Aluminium alloys

• Light: 2700 kgm-3.

• Modulus low: E = 71 GPa, but specific modulus “normal”
• Crystal structure is fcc, so ductile at all temperatures (less so for pptn-hardened alloys)
• Alloying:
– up to 1.25% Mn or 3.5% Mg for solid solution strengthening,
– up to 4.5% Cu, 7% Zn or (3% Mg + 1% Si) for precipitation hardening,
– up to 0.5% Cr for grain refinement,
– up to 17% Si, 7% Cu, 10% Mg for casting alloys.
• Good machining properties
• Alloys are weldable (inert gas).
• Fatigue strength low, especially in pptn – hardened alloys
• Corrosion resistance excellent – thin strong oxide coating. Can anodise.
• Pptn- hardened alloys can suffer stress-corrosion cracking (ppt-free zones near grain
boundaries)
• Good electrical and heat conductor.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 1

 Al alloys & treatment classification system
“xxx” is code for
specific composition
1: Cold-worked only
main alloying addition H 2: Cold-worked & partially annealed
cold-worked 3: Cold-worked & fully annealed

1xxx 99%+ Al O
2xxx Cu 2: ¼ hard
annealed
3xxx Mn 4: ½ hard
(wrought only)
4xxx Si 6: ¾ hard
5xxx Mg 8: Hard
6xxx Mg+Si 9: Extra hard
7xxx Zn F
8xxx Li (etc.) as fabricated
1: Partial solution & natural ageing
2: Annealed cast products
3: Solution & cold-work
T
4: Solution & natural ageing
Changes denote heat-treated
5: Artificial ageing only
distinct alloys
6: Solution & artificial ageing
Changes denote minor variants 7: Solution & stabilising
8: Solution & cold-work & artificial ageing
[except 1xxx: xxx denotes purity level] 9: Solution & artificial ageing & cold-work

This is the “basic” system:

see Polmear pp68-72 for the trimmings.
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 2
 Aluminium alloys - classes
Alloy Composition σy UTS εF Notes
series (MPa) (MPa) (%)

1000 “pure” Al. 30 - 100 - up to Foil, decoration, electrical conductors

100 135 50
2000 ~4.5%Cu (+Mn,Si,Mg) up to up to 5– General purpose forgings and
age-hardened 480 520 20 extrusions, esp. airframes.
3000 ~1%Mn, Mg. up to up to 5 Ductile sheet for cladding trucks,
cold-worked 215 290 trailers. Food containers. Drink cans.
4000 12%Si, (+ Mg,Ni,Cu) ~295 ~325 0.5 IC engine pistons. (aka LM13, A332)
forgeable, age-hardened
5000 ~5%Mg (+Cr, Mn). up to up to 15 Good formability & weldability.
cold-worked 350 415 Excellent corrosion resistance.
Structural applications, esp. marine.
6000 up to 1%Mg-Si. ~275 ~310 12 Hot extrusions. Window frames, etc.
age-hardened
7000 up to 8%Zn (+Mg,Cu,Cr). 500 575 11 Highest strength alloys. Aircraft
age-hardened structures.
8000 “Other”, e.g. up to 2.5%Li Novel and specialist alloys

Cast near Al-13%Si eutectic + up to up to 2-5 Automotive castings. Can age-harden

0.01%Na 200 300 if Cu and Mg added.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 3

 Al – Mg Alloys – “5000” series

700
1 - Hold at ~550ºC till all Mg is in solution
Liquid
600
α+L 2 – Quench to room temperature.

