Mining Science and Technology, 13 (1991) 1 3 1 - 1 4 3 131

Elsevier Science P u b l i s h e r s B.V., A m s t e r d a m

Vertical crater retreat mining in the Sudbury Basin

Don A. Trotter
Centre in Mining and Mineral Exploration Research, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ont., Canada
(Received June 10, 1990; accepted November 12, 1990)

ABSTRACT

Trotter, D.A., 1991. Vertical crater retreat mining in the Sudbury Basin. Min. Sci. Technol., 13: 131-143.

Faced with rising costs and lower metal prices, several Ontario base metal sulphide mines have changed their method of
mining to vertical crater retreat mining. This is a bulk mining method that utilizes large diameter holes and mines successive
cuts remotely by blasting and cratering the bottom of the drill holes. The ore body is mined from the bottom up. The method
in turn has required a change in materials handling to cope with the greatly increased productivity.
This paper presents an overview of vertical crater retreat mining in the Sudbury area using examples from several
producing mines. The paper reviews the history of vertical crater retreat mining, various methods of applying vertical crater
retreat layouts, the development of in-the-hole drills capable of drilling the large diameter holes required, methods of
explosives loading and blasting to achieve the required cratering effect, methods of ground support including backfill
placement, and the ore loading equipment presently being utilized including remote control load-hanl-dump units and
continuous loaders.
The safety aspect of vertical crater retreat mining has been of concern, and was the focus of a provincial inquiry. The
benefits in improved safety are demonstrated through an analysis of various records kept by the mines and provincial
agencies.
Future trends can now be envisaged, particularly in relation to deep mining. Some experimental work, which could have
practical applications, is described.

Introduction The impact fractured the Earth's crust and

The history of Sudbury has been well docu-
mented. The original discovery at Creighton
Mine was made in 1856. In 1883, the
Canadian Pacific Railroad reached the area
and ore was discovered in a rock cut at the
site of the Murray Mine. Several discoveries
followed in quick succession and the first
mine went into production in 1886.
The Sudbury Basin (Fig. 1) is known to
have been formed over 2 × 10 9 years ago. The
most prevalent theory to account for the geol-
ogy is that a massive meteorite some 5 km (3
miles) in diameter, collided with the Earth's
crust. The tremendous force blasted an enor-
mous crater some 100 km (60 miles) in diame-
ter and 5 km (3 miles) in depth.
allowed magma rich in nickel and copper
sulphides to flow from the mantle to the
surface along fracture zones. The molten mass
eventually cooled and formed the nickel in-
trusive and sulphide deposits that make Sud-
bury the world's largest nickel producer.
The original circular crater was squeezed
into an oval shape by compressional forces
and today the basin is about 27 km wide by
60 km long (17 × 37 miles). Figure 2 is a
simplified geological map of the basin and
also shows the location of the mines which
are scattered around the rim of the basin.
The Sudbury mines recover mainly nickel
and copper in about equal proportions. Nickel
is used in the alloying, plating and foundry
industries to impart added strength and cor-
132 D,A. TROTTER

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Fig. 1. Location of the Sudbury Basin.

rosion resistance to other metals. Copper is
used in wire, tubing and sheet applications.
The ore yields thirteen other elements includ-
ing cobalt, gold, silver and the six platinum-
group metals.
Several mining methods are employed to
extract the ore, including blasthole, cut-and-
fill, undercut and fill, sublevel caving, block
caving, open pit, and vertical crater retreat
(VCR). VCR has gradually supplanted other
mining methods until today about three-
quarters of the Sudbury output is obtained
using VCR.
VERTICAL CRATER RETREAT MINING IN THE SUDBURY BASIN 133

