avoided
and all reboiler piping is eliminated. No baffling is required, but internal supports
and often a large column flange are required. The bundle is relatively expensive
since it uses many short tubes.
In very small towers with removable heads, a coil in the bottom section of the
tower is sometimes used for reboil heat.
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Internal Reboiler
15.2.3 Vertical Thermosyphon
Best Applications
Best applications are for vaporisation of pure components or narrow to moderate
boiling range fluids with medium fouling tendencies at moderate LMTDs. They
are not suitable for deep vacuum applications.
Advantages
 High heat transfer rate
 Occupy less plot space than kettles or horizontal designs
 Simple piping arrangement
 Low residence time
 Not easily fouled
 Good controllability
 Low installation cost for fixed tube sheet design
 Easily supported
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Disadvantages
 Area per unit is limited by practical tube length (normally 3.66m (12ft)
maximum)
 Sudden changes in temperature can result in flow oscillations. Therefore,
vertical thermosyphon reboilers are not recommended for applications
where there may be wide fluctuations in pressure
 Maximum vaporisation fraction shall not exceed 30%
 Not easily accessible for maintenance and repair
 Tower requires internal baffling to approach theoretical tray
 Circulation requires elevated tower
 Some designs require expansion joint on shell
Remarks
 In most cases, the column liquid level should be controlled approximately at
the top tube sheet elevation for good circulation
 For critical towers, dual reboilers can be designed with 70% capacity that
can be readily isolated for repair.
Vertical thermosyphons are generally the least expensive, easiest to support, most
readily cleaned and most compact of the reboiler types. However, the hydraulics
are not simple, particularly in vacuum systems and items such as the expansion
pressure drop from vaporisation should not be over looked. Poorly designed
thermosyphon reboilers tend to produce intermittent bursts of vapour. When the
level head increases for vertical exchangers, the liquid head forces liquid to higher
levels in the tubes.
With high liquid levels in the tubes, convective transfer is predominant and
nucleate boiling diminishes. Since the film coefficient is higher for nucleate
boiling, the overall heat transfer coefficient decreases with high liquid level in the
tubes.

ANZ Technical Guide
Vertical Thermosyphon
Vertical thermosyphons are generally hung onto the tower, this minimising
foundations and structural and plot area requirements. Not more than three parallel
vertical thermosyphons should be installed on a single tower.
Vertical thermosyphon reboilers generally use an extremely short process fluid
discharge line which directly connects the upper channel to the tower. This
minimises vapour pressure drop and vapour line costs. Vertical thermosyphons
have the process fluid in the tubes, which makes cleaning and normal maintenance
relatively simple. Since the heating medium is often a very clean fluid (e.g. steam)
it may be possible to minimise reboiler cost by specifying a fixed tube sheet
reboiler.
Vertical thermosyphon reboilers should not be used with viscous fluids (less than
0.5 cP) otherwise flow difficultly can occur in the vertical tubes. Vaporisation in
excess of 30 wt. % should be avoided. This reboiler type is also not recommended
for low process flow and/or fluctuating feed levels.
Often a butterfly valve or equivalent is installed on the inlet piping to the
exchanger to compensate for excess levels. Care should be taken, however, to
avoid restricting the flow and flooding the tower bottom. On the other hand, if the
level is too low, then vaporisation will be higher and the flow pattern may change
to a mist type which lowers the heat transfer coefficient.
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15.2.4 Horizontal Thermosyphon
Best Application
Best applications are for boiling fluids at moderate pressure with low to moderate
velocity controlled fouling tendencies, low available static head and moderate
LMTD
Advantages
 Less sensitive to changes in column operating pressure than vertical
thermosyphon reboilers
 Can install more area per single unit than in a vertical thermosyphon reboiler
 Moderate heat transfer rate
 Can be designed for large heat duty
 Requires lower tower elevation than vertical thermosyphon
 Easy for cleaning and maintenance
Disadvantages
 Piping should be carefully laid out to equalize pressure drop in all parallel
branches
 Low vaporisation fraction, normally limited to 35%
 Phase separation can occur if shell side velocity is too low
 Tower requires internal baffling to approach theoretical tray
 Uneven flow distribution if design has multi-shells and/or multi-inlets
Remarks
 Careful baffle design required to meet pressure drop requirements and to
eliminate tube vibration
For large reboiler area requirements, multiple units of horizontal thermosyphons
may be used with common supply and return headers.
Horizontal thermosyphons have the process fluid in the shell and are preferable for
fouling type heating fluids. However, the process fluid is more susceptible to
fouling which usually does not favour the horizontal type. Because the process
fluid is rarely non-fouling, the inexpensive fixed tube sheet construction is seldom
used in horizontal thermosyphon reboilers.
Horizontal thermosyphon reboilers are relatively costly to install and plot area
requirements may be quite large.
Vapour piping can become relatively expensive and cumbersome. However, since
the top of the vapour line may enter the tower well above the top of the reboiler
tubes, there is considerably more leeway in liquid level and the hydraulic design is
more flexible. High recirculation rates may be attained, even with complex piping.
In order to operate satisfactorily, horizontal thermosyphons are usually furnished
with horizontal baffles to force the process liquid to travel back and forth in the
shell (e.g. TEMA type G shell). Longer units often use a split horizontal baffle
with dual fluid inlets and outlets (e.g. TEMA type H shell).

ANZ Technical Guide
Horizontal Thermosyphon
15.2.5 Once-through Natural Circulation Reboiler
Advantages
 Has the flexibility to be either horizontal or vertical depending on tower
elevation and available plot space
 Moderate to high heat transfer rate
 Equivalent to one theoretical stage
Disadvantages
 No control over circulation rate
 Danger of back-up in column
 Danger of excessive per-pass vaporisation ratio (for vertical orientation)
 Vaporisation limited to 40% of total inlet flow
15.2.6 Pump-through Reboilers
Best Applications
Best application is for severely fouling or extremely viscous fluids for which no
other application is satisfactory.
Advantages
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 For extremely fouling services, it is possible to eliminate vaporization in the

heat exchanger completely by placing a backpressure valve on the exit
piping
 Suitable for viscous, high fouling and solid bearing boiling liquid
 Circulation rate is well controlled
 For very large circulation rate
 For large surface area requirement
 Furnace reboilers
 To avoid phase separation
 Enable corrosion – erosion balance
 Superheating is possible
Disadvantages
 Highest cost due to pump, piping and control instruments
 Potential leakage from pump seals
 Additional area required for pump installation
 Requires tower to be elevated to meet pump NPSH
 High operation cost
Remarks
 Forced circulation reboiler should only be considered when kettle-type or
horizontal thermosyphon reboiler cannot work
Reboiler feed pumps are mandatory where the column bottoms is viscous enough
to impede natural circulation. Pumps are also highly advantageous in fouling
services as the high velocity promotes a washing action and ensure thin films only
form on the reboiler tubes. Extremely high circulation rates can be used so that the
unbaffled net bottoms feed systems may be employed with little temperature rise
in the reboiler. In a few such cases it is possible to combine reboiler feed pumping
with bottom product pumping.