500 α
Mg is now in supersaturated solution
Temperature (ºC)

1 Solid solution strengthening

400
α+β σY (MPa) (annealed)
300 160

120
200
80

100 40

2 0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 10 20 30 40 wt% Mg
Al Weight% Mg β (Mg5Al8) 3 – (possibly) Work-harden
1.8%

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 4

 5000 series alloys and applications
σY UTS εF
MPa) (MP (%)
a)
5456 5 Mg, 160 (O) 310 24 Sheet, plate, extrusions, marine hulls,
0.25 Zn, 0.4 Fe, 280 (H18) 370 12 dump truck bodies, cryogenic tanks
0.25 Si 0.2 Cu,Ti,Cr [many similar compositions]
5005 0.5-1.0 Mg, 40 (O) 125 30 Sheet, high strength foil, electrical
0.25 Zn, 0.7 Fe, 190 (H24) 200 4 conductor wire
0.3 Si, 0.2 Cu, 0.1 Cr [many similar compositions]

Portsmouth – Cherbourg fast ferry (5005 is now “old tech” for this – similar low
Launched 1998, 91m length, Mg, Fe, Cu alloys with higher conductivity
5900 tonnes gross wt., 41 knots now used)
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 5
 Al – Cu alloys – “2000” series

700
Liquid
600 α+L
α

500
Temperature (ºC)

400

α+θ
300

200

100 θ (CuAl2)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Al Weight% Cu

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 6

 Al – Cu alloys – “2000” series

700
Liquid 1 - Hold at ~550ºC till all Cu is in solution

600 α+L
α 1 2 – Quench to room temperature.

500 Cu is now in supersaturated solution

Temperature (ºC)

400 3 – “Age” at 180 – 200ºC.

Cu comes out of solution to form precipitates

300
α+θ

200 3

[ If we just cooled directly to the ageing

100
temperature, precipitates would form , but mostly
on grain boundaries. No good for strengthening. ]
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Al Weight% Cu

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 7

 Heat treatment of Aluminium alloy
1 - Cu is in solution.
Solid solution strengthening

2 - Cu forms clusters of atoms

(“G-P zones”).
Each zone surrounded by
strong strain & stress field
0.05 µm 0.5 µm 2 µm 10 µm “Coherency stress” strengthening

500 3 - Cu reacts with Al to form fine,

closely spaced, precipitates. (θ``).
Precipitates have complicated
400
Yield Stress (MPa)

3 “intermetallic” crystal structure

Precipitate hardening
Precipitates are “cut” by dislocations –
300 4 bigger is harder.
2

200 1 4 – Further reaction to form θ`

Peak and finally θ (CuAl2) precipitates.
Aged Precipitates have very
100
Underaged Overaged complicated crystal structures
Precipitate hardening
0 Precipitates are “bypassed” by
1 10 100 1000 dislocations – bigger is more widely
Ageing time (hr) spaced – weaker.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 8

 Precipitate-free zones

Grain boundary precipitates can

reduce nearby concentration of solute
atoms.

Results:

weak grain boundaries

chemically different grain boundaries

The “quench and age” heat

treatments are designed to minimise
this.

(Slow cooling would give nearly 100%

g.b. precipitates)
250nm

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 9

 2000 series alloys and applications

σY UTS εF
MPa) (MPa) (%)
“Duralumin” 3.5 Cu 275 425 22 The original age hardening alloy. Now
0.5 Mg, 0.5 Mn used for rivets, etc (2017).
2014 4.4 Cu 320 425 13 The “standard” Al-Cu alloy.
0.5 Mg, 0.5 Mn Aircraft structures, automotive, etc.
0.9 Si
2219 6.3 Cu 290 - 415 - 10 Good creep strength: high temperature
0.3 Mn, 0.2 Si 390 475 applications.
0.1 Ti,Zn,V,Zr Good cryogenic strength (liquid gas tanks
for spacecraft)

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 10

 Al – Zn alloys – “7000” series

All 7000 series alloys are prone to stress corrosion cracking

(so are most Al alloys!):

This is alleviated by
• Zn:Mg ratio of 3:1
• addition of Mg and Cu (etc.),
• control of Si, Fe and other impurities
• complex, multi-stage heat treatments

