Work Physiology

Central to the drive for productivity improvement is the

challenge of finding an acceptable work rate for a given job.

Objectives…

Understand how work is measured physiologically

Understand the limits of human physiology

 METABOLISM
• Metabolism is defined as the conversion of foodstuffs into
mechanical work and heat

• In order to be useful to the body, the foodstuff is converted

into a high-energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

• ATP serves as a fuel transport mechanism. It can release

chemical energy to fuel internal work in the various body
organs.

• The phosphate bond can easily be broken down to adenosine

diphosphate (ADP) according to the following formula:

ATP+H2O=ADP + energy release

• After the energy has been delivered the ADP is restored again
to ATP using a combination of foodstuffs. At first glucose is
used (if available), then glycogen, and finally fats and protein.

• Aerobic Process (one that employs oxygen): The oxygen

available in the blood is used for the conversion, such that
each molecule of glucose will generate 36 molecules of ATP.
This is an energy-efficient process.

process: ATP will be recreated

• Anaerobic (without oxygen) process
without oxygen where one molecule of glucose will generate
only two molecules of ATP. It is much less energy efficient than
the aerobic process.
……In the anaerobic process lactic acid is produced as a
byproduct. This is what makes the muscles burn with fatigue.
• The aerobic ATP conversion process is only about
50% efficient, so that half of the total food energy
is lost as heat before it can be used.
• At most, 25% of the energy that enters the body
in the form of food can be used for muscular
work. (This is the upper limit of the energy efficiency for the
human body, and it is typically achieved only for the large
muscles in the body, such as the leg muscles).
• For the smaller muscles in the arms and
shoulders an efficiency of about 10–15% is
typical. Therefore one should try to use the large
muscles for work rather than the small muscles.
 Measurement of Energy Expenditure:
• The amount of energy expenditure associated with a task can be
assessed by measuring the amount of oxygen used (measuring the
volume and oxygen content of exhaled and inhaled air).

• This analysis is performed using special instruments. The oxygen

uptake is then converted into kilocalories (kcal) of energy
expenditure.

One liter of oxygen generates 4.83 kcal of energy

• This is an exact assessment but quite tedious. A much easier, but

more approximate, method is to measure heart rate.

• Heart rate gives a fair estimate in the intermediate range, but less
suitable for small and very high rates of physical work.
Basic Metabolic Rate (BMR):
Maintaining the basic body functions at rest requires about 1200 kcal/day.

BMR includes functions…

 heart (215 kcal/day)
 brain (360 kcal/day)
 kidney (210 kcal/day)
 muscles at rest (360 kcal/day)

BMR + Min. leisure activity = average energy consumption of 2500 kcal/day

Different occupations incur different energy consumption rates. For an 8-hour

work day the following values are typical:

Seated office work:800 kcal/day

Light assembly work:1680 kcal/day

Ocean fish netting:4800 kcal/day

Lumberjacking:6000 kcal/day
 Total Energy BMR + Leisure Activity +
Requirements Occupational Rates

Moderate • Total energy requirement < 4000 kcal/day

Heavy • Between 4000 and 4500 kcal/day

Severe • Total energy requirement > 4500 kcal/day

 Energy Cost of Work and Workload Assessment

• The increase of metabolism from resting to working is called

working metabolism or metabolic cost of work.

• The metabolic or energy expenditure is the sum of the basal

metabolism rate and working metabolism rate.

Energy Expenditure = Basal metabolism + working

metabolism (kcal/min)
 Energy Expenditure Rates for Various Activities

2/26/11
Work physiology considers variations in work capacity between individuals. And one
important difference is physical condition. A highly trained individual (such as a
marathon runner) can sustain 50% of the maximal aerobic capacity for an 8-hour
work day; an average individual can sustain 35%, and an untrained individual 25%
Chronological age is a fairly poor determinant of work capacity. Variability
between individuals increases with age. Figure shows the maximal oxygen
uptake for 2 individuals from the age of 35 years onwards.
 Metabolism During Work
• Once work has begun, it takes some time for the metabolism
to catch up with the energy expenditure of the muscles that
are engaged in work.

• In fact, metabolism does not reach a stable level until several

minutes after work has begun.

• The amount of time taken depends on how hard the work is,
but is typically about 5 minutes.

• Thus, the metabolic activity (given by, oxygen uptake, which

is calculated by measuring the volume and oxygen content of
exhaled and inhaled air) does not increase suddenly at the
onset of work.

• Rather, there is a gradual, smooth increase in oxygen uptake.

 Metabolism During Work
• As the oxygen uptake increases, the body can use the AEROBIC or
oxygen requiring fuel ATP.

• It can be seen that the metabolic rate eventually stabilizes.

• The steady-state level represents the body’s aerobic response to the

demands of increased workload.

• When the work ceases, the oxygen uptake returns slowly to the
resting level prior to work.