Vertical crater retreat mining measured in pounds of nickel and copper

produced per manshift, has improved by
about 80% since 1980.
History
Mine layout
The vertical crater retreat mining method is
based on C.W. Livingston's crater blasting A vertical crater retreat panel starts with
theories and was developed by Inco and CIL the development of a topsi11 and an undercut
Inc. [14]. First applied at the Levack Mine in drift which are driven above and beneath the
1974, the technique was soon in use at other block to be mined (Fig. 3).
mines in the Sudbury area, and in other min- Each panel, which is generally 9-15 m
ing camps worldwide. In the United States, it (30-50 ft) along the strike, anywhere from
was used at the Homestake mine as early as 20-90 m (66-295 ft) in vertical depth, and
1977. Because of the productivity which can the width of the ore in a longitudinal ore
be achieved, it is now the major mining body, is drilled with large diameter holes from
method for winning ores from the Sudbury the topsill to the undercut. The bottom of
basin (Table 1). As a result of having con- each of these holes is loaded with a prede-
verted mainly to VCR, mining productivity,
termined weight of explosives and each hole
is crater blasted, in series, into a void below.
A complete horizontal slice, of a thickness
equal to the depth of the craters, is removed
with each blast. Ore is removed from the
undercut usually by remote controlled l o a d -
haul-dump (LHD) units. Only enough broken
ore is removed, after each slice is blasted, to
allow room for the next slice. The last 6-12 m
(20-40 ft) beneath the topsill is blasted at one
time with independently time-decked crater
charges. Each panel is backfilled before the
next panel is mined. Backfill usually consists
of classified tailings mixed with cement.

Fig. 2. T h e S u d b u r y m i n i n g area. 1 = N o r t h R a n g e (I);

Ground control
2 = M a c L e n n a n (I); 3 = E a s t (F); 4 = F a l c o n b r i d g e (F);
5 = G a r s o n (I); 6 = K i r k w o o d (I); 7 = S h e p p a r d (I); Rock support is applied through cable
8 = B l e z a r d (F); 9 = Little S t o N e (I); 10 = S t o b i e (I);
bolts, point anchorage bolts, and friction
11 = F r o o d (I); 12 = M c K i m (F); 13 = M u r r a y (I); 14
= C l a r a b e l l e (I); 15 = C o p p e r C l i f f N (I); 16 = E v a n s
bolts, particularly in the top sill where the
(I); 1 7 = C o p p e r C l i f f S (I); 18 = C r e i g h t o n (I); 19 = bulk of the work is performed. In addition,
G e r t r u d e (I); 2 0 = C r e a n Hill (I); 21 = T o t t e n (I); 22 = screening is often placed over the entire back
L o c k e r b y (F); 23 = H a r d y (F); 24 = O n a p i n g (F); 25 = and halfway down the walls in the topsill.
M c C r e e d y W e s t (I); 2 6 = L e v a c k (I); 2 7 = N o r t h (F);
A machine has been developed which auto-
2 8 = F e c u n i s (F); 2 9 = F r a s e r (F); 3 0 = S t r a t h c o n a (F);
matically installs mechanical rock bolts and
31 = L o n g v a c (F); 32 = C o l e m a n (I). I = I n c o Inc.; F =
F a l c o n t r i d g e Inc.; a = g r a n i t e ; b = n i c k e l i n t r u s i v e , c wire mesh screen in VCR sills. It carries a
Onaping Formation; d = Precambrian sediments; e = supply of rock bolts and screen. After align-
Greenstone. ment of the machine and connecting to mine
134 D.A. T R O T T E R

electrical, water and air services, it is able to

TOPSILL
operate automatically [2].