ANZ Technical Guide
Pump through Reboiler

Pumps permit full control and measurement of reboiler feed circulation, improve
liquid heat transfer rates and permit the use of conventional exchanger units in
reboil service. They are often useful in cases where the hydrostatic head is limited.
Pumps are frequently used in small installations to effectively utilise an unbaffled
column and to control small flows. They are also used in large installations,
particularly in multiple kettle units, since natural liquid circulation may not be
efficient with complex piping.
Pumps may permit substantial savings through smaller line sizes (particularly
vapour lines) and through more convenient and perhaps lower reboiler elevations.
Pump through systems avoid many of the design problems of thermosyphon
hydraulics.
Unfortunately many of these advantages are usually cancelled out by the
continuous operating costs, fixed charges and maintenance requirements of the
pump.
The following table summarises these and other considerations in selecting a
reboiler type:

ANZ Technical Guide
Factor Favoured Types Not recommended

Low bottoms product fraction Recirculating Once-through
compared to boil up Kettle
High bottoms product fraction Once-through Recirculating

compared to boil up
Low relative volatility systems Recirculating
High relative volatility systems Once-through Recirculating
Large exchanger size or high duty Horizontal Vertical

requirements
Small exchangers Vertical

Stab-in
Leaks hazardous or difficult to deal Stab-in

with
Exotic materials Stab-in

Tight temperature approach Spiral-plate Shell-and-tube
Plate-fin
Solids present Kettle Plate-fin

Spiral-plate
Thermally unstable products Recirculating (no baffle) Kettle

Once through
Tight plot plan Vertical Horizontal

Ample plot plan Horizontal
High temperatures Fired heaters
High heat fluxes Forced circulation Natural circulation
Flooded bundles

ANZ Technical Guide
The following chart can also be used for reboiler selection:
Is the service
Yes fouling (>0.002 hr No
ft2 F/Btu)?
Is the extent of Is fluid viscosity

No No
fouling heavy? very high?
Yes Yes
Is the area
Is pressure less required large?
than atmospheric?
Yes No Yes No
Vertical thermosyphon
Kettle reboiler Kettle reboiler
Internal reboiler
Horizontal
Pump-through reboiler Pump-through reboiler
Pump-through reboiler thermosyphon Horizontal
Vertical thermosyphon
(critical operations) thermosyphon
Kettle reboiler
15.3 Thermosyphon Reboiler Circulation
The design equation for circulation through a thermosyphon reboiler is:

H 1xdensity1  DPpipein  DPpipeout  DPreboiler  H 2 xaveragedensity 2
The static head provided by the liquid level in the column provides the driving
force for the fluid to circulation through the inlet piping, exchanger and outlet
piping and back to the tower.
It is important to ensure that the outlet piping rises continuously from the reboiler
outlet nozzle to the tower reboiler return nozzle. This is a particularly important
consideration when designing vertical thermosyphons.
15.4 Tower Bottoms Design
There are three basic tower bottoms designs used to provide feed to reboilers:
ANZ Technical Guide
 Net Bottoms Feed Systems (Recirculating)

 Gross Bottoms Feed Systems (Once-through)
 Mixed Bottoms Feed Systems (Recirculating)
The following reboiler types use the above designs:
 Horizontal Thermosyphon (once-through and recirculating)

 Kettle (once-through)
 Vertical Thermosyphon (once-through and recirculating)
 Forced Circulation (once-through and recirculating)
 Internal stab-in (once- through)
15.4.2 Net Bottoms Feed Systems
Arrangements incorporating net bottoms feed are shown above. ‘G’ is the gross
bottoms (bottom tray liquid over flow), ‘B’ is the net bottoms (bottom product),
‘V’ is the reboil vapour and ‘L’ is the un-vaporised liquid from the reboiler. These
are the simplest of the feed systems and are particularly advantageous in small
towers. The unbaffled type (figure 1) completely avoids tower bottoms internals.
The baffled type (figure 2) is somewhat simpler than other recirculating type
arrangements. Net bottoms feed systems require no collector plate when used with
packed towers.
In thermally fouling services, the net bottoms feed arrangement should generally
be avoided whenever the temperature rise is appreciable. A solution of two or
more volatile components boils over a range of temperature, from the initial
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boiling temperature (bubble point) to the final temperature at which the last bit of
liquid is vaporised (dew point). Thus, with net bottoms feed systems, the vapour
and liquid leaving the reboiler must be heated to a temperature higher than that of
the net bottoms. The temperature rise depends on the percentage vaporisation
achieved in the reboiler and upon the net bottoms composition. When the net
bottoms has a narrow boiling range, as in the case of an azeotrope or a high purity
single component bottoms product, no significant temperature rise occurs in the
reboiler. Temperature rise can be minimised by designing for high recirculation
rate so as to reduce the percent vaporisation to a low figure.
The temperature rise in the reboiler produces a lower temperature difference

between the reboiler process fluid and the heating medium. It should be
recognised, however, that a decrease in temperature difference is not always
disadvantageous, since high temperature differences may produce film boiling and
consequently lower heat flux than that obtainable at closer temperatures with
nucleate boiling.
A further disadvantage of the net bottoms feed system is that it sacrifices part of
one theoretical stage, since the reboil vapour is not in equilibrium with the reboiler
exit liquid, which is heavier than the net bottoms.
Thermosyphon reboilers require a certain liquid level in the tower in order to
maintain circulation. Fluctuations in liquid level may cause serious variation in the
reboiler performance. Lowering the liquid level will reduce recirculation while
raising the level could flood the process fluid exit line. In general therefore, for
vertical thermosyphons designed for net bottoms feed, the tower bottoms should
be baffled (see figure 2). This however sacrifices most of the simplicity of a net
bottoms design while maintaining the disadvantages of high reboiler exit
temperature and loss of part of the theoretical stage. Typically therefore a mixed
bottoms feed system would be used in this application.