• During this slow return after work the oxygen need incurred during
the onset of work (area A) is repaid (area B).
 Metabolism at Work

Oxygen uptake at the onset of, during, and after work.

(A) Oxygen debt
(B) Repayment of oxygen debt during rest.
A=B
16
 Physical Workload & Work Efficiency
Factors contributing to Work Load experience
by an individual during physical work….

• Somatic Factors (Gender and Age, Body dimensions,

Health)
• Nature of work
• Level of training
• Environmental conditions
• Psychic factors (Attitude, Motivation)
 Work Efficiency
• All energy expended by a person does not end
up in useful work.
• About 70% ends up as heat.
• Some of it expended in unproductive static
efforts (eg. holding & supporting things)

Efficiency = Work o/p / Energy Consumption

 A 30-year-old man of average height (173 cm) and average weight (68 kg)
is employed in packaging. This task imposes 23 watts (W) of external work.
His resting metabolic rate just prior to work is about 93 W. The steady-
state energy expenditure for this task is 209 W. (Both values can be calculated
by measuring his oxygen consumption.) – Is the work safe?

• The increase in oxygen uptake due to the imposed task = 209–93= 116 W.
• Energy efficiency = 23/116=20%.
• The V02max (maximum volume of oxygen uptake) for this 30-year-old
man is 3.5 l/min. corresponds to 1179 W of work.
• Assuming a 20% efficiency in energy conversion, this translates to 236 W
of external work.
• The assembly work therefore corresponds to a 23/236=9.7% relative load.
(much below 25%, and is not excessive).
Measuring Work by Physiological Methods
• Physical work results in changes in…
– Oxygen consumption,
– Heart rate,
– Pulmonary ventilation,
– Body temperature, and
– Lactic acid concentration in the blood.

• Although some of these factors are only slightly affected by

muscular activity, there is a linear correlation between…
Heart rate – oxygen consumption – total ventilation – the
physical work performed by and individual
• Of these….
 Heart rate,
 Oxygen consumption
….are the most widely used for measuring the physiological
cost of human work.
 Heart Rate Measurement
• The increase in heart rate during work may be
used as an index of the physiological cost of
the job.

• Also the rate of recovery immediately after

work stops can be utilized in some cases in
evaluating physiological cost.

21
 Heart Rate Measurement
The total physiological cost of a task consists
not only of the energy expenditure during
work but also the energy expenditure above
the resting rate during the recovery period,
that is, until recovery is complete.

22
 Heart Rate Measurement
• Each time heart beats, a small electric potential is generated.

• By placing electrodes on either side of the chest, this potential

can be picked up and transmitted by wire or by radio
transmitter to a receiver.

• There the individual heart beat can be counted directly, or by

means of cardiotachometer the impulsives can be converted
into heart rate, that is, heart beats per minute.

23
24
25
 Heart Rate Measurement
• Heart beat signals can also be obtained by means of an ear
lobe unit.

• This apparatus consists of a photo duodiode placed behind

the ear and illuminated by a light source mounted on the
other side of the ear.

• The opacity (not letting the light through) of the ear lobe
changes as the blood surges through the ear with each
heart beat.

• The impulse created by each heart beat can be transmitted

by wire or radio transmitter and recorded.

• Information concerning rate of recovery also can be

obtained simply by using a stethoscope and stop watch.
 Portable Heart Rate Recorder
• A compact, lightweight, two-lead heart rate recorder
which records signals up to 26 hours can be worn by
the worker.

• The units has a synchronous motor drive, integrated

circuitry, and a rechargeable battery pack.

• An event marker button, when depressed by the

worker, records an event mark on the tape for precise
time/event correlation.

27
 Maximal oxygen uptake

ALSO CALLED:
• VO2 max
• Peak aerobic power
• Maximal aerobic power
• Maximum voluntary oxygen consumption
• Cardio-respiratory aerobic capacity
• Maximal cardio-respiratory fitness
• Maximal functional aerobic capacity
 VO2 max

A maximum rate at which an individual can consume O2
during maximal exertion.

Expressed as the maximum volume of oxygen

consumed/min

Absolute: litres per min (L/min)

Relative: milliliters per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min)

1 MET = metabolic equivalent = A unit used to estimate the

metabolic cost of oxygen consumption of physical activity =
3.6 ml O2/kg/min
 Factors affecting VO2 max
• Heredity
• Age
• Sex
• Body size and composition
• Training status
• Types of muscle fibers used during the
exercise
• Altitude
• Temperature
Age and VO2max in Healthy Subjects
Relationship between HR and VO2
 Less fit individual

Fit individual
 Measuring Oxygen Consumption
• Change in the rate of oxygen consumption from the resting
level to the working level is also a measure of the
physiological cost of work done.

• A person extracts oxygen from the air breathed. In order to

measure the oxygen consumed per unit of time, it is necessary
to measure the volume of air exhaled and the oxygen content
of this air.