100 µm

σY UTS εF
MPa) (MPa) (%)
7075 Zn 5.6 500 570 11 High strength alloy: aerospace structural parts.
Mg 2.5 Various choices of heat treatments to “emphasise”
Cu 1.6 weldability, SCC resistance, machinability.
Cr 0.2 Typical (“T73 temper”): quench, age at:
120ºC (form G.P. zones), then
170ºC (form η` - MgZn2 ppts.)
(7475 is high purity variant – better SCC)

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 11

 7000 series alloys

“Supercross started “EXPE Anti-Shock

producing the Trekking Poles
Manufactured for the "StrongArm"™ cranksets 7075-T6 Aircraft
Military Aircraft Division back in 1989. The first aluminum”
of Northrop Grumman ones were made out of
Corporation. Machined tubular 4130 cro-mo. The
from 7075-T7351 current models use the
aluminum plate. same 6 spline spindle
assembly but are made
Die-forged 7075-T73 out of aircraft grade 7075
Stabiliser and engine T-6 billet aluminum.”
support for Douglas
DC10

(4 in each aircraft!)
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 12
 Al – Li alloys – “8000” series
Rationale: T(ºC) Liq.
• Li is light – density 540 kg m-3 600
• Reduces alloy density by 1% for each 1% Li α δ
• Li dissolves up to 14% in Al at high T 400
• Solubility drops at lower temps α+δ
Al3Li
• Can harden via the metastable δ` phase Al3Li –
though this only has low strains around it. 200
• Li has big size difference: good solid soln. α + δ`
strengthener
• Li raises E of alloy: 10%Li gives 20% boost in E 0
0 10(w) 20(w)
30(at) 50(at)
Problems ?
• Li oxidises rapidly – needs careful handling
• Severe gravity segregation during casting
• Na, K, present as impurities form low m.p. phases
• grain boundary failures
• Simple Al-Li binary alloys have poor properties
• cutting of δ` ppts ⇒ planar slip ⇒ low ductility
• Overaging gives precipitation of δ phase at grain
boundaries
• High cost – about 2-3x conventional alloys Al-Li-Zr

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 13

 Al – Li alloys – development
Al-Li δ` only. Planar slip: low toughness and ductility.
Al-Li-Cu δ`+ θ`. Good strength and creep properties, but still too low toughness.
Al-Li-Mg δ`+ Al2LiMg. Al2LiMg tends to plate out of g.b.s – low toughness.
Al-Li-Mg-Cu δ`+ Al2CuMg (“S-phase”). 2.6:1 Cu:Mg favours formation of S phase.
S-phase not easily sheared, ∴ slip homogenised – toughness improved.
Al-Li-Mg-Cu-Zr As above, but + fine ZrAl3 – stabilises grain structure, further homogenises slip.
Further strength and toughness improvement.

Typical alloy:
“8090”: 2.5%Li, 1.3%Cu, 1.0%Mg, 0.1%Zr.

Yield strength: 350-240 MPa (560)

UTS: 420-450 MPa (590)
εF: 10-12% (12)
KIc: 35-65 Struts Beams Panels
density: ~2500 kg m-3 (~2700) E/ρ σF/ρ E1/2/ρ σF1/2/ρ E1/3/ρ σF1/3/ρ
E: ~80 GPa (~70)

(number in brackets are for “competitor” alloy 7475) 7475 26 220 3.1 9.0 1.5 3.1

8090 32 180 3.6 8.5 1.7 3.1

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 14

 Al – Li alloy in use
The aluminium industry has spent about $1bn
developing these alloys to compete with carbon-
fibre composites for airframe construction.

1989 Prediction:
“The purchase price of the lithium-containing alloys is expected
to be two to three times that of the existing high-strength
aluminium alloys.