ANZ Technical Guide
15.4.3 Gross Bottoms Reboiler Feed
Feed for a once-through reboiler is gross bottoms, delivered from a bottom trap-
out tray as shown above. ‘G’ is the gross bottoms (bottom tray liquid over flow),
‘B’ is the net bottoms (bottom product), ‘V’ is the reboil vapour and ‘L’ is the un-
vaporised liquid from the reboiler. The process vaporisation is a function of the
liquid rate from the bottom tray since the total gross bottoms is the reboiler feed
and the net bottoms are the total exit liquid. No liquid recirculates for this reboiler
design.
Once-through arrangement is often the preferred scheme for strippers or other low
boil-up ratio applications. Since good thermosyphon design is generally limited to
30% maximum vaporisation and since the trap-out limits the reboiler feed to the
gross bottoms, once-through feed arrangements should not be selected when the
reboil vapour is more than 40% of the net bottoms.
Maximum temperature is that of the net bottoms and is generally reached at the
exit, though with low pressure (especially vacuum) towers the maximum
temperature may occur part way down the tubes. Minimum temperature is that of
the gross bottoms, so that the average temperature difference between the process
fluids and the heating medium is larger than with any of the recirculating feed
arrangements.
Feed piping is slightly more complex than with net bottoms feed arrangements.
With a seal pan trap-out, the down comer must project below the feed pipe to
prevent vapour flow up the down comer when the liquid level is down in the feed
pipe. With vertical thermosyphons, the upper tube sheet may be located will below
ANZ Technical Guide
the trap-out since the liquid control is far less important in non-recirculating
arrangements.
In cases of stringent tower bottoms product specification it is advisable to select a
positive trap-out (figure 3 above) in order to force all the gross bottoms through
the reboiler.
The over-flow of the down comer seal in the seal pan type trap-out (figure 4
above) is designed to permit operation in a badly fouled condition or during
temporary column upsets. However, tower surging, reboiler fouling or column
start-up difficulties may cause seal overflow and thus dilute the net bottoms tower
product with lighter gross bottoms material.
A good seal for reboiler feed stream ‘F’ is important for tower performance.
Temperature indication should be provided on both the tower bottoms and the
reboiler outlet streams. A difference between the two readings could indicate a
leaking seal pan trap.
The return elevation for the reboiler needs to be similar to the draw off location to
avoid short-circuiting of liquid. If two or more reboilers are supplied from the
same tower draw-off trap, then the split branch to the reboilers must be at a low
point as the reboiler supply line is not necessarily liquid full.
15.4.4Mixed Bottoms Reboiler Feed
The mixed bottoms feed arrangements as shown above are recirculating and use of
a feed mixture of net and gross bottoms. ‘G’ is the gross bottoms (bottom tray
liquid over flow), ‘B’ is the net bottoms (bottom product), ‘V’ is the reboil vapour
and ‘L’ is the un-vaporised liquid from the reboiler. This feed arrangement is the
ANZ Technical Guide
most widely applicable of the three types as it is acceptable for fouling services
and is not limited to low boil-up ratios.
The mixed bottoms feed arrangement has a maximum feed temperature equal to
that of the net bottoms, but the average process temperature is intermediate
between those of the net bottoms and gross bottoms feed arrangements. Thus,
mixed bottoms feed reboilers are inferior to the once-through in average
temperature difference between the fluids, although the more important minimum
temperature difference is the same.
In thermal fouling applications (insolubility type or first order reaction type), the
significant temperature is the maximum that is achieved. This temperature will
generally be that of the film on the hot tube wall at the reboiler exit. In many cases
the percent vaporisation of a mixed bottoms reboiler is less than that of a once-
through, so that the higher liquid flow should produce higher turbulence which
may improve the washing action on the tubes and produce a thinner film at the
tube wall.
Therefore, in certain circumstances, the mixed bottoms feed arrangement may be
as satisfactory in fouling services as the once-through. In thermal fouling services
using a non-condensing heating fluid, it is often advisable to choose counter-
current flow, if ample temperature difference is available between process and
heating fluid outlets. Recirculating feed arrangements should be avoided in severe
polymer type thermal fouling.
A major disadvantage of mixed bottoms feed systems, particularly in small
towers, is the complex baffling required. A tower using packing or proprietary
trays without down comers will also require a collector tray which further adds to
the complexity and maintenance difficulty.
Since variation in crest over the weir is negligible, reboil circulation rate is
substantially unaffected by column surging. This constant reboiler feed head is
favoured by thermosyphon designs.
A possibility may exist that with certain combinations of flows, temperatures and
compositions of gross bottoms and reboiler exit liquids, some vaporisation might
occur in the downcomer from superheating of the downcomer liquid. Since both
streams are saturated liquids at the same pressure, it is improbable that differences
in enthalpies will be sufficient to produce appreciable vaporisation. Extreme cases
should be checked by heat balance.
Baffles may be vertical or horizontal. In smaller columns, the horizontal type is
preferred (Figure 5 above) where reasonably large net bottoms product flow and
hold-up times are required. It also helps with small column maintenance access.
The vertical baffle (Figure 6 above) arrangement gives a simpler feed piping
design.
15.5 Reboiler Design Considerations
15.5.1 Once-through versus natural circulation thermosyphon reboilers
A thermosyphon reboiler has two types of circulation; the once-through (where the
reboiler nozzle is higher than the liquid level in the tower), and the natural
ANZ Technical Guide
circulation (where the reboiler liquid feed nozzle is on the bottom of the tower).
The natural circulation thermosyphon reboilers are not equivalent to a full
theoretical tray like a kettle, once-through and forced circulation reboilers.
Additional tray(s) may be required for compensation when using natural
circulation thermosyphon reboilers.
The advantage of natural circulation reboilers is the ability to have a lower liquid
height.
15.5.2 Fouling
Fouling affects the natural circulation reboiler. The heavy ends of a multi-
component liquid may actually show a reboiler temperature a few degrees higher
than the outlet product from the tower bottoms. If the liquid has a tendency to
foul, the natural circulation thermosyphon will collect foreign material.
15.5.3 Vaporisation
For vertical flow of the reboiler return line, the flow pattern ranges from bubble to
slug to annular to mist type as the vapour quantity increases. Most thermosyphon
designs are slug flow. As the percent of vapour flow increases, the flow becomes
annular or mist and consequently the vapour flows more freely and continuously.
The mist flow pattern reduces the heat transfer coefficient. Mist flow is avoided
for thermosyphon reboilers by fixing the maximum percent vaporisation at approx
30 wt. %. Kettle and forced circulation reboilers can tolerate vaporisation rates as
high as 70 wt. %.
15.5.4 Viscosity Limitations
The feed viscosity should be less than approx 0.5 cP for vertical thermosphon
reboiler designs with vaporisation less than 30%. Values higher than this will
create flow difficulty in the vertical tubes. Horizontal thermosyphon reboilers
perform better than vertical designs at viscosities greater than 0.5 cP.
15.5.5 Tower Level
For natural circulation, the tower level for a thermosyphon reboiler should be
great enough to overcome the inlet flow line, exchanger and return line pressure
drops. A conservative design often incorporates a high liquid level for safety.
However, too high a liquid level may be detrimental to the exchanger operation.
The top of the tubes in a vertical thermosyphon should be set at the tower LLL.
For a horizontal design, the LLL minimum should be 1m above the centre line of
the reboiler.
Low tower pressures have a significant effect on liquid head, since the liquid head
accounts for a larger percentage of the overall pressure. The lower tower pressure
results in a lower percent vaporisation accepted by the reboiler. The highest
recommended vaporisation for a thermosyphon design is 15 wt. % for pressures
less than 350 kpag. Thermosyphons are not recommended for vacuum service.
ANZ Technical Guide
Another consideration for thermosyphon vs. non-thermosyphon reboilers is the

availability of tower elevation head and the NPSH requirements of the bottoms
pump. If a pump is used, the pump NPSH may set the design of liquid height and
tower elevation. If no pump is used, then the tower level must be elevated to
provide the required driving force for the thermosyphon reboiler.
15.5.6 Percentage Vaporisation
A natural circulation thermosyphon reboiler may be used in place of a kettle