Drilling

20 m In-the-hole drills
to
90 m ORE BLASTED Drilling is usually accomplished using in-
IN SECTIONS
MOVING the-hole (ITH) drills set up in the overcut.
UPWARDS Typically, holes are 165 m m (6 1 / 2 " ) in
diameter, are vertical, and on the average
some 56 m (185 ft) in length. All holes are
drilled to break through into the undercut.
From the undercut, it is possible to observe
the amount of deviation and, if necessary,
PARTIAL O
drill another hole. From general experience in
FOR Sudbury operations, 1-2% deviation with
careful set-up should be attainable with this
Fig. 3. Section through a VCR stope. hole length and inclination.
TABLE 1
Sudbury mines using vertical crater retreat [1]
Mine Mining Deepest Backfill Remarks
rate ( t / d ) working (m)
Copper Cliff 2960 1220 Slag aggregate Research mine
North with cement slurry 100% VCR
Copper Cliff 5100 1220 Cemented Experimental mucking
South railings and rock technology 100% VCR
Creighton 9700 2130 Cemented tailings Deepest VCR mining
in world
Crean Hill 2200 1200 High density Canada's first all-
cemented sand electric mine 100% VCR
Stobie 11300 1190 Cemented tailings Highest tonnage per day
in Sudbury Basin
Little Stobie 4600 730 Cemented Productivity of
tailings and rock 22 tons/shift
McCreedy 3300 490 Cemented JDT 426
West alluvial sand truck operation
Levack 4300 1160 Cemented alluvial First mine
fill, "paste" fill to use VCR
Lower 3000 1050 Cemented tailings Producing in 1990,
Coleman an all-electric mine
Garson - 1560 Cemented tailings Placed on standby,
rockburst problem
Strathcona 2000 1400 Cemented railings VCR used for rib
pillar recovery
Lockerby 2500 1500 Cemented tailings, 100% VCR
straight railings Extensive cable bolting
VERTICAL CRATER RETREAT MINING IN THE SUDBURY
Automatic drills
ITH drills can be fully automated [3]. The
design permits a programmable logic con-
troller to be adapted to control the known
machine operating variables. These variables
include: control of the drill mast orientation
dip-angle; rod addition and removal se-
quence; and monitoring of drill performance
through hydraulic pressure, rotation, torque
and position sensors. When automatic mode
is selected, the operator needs only input the
drill angle, dip and depth by a keyboard
located on the control console. The drill com-
pletes all drilling functions on its own and
retracts the rods and stores them on finishing
the hole.
Booster compressors
As mining advances to deeper horizons,
loss of air pressure results. To overcome this
problem, skid mounted booster compressors
were installed on an experimental basis in
early 1983 at Copper Cliff South Mine. The
booster compressor is an electrical compres-
sor about 3 m long and 1.5 m high by 1.5 m
wide (9 × 5 x 5 ft) weighing 2500 kg (5500 lb)
capable of boosting 1280 m 3 / h (754 cfm)
from 620 kPa (90 psig) to 1550 kPa (225
psig). With more air pressure, drill operators
can achieve better penetration rates. Calcula-
tions reveal that drills using boosted air drilled
an average of 30 m (100 ft) per shift versus 20
m (66 ft) for drills using regular mine air, [4].
Loading and blasting
General
Explosive charges used in the crater method
are normally spherical or the geometric equiv-
alent. Research into the application of this
breakage mechanism to rock indicates that
spherical charges or their equivalent produce
o p t i m u m results. In actual practice, it is not
practical to place a spherical charge in a
cylindrical hole so spherical charges are de-
fined as charges having a length to diameter
BASIN 135
ratio of 4 : 1 or less and up to but not exceed-
ing, 6:1. Thus, for 165 m m ( 6 1 / 2 " ) holes, a
charge 165 m m ( 6 1 / 2 " ) in diameter and 1 m
(39") in length would constitute a spherical
charge.
Blasting is carried out from the overcut.
Horizontal slices of ore are blasted into the
undercut using it as a free face. Breaking is by
a combination of cratering and slashing. The
operation involves careful measuring of the
lengths of holes, setting of the plugs, charging
the holes, priming and firing.
Experienced has shown that tight control,
in regard to technical and operating supervi-
sion, on all aspects of the operation are re-
quired for its success. This is due mainly to
critical measurements concerning the posi-
tioning of the charge, proper charge weight,
proper delaying sequence and initiation sys-
tem, all of which are intrinsic to the crater
blasting technique.
Case history
Hole spacing and burden, hole diameter,
depth of hole, choice of explosive, method of
detonating, depth of burial, etc., vary widely