However, the value of weight savings in a large passenger

aircraft can be as high as $400 / kg and lithium-containing alloys
have been specified for many civil and military aircraft currently
under development. It is expected that Al-Li alloys will make up
7% and 10% of the structural weights of civil and military aircraft
in 1990 rising to approximately 35% and 25% by 1995.
Carbon fibre /
These changes will be at the expense of the existing aluminium metal honeycombe
alloys. In 1986, demonstration components made from alloy
8090 were introduced into prototype models of military aircraft
being test flown in the United States, Britain and France.”
1996:
Al-Li alloys removed at last minute from specification for Boeing
Carbon /
777 – problems with microcracking around holes.
Kevlar foam
1998:
Space shutttle fuel tanks made in Al-1%Li alloy: payload up 16%. Aluminium /
Extra cost - $5m per shuttle (1km of welds!) Kevlar Lithium alloy
1999:
EH101 in “pre production” Westland / Agusta EH101 “Merlin”
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 15
 Magnesium Alloys

• Very Light: 1738 kgm-3.

• Modulus low: E = 44.7 GPa, but specific modulus “normal”
• Crystal structure is hcp, so slip only on basal plane at RT. Get slip on other planes above 200ºC, so
can work (extrude) above 250-300 ºC.
• Alloying is for precipitation hardening and (wrought alloys) grain refinement.
• Two main classes of alloys:

Type Alloy content Yield Stress UTS Fracture Strain

wrought 2-7% 100 – 200 MPa 200 – 300 MPa 8 - 10 %
cast 5 – 12 % 80 – 150 MPa 150 – 250 MPa 2–8%

• Excellent machining properties

• Alloys are weldable (inert gas)
• Impact strengths low
• High damping capacity (useful in machine casings)
• Corrosion resistance very poor. Can coat – chromate, anodise, epoxy resin.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 16

 Alloying additions

Al, Zn, Th – Produce precipitation hardening

very complex series of metastable ppts, depending on alloy compn.
(Th – very stable ppts, good for creep resistance)
balance of Al, Zn and Th will influence / depend on solution treating T
Mn – corrosion resistance (“ties up” Fe and other impurities)
Zr – strong grain refinement
(mechanism not well understood)
reacts with Al and Mn, Mg-Zr alloys must be Al, Mn free.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 17

 Cast Mg Alloys
The most important class of Mg alloys:
Strongest ones are heat treated after casting to give precipitation hardening

Al Mn Zn Zr Th RE$
State σy UTS εF Notes
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (MPa) (MPa) (%)

As-cast 95 135 2 Good general purpose sand and die

9.5 0.3 0.5
Heat-treated* 80 230 4 casting alloy.

As-cast 120 230 10 Use as – cast, or pptn harden with no

4.5 0.7 soln. treatment. Sand castings. Good
Heat-treated* 150 260 7 strength and duticlity.
As-cast 90 170 5
4.2 0.7 1.2 Improved castability.
Heat-treated* 130 215 4

3.5 0.7 3.2 Heat-treated* 85 170 5 Retain strength up to ~200 ºC.

High T heat treament – soln at 565ºC,

0.7 3.2 Heat-treated 100 210 8
age at 205ºC. Creep resistant to 350ºC

*Typical heat treatment: Soln. treat: 380 - 410ºC / 16hr. Quench, pptn harden 180 – 200 ºC / 10hr.
$Ce, La, Nd, Pr – “Misch metal”
Extrusion alloys have similar compositions but with slightly lower alloy additions (esp. Zn)
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 18
 Microstructures and Macrostructures
µm
20µ

Optical micrograph:
Mg-Zn-Zr-(RE) alloy,
cast and aged (no
soln treatment).

Note coarse gb ppts.

Mg-Zr-Zn-(RE) helicopter
gearbox casing

Electron micrograph:
Mg-Nd-Zr alloy, cast,
soln treated and
aged to peak
hardness.