reboiler even though the initial percent vaporisation is greater than 30 wt. %. By
increasing the amount of heavier components in the reboiler circulation feed, the
percent vapour decreases. In other words, the liquids from the outlet of the
reboiler may be circulated and combined with additional liquid from the bottom
tray to reduce vapour pressure.
Vapour quality, composition and outlet temperature from the reboiler will not
change. The liquid from the outlet of the reboiler will remain the same
composition but the quantity will vary depending upon the quality recirculated. By
Recirculating the outlet liquid back to the feed of the reboiler, the feed
composition can be changed as well as the quantity. Changes in the amount of
recirculation can increase the temperature to the reboiler and retain the same
reboiler duty and outlet temperature.
Using natural circulation thermosyphon reboiler at a lower percent vaporisation in
place of a kettle type reboiler reduces reboiler investment and the area required.
15.5.7 Entrainment Coefficients
Typically HTRI uses a default entrainment ratio E of 0.010, defined as the weight
of liquid per unit weight of vapour in the vapour stream leaving the reboiler. This
should be used as a typical value when designing thermosyphons and column-
internal reboilers.
Entrainment ratios in the range 0.05 to 0.005 should be used for kettles.
Entrainment studies performed by HTRI resulted in a theoretical prediction and a
semi-empirical method to define the entrainment coefficient K in terms of
physical properties and the entrainment ratio E.
The Entrainment Coefficient K is defined as:
Vg
K
( l   v )
v
Where:
Vg is the effective dome vapour velocity kg/m 3
K is the entrainment coefficient m/s
ρl is liquid density kg/m3
ρv is vapour density kg/m3

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Refer to HTRI design guide for more information.

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16. CONDENSERS
16.1 Selection
The table below provides some general guidelines on the selection of condensing
equipment,
Condenser Type Uses
Shell and Tube (S&T) Most applications
Air Cooler When economic versus S&T cooling water condenser or if cooling water not
available
Plate Type Low cost versus S&T, however, not often used for toxic or flammable fluids.
Design temperature and pressure limitations
Plate-fin Very clean fluids. Close temperature approach. Use in cryogenic applications.
Spiral Dirty or fouling condensing services. True counter current design
Direct Contact Very corrosive or dirty condensing fluids. Where mutual solubilities of
coolant and condensing fluids allows Not suitable for multi-component
condensing fluid where total condensing is required. Low pressure drop
applications. E.g. ‘pumparounds’ in refinery crude columns.
For all types of condensers, consideration needs to be given to provision of

venting of non-condensables during normal operation and start-up. Accumulation
of non-condensables in the condenser can have detrimental effects on the proper
operation of the condenser.
Shell and tube heat exchangers are by far the most commonly used exchanger
design for condensing services. The following types of shell and tube exchanger
arrangements can be used for condensing services:
 Vertical in-tube (up flow) or knock back condenser
 Vertical in-tube (down flow)
 Vertical in-shell
 Horizontal in-shell
 Horizontal in-tube
 Internal condensers
The table below provides some further guidelines on shell and tube exchanger
designs for condensing services.
Exchanger Design Considerations

Horizontal in-shell (TEMA E-type) Most common condenser design. Low cost. Pressure drop
may be high.
Horizontal in-shell (TEMA J- and X-type) Lower pressure drop but flows less counter current than E-
type. Higher cost.
Horizontal in-shell (RODBaffle) Low pressure drop and inhibits tube vibration. Close
approximation to counter current flow.
Horizontal in-tube Condensation of high pressure vapour. Exchanger may need
to be inclined to aid drainage. Usually just one tube pass.
Knock back Condenser Vent condensers on reactors, tanks or vessels. Flooding
limitation due to counter current flow of vapour and liquid.
Vertical in-tube (down flow) Commonly used if vertical condenser orientation preferred.
Counter current flow.
Vertical in-shell Not common for column overhead condensers. Used often in
reboilers (e.g. steam condensation). Difficult to vent shell
side.
Internal Condensers Eliminates reflux drum and pumps but increases column
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height. No indication of reflux flow. Start-up may be more

difficult.
16.2 Steam Condensers
Steam condensers are generally either air coolers or cooling water cooled shell and
tube heat exchangers, called surface condensers (See section 6.4 for discussion on
air versus water cooling). Detailed design of steam condensers and the associated
equipment (hogging ejector, vacuum systems, etc) is normally carried out by a
specialist vendor.
Surface condensers are shell and tube heat exchangers with special design features
to ensure proper deaeration of the steam condensate and handling of inerts (See
Figure below). The design of surface condensers is almost always based on the
recommended practices of the Heat Exchanger Institute (i.e. not TEMA). Instead
of fouling factors for the exchanger surfaces, an overall cleanliness factor (of 0.85)
is typically specified. This is equivalent to 15% over surface to account for
fouling.
Surface Condenser

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APPENDIX A - SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS ESTIMATES
It is sometimes useful to be able to quickly estimate the approximate dimensions

for a shell and tube exchanger given the heat transfer area.
Number of shells
The following graphical method can be used to quickly estimate the number of
shells required. Straight lines of temperature vs. duty can be plotted for streams
that have a constant specific heat. If the specific heat of one or both streams varies
it is necessary to calculate the temperature of that stream as a function of the heat
added or removed, resulting in one or more of the operating lines being curved.
1. Plot the hot and cold fluid temperatures on a graph of temperature vs. duty (the
duty scale is arbitrary)
2. Connect the start and end temperatures for each fluid (use straight lines for
constant specific heat and curves if specific heat varies)
3. Starting with the cold fluid outlet temperature, draw a horizontal line until it
intercepts the hot fluid cooling curve.
4. Drop down vertically until it intercepts the cold fluid heating curve
5. Step horizontally again to the hot fluid cooling curve and repeat until the
complete temperature range of the exchanger has been covered.
6. The number of shells is estimated as the number of horizontal lines.
The following example has a hot fluid that has an initial temperature of 310°F and
an end temperature of 165°F and a cold fluid that is heated from 80°F to 275°F.
Both streams have constant specific heats so are connected using straight lines.
Stepping off from the cold fluid outlet temperature (275°F) to the cold fluid inlet
temperature (80°F) produces 3 horizontal sections. This design is therefore
estimated as requiring 3 shells.