from mine to mine. One example, fairly typi-
cal for V C R mining, is the pillar recovery
operation at the Lockerby Mine [5]. Here the
panel dimensions are 12 m (40 ft) across the
width of the ore, 11 m (36 ft) across the width
of panel, and 55 m (180 ft) between overcut
floor and undercut back.
Loading of the 165 m m (6 1 / 2 " ) boreholes
is carried out from the overcut. Before load-
ing can commence, the depth of each hole is
measured. A 0.6 m × 5 0 m m (2 f t X 2 " )
aluminum pipe tied to a measuring tape is
dropped down the hole. When pulled up
quickly, the pipe becomes parallel to the back
in the undercut and the depth of the hole can
be measured and recorded. The tape is then
lowered slowly and the pipe tips vertically
since it is tied just off centre, thus allowing it
to be pulled back up the hole.
The burial depth of the explosive charge is
136
determined and the hole sealed at the bottom
of the explosive charge by a wooden plug and
10 mm ( 1 / 2 " ) gravel stemming. Holes are
loaded with Tovan® HDC or Tovan~ extra.
Tovan® HDC is a high density slurry devel-
oped especially for crater application. A time
delayed detonator is lowered on a primer
cord and a final cartridge of Tovan® placed
above the primer. Some 2 m (6 ft) of 10 mm
( 1 / 2 " ) gravel stemming is placed above the
charge to cause the force of the explosion to
act downward. A depth of burial of 2.5-3 m
(8-9 ft) was found to give an average advance
of 4.4 m (14.4 ft). Mining continues in this
fashion until a 9-11 m (30-36 ft) top-sill
remains. This is removed in a single blast
with a double decked VCR sequence.
Variations in blasting
Several variations on this technique have
been used. Because of its cheaper cost, am-
monium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) is
preferred in several operations, although Sud-
bury experience has shown that emulsion ex-
plosions are easier to load. Both electric and
non-electric detonators are used and down-
hole non-electric delays are preferred. De-
tonation is by solid-core downlines of de-
tonating cord. It is possible to design blasting
patterns with virtually no limit to the number
of holes which can be detonated separately.
Vibration is related m o r e closely to
charge/hole than to charge/delay. Intervals
remain constant throughout the series, usually
at 25 ms. No consensus of opinion exists on
hole pattern, hole diameter, depth of burial,
weight of charge, or firing pattern. Blast de-
signers consider the problem to be one in
which engineering geology is at least as im-
portant as the physics involved. The explosive
charges are often placed in the location and
quantity determined by tradition, and mod-
ified by trial and error as the work progresses.
Decking is used for production as well as
for removing the topsill. Both Stobie and
Copper Cliff North mines have used double-
D.A,TROTTER
decked charges for production mining. In
general, the method is avoided except for
removal of the top-sill because of the possibil-
ity of sulphide dust explosions.
Materials handling in VCR mining
Radio-controlled LHD's
In 1978, Jarvis Clark installed the first
radio control on a LHD machine in Sudbury.
For the first time, the operator was able to
send an unmanned machine into a dangerous
area to recover ore which was previously being
abandoned in a backfilled stope.
The success of this early unit was a key
element in the utilization of VCR bulk ore
extraction techniques for Sudbury ores. To-
day, over 100 LHD's have been installed with
radio control on all sizes and makes of loaders
from 1-8 yards (0.9-7.3 m). Installation is
frequently provided on-site by factory in-
stallers, although many customers have the
capability of completing their own installa-
tions. Early concerns about the operator's
inability to see the machine adequately, his
loss of machine "feel" by not being on the
machine himself proved to be unfounded.
Machine performance and production does
not suffer in the radio controlled operation
[61
In most applications, the radio controlled
LHD is used alternately in radio mode and
manual mode. The operator loads the mac-
hine in the open stope with the radio control
and then switches to manual mode for tram-
ming to the ore pass and dumping. Where the
tramming distance is long, the LHD stays in
the stope on radio control to load mine trucks
which are also equipped with radio control
for placement near the LHD.
Electric LHD's
The first electric 2 yd (1.82 m) capacity
LHD was used in Creighton Mine in 1975.
VERTICAL CRATER RETREAT MINING IN THE SUDBURY BASIN 137