(Note PFZ at gbs)

Bicycle frame
(alloy unspecified !
“6% additives”)

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 19

 Titanium Alloys
• Light: 4507 kgm-3.
• Modulus lowish: E = 116 GPa, but specific modulus “normal”
• Crystal structure at low temperatures (α) is hcp with “squat” unit cell, slip on prismatic and pyramidal
planes – enough for moderate ductility. Pure metal transforms to bcc form (β) at 882ºC.
• Alloying is usually for modifying phase stability and for solution hardening. Some rare pttn hardening
alloys (e.g. Ti-Cu based)
• Four main classes of alloys:

Type σy UTS εF Notes

(MPa) (MPa) (%)

“CP” α-Ti 200 - 250 - 15 - 25 99%+ pure Ti, with interstitial O.

500 550
“near α” alloys 850 - 950 - 12 – Creep resistant. Traces of β (Fe impurity
1000 1100 15 stabilised) act as grain refiner. Good welding,
acceptable forging properties.
α / β alloys 900 - 1000 - 10 – Best all-round at low and moderate temperatures
1200 1300 15 (up to ~400ºC). Can easily vary grain structure by
thermomechanical treatments.
β” alloys
“β 1100 - 1250 - 6– Can heat-treat to ppt. α on ageing. Best formability
1300 1400 10 (before ageing).

http://www.timet.com/index.html http://www.titanium.org/background.htm
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 20
 Ti alloys – phase stability

α+β
β
β
β
Temperature

α+ β+γ
β
α α2 α
α
+ α+β
α2 α α+γ

% Solute % Solute MS % Solute MS

Expanded α field: Expanded β field: Intermetallic phase (γ) with “Neutral”

eutectoid; Zr, Sn
Al, Ga, O, N, C Mo, W, V, Ta (β phase partly stabilised):

dashed lines for Ti – Al dashed line is Cu, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, H
“martensite start”
dashed line is “martensite start”
dotted lines may be relevant to
normal cooling rates as eutectoid
reaction can be very sluggish.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 21

 α - Ti

Other α - Ti alloys:
100µm 100µm
Ti – 5%Al – 2.5%Sn:
“CP”: effectively Ti – O Can also slow-cool from β (IMI 317)
alloys. phase: produces plates of used in low interstitial
α growing into original form (“ELI”) for cryogenic
Hot – work in α phase field,
(large) β grains. tanks – space vehicles.
anneal at 675ºC, produce
fine equiaxed grain structure.
Not as strong or ductile as Ti – 2.5%Cu:
Strength from oxygen equiaxed alloys, but (IMI 230)
interstitials and Hall-Petch: tougher and with high Age hardening.
(e.g.) fatigue resistance
(complex crack paths) CP + 0.5%Pd:
σy = 230 + 10.5/√d MPa IMI260
High corrosion resistance
“CP” Ti is about 20% of current usage: applications as
aerospace sheet and panels, chemical plant components.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 22

 Architectural CP - Ti

Guggenheim museum,
Bilbao

34000 m2 0.4mm sheet

MTRC Central Station,

Hong Kong

70000 m2 0.6mm sheet

http://www.timet.com/architecture/index.html

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 23

 “near – α” Ti alloys

High in Al and “neutral” additives (Zr, Sn), Heat-treated in α+β phase

relatively low in β-stabilisers. region, air-cooled:

Strength from grain refinement and solute White phase is remnant α,

hardening. dark areas plates of β with α
between.
These alloys have the best creep resistance
of all Ti alloys. 10µm Good creep properties, poor
fatigue properties
IMI 679
Now being used on compressor stages of jet
engines up to 600ºC.

Heat-treated in β phase region,

air-cooled or quenched:

“basket-weave” structure of
plates of β with α between.