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Shell ID
The following approximate equation can be used:

0.5
 Ap 2  d
Ds  0.2   T
 dT L  6
Where:
Ds= Shell ID (ft)
A = Shell and Tube exchanger heat transfer area ft2
p = tube pitch (in)
dT = Tube OD (in)
L = Tube length (ft)

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Estimate Tube side Pressure Drop
The following guidelines can be used to estimate tube side pressure drop:
Part Equation
Entering plus exiting the exchanger ∆h = 1.6 UP2/2g (Often neglected)
Entering plus exiting the tubes ∆h = 1.5 NP UT2/2g
End losses in tube side bonnets and channels ∆h = 1.0 NP UT2/2g
Straight tube loss Calculate using equations for flow through piping
Where;
∆h = Head loss in feet of liquid
UP = Velocity in inlet and outlet nozzles (ft/s)
UT = Velocity in tubes (ft/s)
NP = Number of tube passes
g = Acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s2)

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Velocity Criteria
The table below provides shell and tube heat exchanger velocity criteria for
specific services:
Service Location Conditions Minimum Maximum Velocity

Velocity (m/s) (m/s)
Liquid Tube side, CS All 1 3
Shell side, CS All 0.5 2 (1)
Gas or vapour Tube side All 30 or
82/ρ1/2 (2),(3)
Shell side All 25/ρ1/2 (3)
Dry steam Tube side Vacuum 85
0 – 700 kPag 53
> 700 kPag 45
Hydrocarbons Tube side Liquids 1 4.5
Gases and vapours 30 or
82/ρ1/2 (2),(3)
Water Tube side, CS Fresh, 1 2
non-inhibited
Fresh, inhibited 1 3
Tube side, Adm. Brass Fresh water 1 3
Salt water 1 2
Tube side, Cupronickel All types 1 3.5
Tube side, Monel All types 1 3.5
Tube side, Stainless All types 1 4.5
Steel
Tube side, Titanium All types 1 9
Notes:
1. Vibration analysis will normally set maximum allowable velocity on the shell
side for a liquid.
2. Erosional velocity for gas flow on tube side.
3. Velocity should not approach sonic velocity in any design.
4. ρ = density (kg/m3)
These are only general criteria. Specific applications may require individual
criteria e.g. amine service, acid service, liquids with entrained solids etc. The
project specific Process Design Criteria should be consulted for specific
applications.

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Nozzle Sizing
The recommended allowable velocity head for shell side and tube side inlet and
outlet nozzles is provided in the following table:
Shell side Tube side

Liquid Dry Wet Liquid Dry gas Wet
gas Vapour
Vapour
Allowable velocity 0.35 0.35 0.17 0.70 0.35 0.20
head (psi)
The minimum required nozzle size can be calculated using the following formula:
0.25
 m2 
D   
 3.54 E 6 PV 
Where;
D = Minimum nozzle inside diameter (in)
m = Nozzle flow rate (lb/hr)
ρ = Fluid density (lb/ft3)
PV = Velocity head in nozzle (psi)

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APPENDIX B – AIR COOLER ESTIMATES
Estimate pressure drop
Air cooler pressure drop can be estimated using the following equations:
Part Equation
All losses except straight tube ∆h = 2.9 NP UT2/2g
Straight tube loss Calculate using equations for flow through piping
Where;
∆h = Head loss in feet of liquid
UT = Velocity in tubes (ft/s)
NP = Number of tube passes
g = Acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s2)
Air Cooler Design Criteria
Use the velocity (tube side) and nozzle sizing criteria provided for shell and tube heat
exchangers (Appendix A)

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APPENDIX C: TEMA SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGER

DESIGNATIONS

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APPENDIX D: TEMA S&T HEAT EXCHANGER SELECTION

GUIDELINES
Front Head Selection Summary

Application Type Description Remarks
Dirty tube-side fluids A-Type Removable Cover
Clean tube-side fluids B-Type Integral Cover
Small fixed tube sheets
Hazardous tube-side fluids C-Type Channel with integral tube Channel, tube bundle & associated piping
Frequent shell-side cleaning sheet and removable cover to be left in place
Heavy tube bundles
Fixed tube sheets with hazardous tube N-Type Channel with integral tube
side fluids sheet and removable cover
High pressures, > 15,000 kPag D-Type High pressure closure
Cheap alternative for B-Type Conical One pass on the tube side
Rear Head Selection Summary
Application Type Description Remarks
No frequent shell cleaning L-, M-, N- Fixed tube sheet For single/odd tube pass: L or N
No thermal overstressing Types For even tube pass: M
Repair & mech clean impossible
Need for floating head P-Type Floating Head Low pressure applications
Need for floating head & easy tube S-Type Not recommended for single tube pass
cleaning required
Need for floating head & large pressure T-Type Pull through floating head More costly than S-Type
difference between S&T side
No tube cleaning required & counter U-Type U Bundle Low cost
flow not required Tube bundle easily removed
Low pressure & non-hazardous S&T W-Type Extremely sealed Floating
side fluids Tube sheet
Shell Type Selection Summary
Requirements Type Description Additional layout requirement
General purpose E-Type One-pass shell

Low cost, high reliability
Shell side condensing E-Type One-pass shell Horizontal/Vertical Down flow
Tube-side condensing with sub cooling E-Type One-pass shell Vertical Down flow
Tube-side knock back condenser E-Type One-pass shell Vertical
Gas & liquid are in counter flow
Tube-side condensing (fouling or E-Type One-pass shell Horizontal; Ineffective in gravity flow
corrosive fluids) control & presence of inerts
Thermosyphon E-Type One-pass shell Vertical
Temperature cross E-Type One-pass shell Single tube pass required

Limiting shell side heat transfer F-Type Two-pass shell Counter flow, two tube passes
High temperature efficiency G-Type Split flow
Horizontal Thermosyphon G or H-Type Double split flow
Low pressure condensers J-Type Divided flow
Low shell side pressure drop J or H-Type
Low pressure drop condenser J-Type Divided flow Horizontal; No temperature cross
Vibration potency J-Type Divided flow
Evaporation (of non fouling fluids) K-Type Kettle

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High volumetric flow rate X-Type Cross flow Four or more tube passes
Pure counter current flow
Deep vacuum condenser X-Type Cross flow Horizontal
Total condenser X-Type Cross flow Horizontal

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APPENDIX E: MTD CORRECTION FACTORS

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APPENDIX F: TEMA FOULING FACTORS
The following tables are from TEMA Section 10. Values are in (hr.ft2.°F/BTU).

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APPENDIX G: COMPLETION OF S&T HEAT EXCHANGER PROCESS

DATASHEET
These instructions refer to the Process Datasheet B1601 S&T Heat Exchanger
Process Data Sheet B1601 Sheet 1
TEMA Shell type
Insert 3 letter TEMA heat exchanger designation e.g. BEM. Refer to Appendix C
for TEMA designations.
Line 1 Orientation
Mark the appropriate box to indicate horizontal or vertical
Line 1 Number of shells connected
Enter the number of shells in series and parallel per unit
Line 2 Surface Areas per Unit (Gross/Effective)
Gross surface area relates to the external surface area based on the total tube
length. Effective surface area makes correction of total tube sheet thickness and is
the value used in heat transfer calculations. These areas are total per unit and not
per shell.
Lines 2 Shells per Unit
Enter total number of shells per unit, which must tally with series/parallel
configuration entered in Line 1.
Line 2 Surface Areas per Shell (Gross/Effective)
As per “Surface area per Unit” entry but divided by the number of shells per unit.
Line 6 Fluid Name
Must be consistent with fluid names on PFD and P&IDs. Write single entry for
each fluid.
Line 7 Total Fluid Quantity
Insert total mass flow rate in both ‘in’ and ‘out’ columns
Line 8-12 Liquid, Vapour, Non Condensables, Steam, Water Flow rates
Enter the appropriate mass flow rate in each ‘in’ and ‘out’ column such that the
sum of these entries equals the total given in line 7.
Line 13 Temperature
Enter the ‘in’ and ‘out’ operating temperatures for both shell side and tube side
Line 14-21 Density, Viscosity, Specific Heat, and Thermal Conductivity
Enter the appropriate value in each ‘in’ and ‘out’ column for liquid and vapour.
Line 22 Latent Heat
Enter a value only if fluid is a pure substance. Generally leave blank and attach a
heat release curve for any condensing or boiling service.
Line 23 Heating Curve or Tabulated Data
Check as appropriate if heat release curve or table is attached – see line 22 above.
Line 24 Surface Tension
Enter only for condensing or boiling services. Alternatively add note referring to
attached heat release curve.
Line 25 Inlet Pressure
Enter shell side and tube side inlet pressures.
Line 26 Allowable Pressure Drop