DRAW POINTS

i -1"2f
(CONTROLPANEL)

Fig. 4. Layout for electric LHD application (after [7]).

Currently there are eleven, 5 yd 3 electric trend is further supported by conversion to

L H D ' s and ten 8 yd 3 electric machines used
in VCR mining (Fig 4).
The driving power for the 8 yd 3 electrics is
AC. The move to electric has allowed oper-
ators to improve productivity and reduce
maintenance costs (Fig 5). Experience has
shown that as the size of L H D equipment
increases, the cost per tonne is reduced. This
electrics. There is also a significant cost dif-
ferential in energy as the size of the unit is
increased and this saving is further influenced
by electric conversion. Higher performance is
attained mainly because the electrical units
have a greater breakout force in the muck
pile.
The use of electric equipment also provides

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Fig. 5. Maintenance and energy costs for LHD's.

138
a better working environment by eliminating
diesel fumes, greatly reducing noise levels,
and reducing the amount of heat produced.
Continuous mucking
A continuous loading machine known as
an Osciloader CL-1000 is capable of handling
up to 500 t / h o u r (550 s T / h ) of broken muck.
The Osciloader is an electric hydraulic 32 t
(35 T) machine which is crawler-mounted and
has a drawbar pull of 27 t (30 T). It has an
adjustable frequency, oscillating lip which
simulates the digging action of a manual
shovel [8]. As the machine moves into the
muckpile, the lip fluidizes the material by
changing the angle of repose of the pile. This
reduces the penetration force and regulates
the material flow onto a short chain con-
veyor. The conveyor elevates the muck to a
height suitable for discharge into either a
crusher, a conveyor, a truck, or a combination
of these. The continuous flow of material
from the muck pile onto the continuous loader
eliminates the cyclic interruptions for attack-
ing the muck pile normally associated with
gathering arm or bucket-type loaders.
Continuous loaders were first commis-
sioned in 1985 and are presently in use at
Creighton, Levack, McCreedy West, Copper
Cliff North, Copper Cliff South and Stobie
mines. Most are employed at drawpoint head-
ings loading into 23.6 t (26 t) rear-dump
diesel haulage trucks. One loader, at the Stobie
Mine, has been loading into a large run-of-
the-mine conveyor system in-line with an ore
pass. In this configuration, the major diffi-
culty is the handling of excessively large pieces
of muck onto the conveyor.
Crushing
At Copper Cliff South Mine, trials are
going on using an Eagle ® jaw crusher behind
the continuous loader. The crusher is a 760 x
1016 m m (30 x 40") machine utilizing a 110
D.A.TROTTER
kw (150 HP) electric drive motor and mounted
on crawler tracks. The crawlers are D-7 size,
each driven by a 24 kw (32 HP) electric
motor. The whole plant can be raised by four
outrigger jacks to reduce vibration while
crushing. The mobile crushing plant can oper-
ate effectively in an underground opening
with a m i n i m u m back height of 4.3 m (14 ft)
and operating width of 6.1 m (20 ft) It has a
turning radius of 9 m (30 ft) The over-all
profile height is designed for easy loading
from the continuous loader to produce - 2 0
cm ( - 8 in) ore at rates of 300-500 t / h .
Conveying
Recent developments in belt bender tech-
nology pioneered in the Saskatchewan potash
mines, as well as improvements in extensible
conveyor belt capability, are ideally suited to
panel mining. The new technology allows the
haulage system to advance or retreat and
enables standard conveyor belts to convey
around corners. This overcomes the single
largest constraint of belt conveyor systems;
namely the requirement for the belt to travel
in a straight line. This new technology is now
being applied in an "integrated system" to
V C R stopes in Sudbury.
Integrated system
Loading, hauling and dumping with LHD's
is a batch process and, as such, is limited in
its total output. The improvements noted