• Oxygen consumption may be defined as the volume of oxygen

expressed in liters per minute which the indvidual extracts
from the air inhaled.

34
 Measuring Oxygen Consumption
Portable respirometer:

• The respirometer indicates directly the volume of exhaled air

in liters. A sample of the exhaled air is drawn off at random
intervals into a rubber football blader, and analysis of its
content is made.

• This permits a comparison of the oxygen content of the

sample of expired air with that of the air in the room.

35
 Total Metabolic Measurement System
• A total measurement system is available which
has integrated transducing, sample handling and
data processing component providing printed
results.

• The Beckman Metabolic Measurement Cart,

designed for making measurements of
– oxygen consumption,
– carbon dioxide,
– expired volume and
– other related information.

36
37
 Use of Physiological Measurements
in Work Methods Design
• The objective is to design the work method so that
the operator can perform the task 8 hours/day, 5
days/week without undue fatigue.

• Physiological measurements of the worker on the

actual job or on a simulated operation can provide
useful information pertaining to such problems.

39
 Establishing Time Standards by Physiological Methods
• Physiological measurements can be used to compare the
energy cost on a job for which there is a satisfactory time
standard, but the comparison should be made for the same
person.

• For example, if handling 10-pound cartons at the rate of 12

cartons/minute was considered normal performance, and if
energy cost for that worker was 5 kcalories/minute, the answer
to the question of what the time standard should be for
handling 15-pound cartons under the same conditions might
be obained by having the same worker handle 15-pound
cartons at various speed, and then selectig the speed that gave
an energy cost of 5 kcalories per minute.

• Thus the energy cost of the two jobs would be similar and the
time standard could be determined.
41
42
43
 Establishing Time Standards by Physiological
Methods
• Results of research and experience in industry support the
following statements as to the acceptable physiological cost
of full body muscular work over an 8 hour day:

– For the average male worker a maximum average energy

expenditure of 5 kcalories per minute – a maximum
average heart rate of 115 to 120 beats per minute.

– For the average female worker a maximum average energy

expenditure of 4 kcalories per minute – a maximum
average heart rate of 115 to 120 beats per minute.
Applied Physiology at the Workplace
• Rate for energy expenditure of a work is
linearly related to the amount of oxygen
consumed by the body and heart rate.

• Therefore, oxygen consumption rate and heart

rate are often used to quantify the workload
of physical work.
Applied Physiology at the Workplace
• There is a linear relationship between oxygen
consumption and energy expenditure.

• For every liter of oxygen consumed, an average

of about 4.8 kcal of energy is released. Thus,
the amount of aerobic metabolism or energy
expenditure of work can be determined by
multiplying the oxygen consumption (liter/min)
by 4.8 kcal/liter.
 Applied Physiology at the Workplace
• Heart rate is the number of heart beats per minutes.
• Heart rate increase as work load and energy demands
are increased.
• It reflects the increased demand for the cardiovascular
system to transport more oxygen to the working
muscles and remove more waste products from them.
• Heart rate is linearly related to oxygen consumption.
• Heart rate can be influenced by emotional stress,
drinking coffee or tea, working static or awkward
posture, or working in hot environments.
 Applied Physiology at the Workplace
• In general, the change of heart rate before, during, and after
physical work follow the same pattern as that of oxygen
consumption or energy expenditure.
• A resting adult has a typical heart rate of about 60-80
beats/minute.
• The maximum heart rate for each individual depends on age,
gender, health and fitness level.

Max. heart rate = 206 – (0.62 x age)

• Maximum heart rate directly determines the maximum work

capacity or maximum energy expenditure of an individual.
Heart rate Oxygen consumption
 Subjective measures of physical effort

• The most common method of obtaining subjective

estimates of physical effort is by use of the Borg Rating of
Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale (Borg, 1982).

• Workers rate their perceived level of exertion during or after

performing the task on a scale from 6 to 20, corresponding to
heart rates of 60 to 200 beats per minute.

• High positive correlations between heart rate and the RPE are
usually found (Table 8.2).

• The Borg scale is normally used with other measures,

typically heart rate and oxygen consumption.
 Calculation of Rest Period in Manual
Work

• Where
w = length of the working period
b = oxygen uptake
s = ‘standard’ uptake for continuous work
 Example
• If a worker spends 0.5 hour for a task at an
oxygen uptake of 2.64 litres/min and the
standard is taken to be 1 litre/min. Calculate
the rest allowance.

• Answer:
Rest allowance = 0.5 (2.64 – 1) / (2.64 – 0.03)
= 0.31 hour
 Heart rate and VO2 Max

• David Swain (1994) and his US based research team using

statistical procedures examined the relationship between
%MHR and %VO2max. Their results led to the following
regression equation:

%MHR = 0.64 × %VO2max + 37

• The relationship has been shown to hold true across sex, age
and activity.
% of VO2Max and Time