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Enter the shell side and tube side allowable pressure drop. This should be
consistent with the Process Design Criteria.
Line 27 Fouling Resistance
Enter the shell side and tube side fouling resistance. This should be consistent
with the Process Design Criteria. In the absence of client data, TEMA values are
provided in Appendix F.
Line 28 Cyclic Service
Check yes or no as appropriate for both shell and tube sides if this exchanger is in
a cyclic service.
Line 29 Insulation
Add letter designation to shell and tube side to reflect insulation requirements.
H – Heat Conservation, C – Cold Conservation, P – personnel protection, W –
winterisation, S – special insulation, No – none required.
Line 30 Cleaning Requirement
Indicate if the exchanger has a cleaning requirement. Refer to Section 12.5 for
details.
Line 31 Dew Point / Bubble Point
Enter value if relevant. Alternatively add note referring to attached heat release
curve.
Line 32 Freeze Point / Pour Point
Enter value if relevant. Generally left blank.
Line 33 Heat Exchanged
Insert heat exchanger thermal duty, consistent with the mass flow and
temperatures entered in lines 6 and 13.
Line 34 Overdesign Multiplier on Area
Add overdesign multiplier on area as a percentage as specified in Process Design
Criteria.
Line 36 Design Pressure
Enter the shell side and tube side design pressures. If the exchanger has vacuum
requirements these should be noted next to the design pressure e.g. 4075 / FV.
Refer to Process Design Criteria for determination of design conditions.
Sometimes it is also important to specify the maximum differential that the heat
exchanger will experience e.g. full pressure on one side and none on the other.
Add this value alongside design pressure with an explanatory note.
Line 37 Design Temperature
Enter the shell side and tube side maximum design temperatures. Refer to the
Process Design Criteria for determination of design conditions.
Line 38 Minimum Design Temperature at Pressure
Enter the shell side and tube side minimum design temperatures and
corresponding pressure (usually design pressure per line 36). Refer to the Process
Design Criteria for determination of design conditions.
Line 39 Design Vacuum
Vacuum design requirements should be entered along with the coincident design
temperature.
Line 40 Number of passes per shell
State the number of shell passes and tube passes if known.
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Line 41 Heat Treat Required for Process Reasons

Add ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to shell and tube side as appropriate and the reason (e.g.
H2O/H2S, HF etc.)
Line 42 Hazardous Considerations
Indicate ‘yes’ if the exchanger contains a hazardous substance and indicate nature
such as lethal, toxic, poisonous, severely corrosive, flammable, explosive etc and
state Classification per AS 4343 (if code is applicable for project). Where
flammable, indicate flammable class in accordance with AS 1940 (if code is
applicable for project). For non-Australian projects this line may be deleted.
Line 43 Corrosion Allowance
Enter the shell side and tube side corrosion allowance. These should be as per the
project Materials Selection Report and/or Process Design Basis Diagrams and will
typically be the standard TEMA values. Refer to section 12.3 for further details.
Lines 44 – 60 Bundle and Shell Data
The majority of this section is mechanical data. Relevant sections only should be
completed by Process e.g. if datasheet is being completed based on preliminary
HTRI design for cost estimate purposes only.
Line 44 Bundle Data: Number of tubes

Enter the number of tubes per bundle (if known)
Line 44 Shell Data: ID / OD
Enter the shell inside and outside diameter (if known)
Line 45 Bundle Data: Tube Pitch
Enter the number of tube pitch (distance) and arrangement (if known)
Line 45 Shell Data: Integral or Removable
Check box as appropriate (if known)
Line 46 Bundle Data: OD and length
Enter the tube outside diameter and length (if known).
Line 46 Shell Data: Material
Enter the shell material (if known)
Line 47 Bundle Data: Thickness
Enter the tube wall thickness and check if value is average or minimum (if known)
Line 47 Shell Data: Insulation
Enter the shell side insulation and thickness (if known)
Line 48 Bundle Data: Tube Type
Check relevant box for bare, finned, Seamless or welded tube type (if known)
Line 50 Bundle Data: Fixed Tube sheet Material
Enter the tube sheet material for fixed tube sheet design (if known). For Floating
tube sheets leave this line blank.
Line 51 Bundle Data: Floating Tube sheet
Check ‘yes’ if the design incorporates a floating tube sheet (if known). Add
material of construction. If design is fixed tube sheet, check ‘no’ and leave
materials of construction blank.
Line 52 Bundle Data: Floating Head Cover
Check ‘yes’ if the design incorporates a floating head cover (if known). Add
material of construction. If design does not have a floating head, check ‘no’ and
leave materials of construction blank.
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Line 53 Bundle Data: Channel

Enter whether the design incorporates a channel cover or bonnet and complete
materials of construction (if known)
Line 54 Bundle Data: Impingement Protection
Enter if the exchanger design requires impingement protection (if known)
Line 55,56 Bundle Data: Bypass Seal
Enter bypass seal details (if known)
Line 57 Bundle Data: Seal welding of tube to tube sheet joint
Enter if the exchanger requires the tube to tube sheet joint to be welded for
process reasons
Line 58,59 Bundle Data: Cross Baffles
Specify the type of cross baffles required, the material of construction, type, % cut
and spacing (if known).
Line 59 Code Requirements: TEMA Class
Enter the exchanger TEMA Class. Refer to Section 8.6 for a description of classes
R, C and B Designations.
Line 60 Bundle Data: Long Baffles
Specify whether long baffles are required, whether they are sealed and the material
of construction (if known).
Lines 4 – 13 Shell side Nozzle Schedule
In the columns provided enter the reference letter and number, the size and service
of each nozzle. All nozzles must be indicated. Where this information may not be
finalised, such as relief nozzle sizes add a HOLD.
Lines 16 – 25 Tube side Nozzle Schedule
Lines 27 – 63 Remarks
Add a reference to the relevant process calculation for the heat exchanger design
(line 49)
Add any notes to clarify any of the above information (including that listed on
Sheet 1 of the datasheet).
Include a list of the Holds
Sketch
Draw a sketch of the heat exchanger on sheet 3 and include the following details
where relevant. Notes can be added for further clarification. Clearly state which
dimensions are fixed and which can be varied by the vendor.
 Shell inside diameter
 Tube Length
 All nozzles with reference tag e.g. N1, etc
 Minimum, Normal and Maximum liquid levels (e.g. kettles)
 Special access requirements
 Exact elevation or location of any nozzle whose location must be maintained
(e.g. thermosyphons)