above in the areas of loading, crushing and
conveying have allowed these systems to be
integrated into a continuous system [9].
Testing of the combined system began early
in April 1987 on the 750 m (2450 ft) level at
Copper Cliff South Mine. So far, results have
been very encouraging. Stopes are mined using
the V C R method and ore handled by a fully
integrated system including the CL-1000
Osciloader, an Eagle-3640 low profile crusher,
and extensible face conveyor and one mobile
VERTICAL CRATER RETREAT MINING IN THE SUDBURY
90 ° belt bender. Total conveying distance is
135 m (450 ft).
The system is able to handle up to 3000
t/shift, can be run by two operators, and is
capable of fairly rapid moves between draw-
points. About 48 h turn-around time is re-
quired from mucking out one stope to start-
ing the next stope on a mucking cycle.
The main criteria for the use of the con-
tinuous loading/crushing/conveying systems
are: relatively large stoping blocks with the
ability to have a constant supply of fresh ore,
a minimum tonnage of 1000 t / d a y , and en-
gineering layouts and systems which allow the
equipment to be moved from stope to stope
quickly.
Backfill
Typically, when a stope is mined out and a
bulkhead constructed, a stiff 17:1 sand:ce-
ment fill is poured 3-5 m (10-16 R.) above
the brow in the extraction drift below. Then a
leaner fill material 30 : 1 to 50 : 1 is poured to
fill the remainder of the stope. Compressive
strengths vary with water content, cement
content, curing time, etc., and range from 400
kPa (60 psi) to 200 kPa (30 psi) when dealing
with mixes from 30 : 1 to 50 : 1 and about 30%
moisture content.
The biggest problem associated with con-
ventional backfill is water, which has to be
able to percolate through the backfill. This
requires extensive preparation of bulkheads
and drainage facilities prior to backfilling and
is quite elaborate and expensive. Care has to
be taken when pouring to ensure that hydro-
static pressures do not build up and time has
to be allowed for backfilled stopes to drain
properly and for cement to cure.
Recently, a considerable amount of re-
search has been undertaken to improve the
general characteristics of backfill. Alternative
approaches to conventional hydraulic back-
filling are being developed whereby the pulp
density of the fill is raised considerably by
BASIN 139
removing a lot of the water prior to filling.
The advantage of this practise is that
bulkheads to retain water are not required;
the fill in place is stronger, cheaper because
of lower cement content, and slime and water
handling costs are greatly reduced.
Levack Mine is the site for testing paste
fill, which is a pumpable mixture of 50% 2
mm ( 3 / 4 " ) crushed rock and 50% - 325 mesh
tailings slime with 15% water. The amount of
water is critical; too little ( < 14%) and the fill
resists pumping;too much ( > 19%) and the
mixture segregates.
Copper Cliff North Mine is testing a dry
system, whereby 0.6 m (2 ft) blasted pit-run
rock is transported underground, sprayed with
a cement slurry, and placed in the stope area.
Portland cement is mixed at a surface plant
and piped down to the working level.
Another "dry" system is planned for at
Crean Hill, using sand from the sand plant,
immediately prior to placement in the mined
out slope. Where normal practise is to mix
70% sand and 30% water, densities of 75-80%
solids are being tried. With less water, less
cement is required. The high density mixture
sets more strongly and the compressive
strength is more easily controlled than with
thinned backfills. Another advantage is that
water leakage is less and so are the related
clean-up costs.
Safety aspects of VCR
All medical aid and lost time injuries are
recorded for all Ontario mines and entered
into a computer data bank by the Mines
Accident Prevention Association of Ontario.
The data is entered from a standardized four
page injury investigation form and coded un-
der 54 different fields. Since several thousand