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 General elevation or location of any nozzle whose exact location is not

important to the Process Department.
Process Data Sheet B1601 Additional Sheets
Add additional sheets to the datasheet to cover for example alternative operating /
rating cases to be considered in addition to that already presented on sheet 1, heat
release curves tables etc.
Heat release curves should contain the following information (at a specific
pressure):
 Temperature
 Vapour mass fraction
 Stream enthalpy
 Vapour and liquid density
 Vapour and liquid viscosity
 Vapour and liquid specific heat
 Vapour and liquid thermal conductivity
 Stream latent heat
 Liquid surface tension
 Critical pressure
 Critical temperature

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APPENDIX H: COMPLETION OF P&F HEAT EXCHANGER PROCESS

DATASHEET
These instructions refer to the Process Datasheet B1602 Plate and Frame Heat
Exchanger
Line 3 Orientation
Mark the appropriate box to indicate horizontal or vertical
Line 4 Surface Areas per Unit (Gross/Effective)
Gross surface area relates to the external surface area. Effective surface area
makes correction of total plate thickness and is the value used in heat transfer
calculations. These areas are total per unit.
Line 4 Duty
Line 8 Fluid Name
each fluid.
sum of these entries equals the total given in line 9.
Line 15 Molecular Weight
Enter the ‘in’ and ‘out’ MW for both hot side and cold side
Line 16 Temperature
Enter the ‘in’ and ‘out’ operating temperatures for both hot side and cold side.
Line 17-24 Density, Viscosity, Specific Heat, and Thermal Conductivity
Line 25 Latent Heat

Enter only for condensing or boiling services. Alternatively add note referring to
attached heat release curve.
Line 27 Velocity
Enter hot side and cold side velocity limits.
Line 28 Inlet Pressure
Enter hot side and cold side inlet pressures.
Line 29 Allowable / Calculated Pressure Drop
Enter the hot side and cold side allowable pressure drop. This should be consistent
with the Process Design Criteria. Add calculated pressure drop (if known)

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Enter the hot side and cold side fouling resistance. This should be consistent with
the Process Design Criteria. In the absence of client data, TEMA values are
provided in Appendix F.
Line 31 Cyclic Service
Check yes or no as appropriate for both hot and cold sides if this exchanger is in a
cyclic service.
Line 32 Insulation
Add letter designation to hot and cold side to reflect insulation requirements.
H – Heat Conservation, C – Cold Conservation, P – personnel protection, W –
winterisation, S – special insulation, No – none required.
details.
Line 34 Dew Point / Bubble Point
curve.
Enter the hot side and cold side design pressures. If the exchanger has vacuum
requirements these should be noted next to the design pressure e.g. 4075 / FV.
Refer to Process Design Criteria for determination of design conditions. Delete the
reference to Test Pressure as this is a mechanical item.
Enter the hot side and cold side maximum design temperatures. Refer to the
Process Design Criteria for determination of design conditions.
Line 39 Minimum Design Temperature at Pressure
Enter the hot side and cold side minimum design temperatures and corresponding
pressure (usually design pressure per line 37). Refer to the Process Design Criteria
for determination of design conditions.
Vacuum design requirements should be entered along with the coincident design
temperature
Add ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to hot and cold side as appropriate and reason (e.g. H 2O/H2S,
HF etc.)
Line 43 Materials of Construction - frame
Enter the frame material of construction. These should be as per the project
Materials Selection Report and/or Process Design Basis Diagrams. Refer to
section 12.3 for further details.
Line 44 Materials of Construction – plates
Enter the plate’s material of construction. These should be as per the project
Enter the corrosion allowance. These should be as per the project Materials
Selection Report and/or Process Design Basis Diagrams.
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Lines 4 – 13 Nozzle Schedule
(line 51)
Add any notes to clarify any of the above information (including that listed on
Sheet 1 of the datasheet).

Sketch
Draw a sketch of the heat exchanger on sheet 3 and include the following details
where relevant. Notes can be added for further clarification. Clearly state which
dimensions are fixed and which can be varied by the vendor.
 Overall dimensions
 All nozzles with reference tag e.g. N1, etc
 Special access requirements
 General elevation or location of any nozzle whose exact location is not
important to the Process Department
pressure):
 Temperature
 Stream enthalpy

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APPENDIX I: COMPLETION OF AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER

PROCESS DATASHEET
These instructions refer to the Process Datasheet B1603 Air Cooled Heat
Exchanger
Line 3 Fans
Mark the appropriate box to induced draft or forced draft. Refer to Section 15.1
Line 4 Number required
Enter the total number of fans, number working and number spare.
Line 8 Fluid Name
each fluid.
sum of these entries equals the total given in line 9. Enter molecular weight for
vapour and non condensables.
Line 15 Temperature
Enter the ‘in’ and ‘out’ operating temperatures for the tube side
Line 16-23 MW, Z, Density, Viscosity, Specific Heat, and Thermal Conductivity
Line 24 Latent Heat
Enter only for condensing. Alternatively add note referring to attached heat release
curve.
Line 26 Dew Point

curve.
Line 28 Condensing Curve or Tabulated Data
Mark ‘yes’ if condensing curve is attached.
Line 29 Inlet Pressure / Allowable Pressure Drop
Enter tube side inlet pressure and allowable pressure drop. This should be
consistent with the Process Design Criteria.
Enter the tube side fouling resistance. This should be consistent with the Process
Design Criteria. In the absence of client data, TEMA values are provided in
Appendix F.
Line 31 Heat Exchanged

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Line 32 Maximum Operating Temperature
Enter the maximum operating temperature to which the unit can be exposed.
Consideration should be given to all modes of operation including failure modes,
start-up and contingency conditions (but not fire exposure).
Line 33 Maximum Operating Pressure
Enter the maximum operating pressure to which the unit can be exposed.
Consideration should be given to all modes of operation including failure modes,
start-up and contingency conditions.
Line 34 Relief Valve Set Pressure
Enter the set pressure of the relief valve that protects this unit.
Enter the tube side design pressures. Refer to Process Design Criteria for
determination of design conditions.