injury records have now been entered into the
system, it has become a very powerful ana-
lytical tool in accident investigation research.
For example, the records show that a change
to VCR mining greatly reduces accidents from
140
scaling since less time is spent at that task.
The data show a trend towards reduced
workplace injuries where V C R mining is em-
ployed. This holds true when comparing total
medical aid, lost-time injuries, or fatalities.
For compensation rate purposes, Ontario's
mines are divided into eleven different rate
groups depending on the commodity being
mined. The nickel group has the lowest over-
all medical aid frequency expressed as inci-
dents per 200000 man-hours worked. This
same group is unique in that VCR mining is
not used to the same extent elsewhere in
Ontario, inferring that non-entry stoping
methods lead to overall reductions in injury
frequencies.
V C R mining offers great potential for im-
proving productivity in mining and at the
same time, for improving worker safety be-
cause the presence of the worker at the most
hazardous location in mining (the recently
blasted face) is no longer required. The min-
ing method also leads to greater mechaniza-
tion, with an attendant reduction in the m o r e
physically exerting elements of mining. Since
the miners spend nearly all of their time in
the top-sill, this area is well-bolted, screened,
walls painted white to increase reflectance
and often supplied with permanent lighting.
Lighting is usually low pressure sodium run
from air-operated generators if electricity is
not available. Good lighting results in good
housekeeping and is undoubtedly a factor in
keeping injury rates down.
Sulphide dust explosions have occurred in
V C R stopes in the Sudbury area [10]. As a
result of studies into the phenomena, several
precautions are now taken to prevent their
recurrence. It is suspected that high powder
factors may produce fine dust and sulphides.
The sulphides, being more friable than the
gangue, form a greater proportion of the total
dust. Occurrences of sulphide dust explosions
show powder factors as high as 1.1 k g / t .
Powder factors are now carefully monitored.
V C R stopes are difficult to wash down and to
D.A.TROTTER
ventilate but, when feasible, washing down
backs and walls and the use of air and water
blasts or foggers is employed. Water stem-
ruing of drill holes is used. Remote control
blasting is practised and testing for gases is
carried out in the mines before work resumes.
Long delays between charged holes are
avoided where possible, as are two separate
blasts occurring close together.
Research
One-pass mining
In conventional VCR, a safe drilling hori-
zon is established in a 12-15 m (40-50 ft)
thick crown pillar below a previously mined-
out area. This crown pillar is left behind to be
mined at a later date by a more costly mining
method.
"One-pass" mining is contemplated for
deep sections of the Creighton ore body.
One-pass mining eliminates crown pillars as
the ore is developed in 60 m (200 ft) vertical
slices from the top down rather than from the
bottom up, and the drilling horizons are
established in the cemented sandfill lying on
top of the ore to be mined. The drill horizon
opening or top-sill will be put in place using
an Alpine miner to cut the cemented sandfill
to a predetermined shape. The top-sill ex-
cavation will then be used by ITH machines
to remove 12-15 m (40-50 ft) panels (Fig. 6)
[11,121.
Ground control was a major consideration
in this project and rock mechanics studies
indicated that an ore body can be destressed
by establishing a vertical opening through the
centre of an ore body and by mining outward
in a radiating sequence, from the opening.
Once the first panel is blasted, the ore ex-
tracted, and the opening backfilled with ce-
mented sandfill, the mining will then radiate
out panel by panel until the entire block of
ore is removed (Fig. 7).
VERTICAL CRATER RETREAT MINING IN THE SUDBLIRy BASIN 141