Enter the tube side vacuum design pressures. Refer to Process Design Criteria for
determination of design conditions.
Enter the tube side maximum design temperature. Refer to the Process Design
Criteria for determination of design conditions.
Line 38 Minimum Design Temperature
Enter the tube side minimum design temperature. Refer to the Process Design
Criteria for determination of design conditions.
Line 39 Materials
Enter the tube side materials of construction. These should be as per the project
Line 42 Line Size / Number of Nozzles / Nozzle Size
Enter the P&ID line size, number of nozzles (if known) and nozzle size (if known)
for the tube side inlet and outlet.
Add ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to tube side as appropriate and the reason (e.g. H2O/H2S, HF
etc.)
Line 44 Hazard Considerations
Indicate ‘yes’ if the vessel contains a hazardous substance and indicate nature such
as lethal, toxic, poisonous, severely corrosive, flammable, explosive etc and state
Classification per AS 4343 (if code is applicable for project) Where flammable,
indicate flammable class in accordance with AS 1940 (if code is applicable for
project). For non-Australian projects this line may be deleted.
details.
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Line 46 Over design Multiplier to be Applied to Area

Enter the over design required. This should be as per Process Design Criteria.
Line 48 Air Side Design Data: Design Dry Bulb
Enter the design dry bulb temperature for the site. This should be as per the project
Process Design Basis.
Line 48 Air Side Design Data: Minimum Ambient Temperature
Enter the minimum ambient temperature for the site. This should be as per the
project Process Design Basis.
Line 49 Air Side Design Data: Barometric Pressure
Enter the barometric pressure for the site. This should be as per the project Process
Design Basis.
Line 50 Air Side Design Data: Control Action on Instrument Failure
This item applies to designs with adjustable louvers. Enter the action on louver
failure.
Line 50 Air Side Design Data: Control of Outlet Process Temperature
Enter the method of control used for this unit e.g. bypass control, adjustable
louvers. Type ‘none’ if outlet temperature is not controlled.
Line 51 Air Side Design Data: Medium available for heating coil
Enter the heating medium available for heating coil if applicable e.g. steam. Leave
blank if there is no heating coil.
Line 48 Air Side Design Data: Airside Fouling Resistance
Enter the air side fouling resistance. This should be consistent with the Process
Design Criteria.
Line 54- Remarks
Add any notes to clarify any of the above information
Include a list of the Holds.
Tubes, Tube Bundle, Header, etc. Data
The majority of this section is mechanical data. Relevant sections only should be
completed by Process e.g. if datasheet is being completed based on preliminary
HTRI design for cost estimate purposes only.
Line 5 Tubes: Material
Mark the relevant box for seamless or welded tubes (if known)
Line 6 Tubes: OD / Thickness
Enter the tube outside diameter and thickness (if known). Indicate if thickness is
average or minimum.
Line 7 Tubes: Number per bundle / length
Enter the number of tubes per bundle and tube length (if known)
Line 8 Tubes: Pitch
Enter the tube pitch (distance) and arrangement (if known)
Line 9 Tubes: Tube wall inlet temperature
Enter the tube wall inlet temperature (if known)
Line 8 Tube Bundle: Size
Enter the tube bundle size (if known)
Line 9 Tube Bundle: Number per bay / number of tube rows
Enter the number of tubes per bay and the number of tube rows (if known)
ANZ Technical Guide
Line 10-11 Tube Bundle: Arrangement of bundles / bays

Enter the bundles arrangement, number in parallel and number in series (if
known). Enter the bays arrangement, number in parallel and number in series (if
known).
Line 12 Tube Bundle: Bundle Frame
Enter the material of construction for the bundle frame (if known)
Line 11 Fins: Type
Enter the fin type (if known). Refer to section 15.3.
Line 12 Fins: OD
Enter the fin OD (if known).
Line 13 Fins: Number per metre
Enter the number of fins per metre (if known).
Line 14 Header: Type and Material
Enter type of header and its material of construction (if known). Refer to Section
13.3
Line 15 Header: Split
Enter if the exchanger design has a split header arrangement, and if so how many
splits it contains (if known)
Line 16 Header: No of passes and rows
Enter the number of passes and rows (if known)
Line 17 Header: Plug Material
Enter the material of construction of the plug (if known)
Line 19 Header: Corrosion Allowance
Line 15 Steam Coil: Design Temperature and Steam Demand
Enter the steam coil design temperature and steam demand (if known). Leave this
section blank if a stream coil is not part of the unit design.
Line 16 Steam Coil: Number of rows and tube material
Enter the number of steam coil rows and material of construction (if known). The
materials should be as per the project Materials Selection Report and/or Process
Design Basis Diagrams.
Line 17 Steam Coil: Fins OD, number and material
Enter the OD of the steam coil fins, the number per metre and material of
construction (if known). The materials should be as per the project Materials
Line 19 Fans: Pitch Adjust
Mark the appropriate box to indicate if fan pitch adjusts is manual or automatic (if
known).
Line 20 Fans: Reversible
Mark the appropriate box to indicate if fans are reversible or not (if known).
Line 21 Fans: Speed
Mark the appropriate box to indicate if fans are two speeds or not (if known).
Lines 20 – 25 Nozzle Schedule
In the columns provided enter the number, the size, rating and facing of the inlet
and outlet nozzles. All nozzles must be indicated, including temperature

ANZ Technical Guide
indication, pressure points, chemical cleaning connections etc. Where this

information may not be finalised, add a HOLD.
Line 26 Control Action on Air Failure – fan pitch
Mark the appropriate box to indicate the fan pitch action required on air failure (if
known).
Line 27 Control Actions on Air Failure - Louvers
Mark the appropriate box to indicate the louvers action required on air failure (if
known).
Line 28 Degree Control of Outlet Process Control
Mark the appropriate box to indicate the degree of control required on process
control e.g. is maximum cooling always required or is outlet temperature control a
critical parameter (if known).
Lines 29 Recirculation
Mark the appropriate box to indicate if recirculation is required and its type (if
known). Refer to Section 13.2
Add any notes to clarify any of the above information
pressure):
 Temperature
 Stream enthalpy


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ANZ Technical Guide

Heat Exchanger Design Guide

Approved ANTHONY TUCS

Rev Effective Author Document Checked Description

This document is uncontrolled if printed or downloaded

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

8.6.2 Tube inserts .......................................................................................................... 36

14. OTHER HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN AND RATING ..................................... 58

APPENDIX H: COMPLETION OF P&F HEAT EXCHANGER PROCESS

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this practice is to provide a standard guideline for Process

Boiler An exchanger that generates steam

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

ANZ-TG-B-0002 Process Engineering Design Criteria Document

4. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

5. ACTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS

This specification is designed to aid the process engineer in specifying and

6. HEAT EXCHANGER TYPE SELECTION

Brazed PHE -195 to 200 3,000

6.2 Shell and Tube Exchangers

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

6.3 Double Pipe

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger

Bare Tube Finned Tube

Double Pipe & Multi-tube

6.4 Plate and Frame Exchanger

 Frames pressure limit 2,400 kPag.

Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

Gasket Material Uses Avoid Max Temp °C

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

Semi-welded Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

Welded Plate Heat Exchangers

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger

6.5 Air Cooled Exchanger

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

6.6 Plate Fin Exchanger

6.7 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger

6.8 Spiral Type Exchanger

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

Spiral Tube Heat Exchanger

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

7. CODES AND STANDARDS

8. DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

8.1 Routing of Shell Side and Tube Side Fluids

8.1.1 Fluids for Tube Side Flow

8.1.2 Fluids for Shell Side Flow

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

8.2 Optimising Pressure Drop

Higher pressure drop across an exchanger results in a higher heat transfer

8.3 Selection of Shell and Tube Type

The mechanical design of construction of Shell and Tube exchanger is usually

8.3.1 Shell Types

Shell types are as follows E, F, G, H, J, K and X

G-type shell is a split flow design. It provides a temperature approach advantage

Copyright 2014 by Jacobs Engineering Group Inc.

8.3.2 Front Head Types