Fig. 6. Mining concept, Creighton Mine.

Fig. 7. Mining sequence, 7200 level, Creighton Mine. 1 - 12 = order in which panels are mined.
142
Ultrasonic rock fracturing
Research is being conducted on an ultra-
sonic rock fracturing technique that could
eliminate the crushing of large pieces of ore
underground. Hard rock could be weakened
to the point where it could be combined with
soft rock mining techniques to facilitate con-
tinuous mining. A transducer is used to con-
vert the electric signals emanating from a
high-powered generator in order to send elec-
trical/mechanical vibrations through rock
samples. Two phenomena occur: cyclic fa-
tigue or weakening, and a resonance effect
which incurs large strain levels. It was dis-
covered that hard rock breaks more easily
than soft rock because soft rock develops heat
in addition to mechanical stress. The cyclic
fatigue, using low energy levels, can lower the
compressive strength by up to 50%. It appears
that the stronger the untreated material is, the
more pronounced is the weakening effect due
to exposure to the high frequency vibrations.
It also broke them into very small pieces at
very low kerfing energy.
Haulage
An increase in productivity is envisaged
through the addition of closed circuit TV and
a wireless automatic guideway to provide un-
manned tramming to the ore pass. The wire-
less guideway operates much like a track, in
that the machine follows a fixed path. The
pathway, which is determined by the attach-
ment of an antenna to the back of the drift,
can be coded to provide stopping points for
machines to await remote dumping at the ore
pass and to utilize a passing recess where
loop-type tramming is not feasible. The goal
of this addition is to have two or more ma-
chines in the work cycle, still with a single
operator.
Inco has signed a contract with Robot De-
fense Systems I n c . - - a U.S. producer of
D.A. TROTTER
robotic vehicles and control systems--to de-
velop a prototype underground robotic
haulage vehicle. The mobile vehicle will be
automatically guided and controlled by an
on-board guidance system using advanced
laser imaging sensors, rugged computers, and
analytical software. When completed, the
machine is expected to automate the repe-
titious work associated with underground ore
and waste haulage [13].
Drilling
At Copper Cliff South Mine the use of 200
m m (8") diameter drillholes is being
pioneered. Drilling rates of advance appear to
be nearly the same as the more conventional
165 mm (61'') diameter holes. Since fewer
holes are required, productivity is increased.
Long range planning envisages the use of 10"
blastholes drilled a vertical distance of 150 m
(500 ft) using rubber-tired in-the-hole drills.
It is expected that, at this diameter, holes will
be drilled on a 4.5 × 4.5 m (15 × 15 ft) pat-
tern.
Conclusion
The use of the cratering technique provides
the efficiency of bulk mining while still main-
taining the inherent ground control, dilution
and recovery qualities of the tried and true
incremental fill methods.
Bulk mining using the VCR method re-
duces costs in several ways. It minimizes the
number of levels and simplifies secondary
pillar recovery. Manpower is reduced and
safety is increased since miners are not re-
quired to enter the stopes. With VCR, drilling
and mucking operations can be carried out
simultaneously. As research continues, par-
ticularly in the areas of drilling and continu-
ous mucking systems, costs can be expected
to reduce even further.
VERTICAL CRATER RETREAT MINING IN THE SUDBURY
In summary, advantages greatly outway
disadvantages. Both can be listed as follows:
Advantages
(1) High productivity requiring fewer
stopes.
(2) Low manpower with low mining costs.
(3) No unproductive gaps in the mining
cycles.
(4) Safe working conditions, since work op-
erated from outside the stopes.
(5) Improved ground control with faster
rate of advance.
(6) Applicable to stopes and pillars. Can be
a one-method mine.
Disadvantages
(1) High development costs.
(2) High degree of engineering control re-
quired.
(3) Less flexibility in grade control.
(4) Not suitable for stringer type deposits.
References
1. Scales, M., Keeping costs down. Can. Min. J., 109
(6) (1988): 29-38.
2 Haines, T., An automated rock bolter for hard rock
mines. Can. Min. J., 108 (12) (1987): 28-29.
BASIN 143
3 Kelly, J. and England, R., Development of the
automatic Go-60 drill. CIM Bull., 80 (1987) 71-75.
4 Inco Inc. Boosters Improve Productivity. Inco Tri-
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5 Hayward, A. and Henderson, A. Modified vertical
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