Good fatigue properties, not-so-

100µm good creep properties
IMI 685

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 24

 Some “near – α” Ti alloys

Alloy Composition σy UTS εF Notes

(MPa) (MPa) (%)

8-1-1 8%Al, 1%Mo, 1%V 980 1060 15 α+β heat-treated (780ºC). Can
embrittle due to α2 formation.
IMI 679 2.25%Al, 11%Sn, 990 1100 15 Substituting Sn for Al to cut down on
5%Zr, 1%Mo, α2 embrittlement. Extra solute
0.25%Si strengtheners added.
IMI 685 6%Al, 5%Zr, 900 1020 12 β heat-treated. (1050ºC). Quenched
0.5%Mo, 0.25%Si to RT and aged at 550ºC to give
“basket weave” of α with some ppts.
IMI 834 5.8%Al, 4.5%Sn, 910 1030 15 20ºC Like 685, but Nb for extra
4%Zr, 0.7%Nb, corrosion resistance, and can
0.5%Mo, 0.4%Si,
600ºC
tailor µ-structure more easily
480 585 20
0.06%C for good compromise on
creep and fatigue strengths

IMI 834 is the current state-of-the-art for creep-resistant Ti alloys.

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 25

 α − β alloys

Working at various temperatures w.r.t. the α − β

β phase regions, and then cooling or quenching
and re-heating gives huge scope for producing
specific microstructures.
Temperature

General principles:
α+β
Work alloy in either α + β or β field:
α
then either
MF MS
slow cool (“anneal”) to produce plates of α
in the β grains. Can produce “basket
Quenched weave” structure.
from β
Yield Strength

and aged or
quench to produce a martensitic form of α
Annealed from the β. This can then be “aged” to give
fine microstructure of α and β.

Most α − β alloys are used in the “annealed”

Quenched from β condition. Lower strength, but more stable at
high T and better fatigue resistance.

% Solute
Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 26
 α − β alloys: microstructures

20µm 20µm 2µm

Slow-cooled from β field Slow-cooled from α+β field Quenched from β field
(IMI 318) (IMI 318) (Ti – 12V)

2µm

Convoluted fatigue
crack growth in
“basket-weave”
IMI 318

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 27

 α − β alloys: IMI 318

IMI 318, Ti 6%Al 4%V IMI 318 – typical properties Air – cooled Air – cooled
is the “classic” Ti alloy. from α + β from β

Fully β above 1005ºC

Fully α below 600ºC Yield Stress (MPa) 940 910
(α−β for Ti is 885ºC) UTS (MPa) 980 990
Strain to fracture (%) 16 12
Accounts for about 70% of
current Ti alloy usage. Fracture toughness (MPam1/2) 52 79
Fatigue limit at 107 cycles (MPa) ± 490 ± 740
Difficult to machine (like all Ti
alloys).

Not very weldable, or very

formable at RT.

Can fairly readily be formed in β

phase field – can heat-treat and
forge in one process. SPFDB Ti-6-4
airframe part
Can be superplastically formed “Conventional”
in α−β field, and can be diffusion -one piece
version - 104 bits!
bonded (“SPF-DB”)

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 28

 IMI 318 - Applications

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 29

 β – Ti alloys

High in V, Mo, Cr (little or no Al): equilibrium compostion at RT is β with a few % α.

Highest strength Ti alloys, especially after heat – treatment.

(Combination of fine grain size, solid solution hardening and age hardening)

e.g. Ti – 8%Mo, 8%V, 2%Fe, 3%Al (“Ti 8823”)

Ti – 11.5%Mo, 6%Zr, 4.5%Zn (“beta III”)

forge, solution treat at 750-800ºC, quench and then age at 450-500ºC (24hr) to
precipitate fine α phase particles.

Typical properties: yield stress 1250 MPa, UTS 1350 MPa, εF 8%.

Expensive alloys, and need very careful process control to get best properties.

Difficult to weld.

Poor notch toughness.

Current applications limited – low T, high strength items.

I Didn't Believe Them

Magneto And Titanium Man . . .
But When The Crimson Dynamo
Finally Assured Me, Well, I Knew

Engineering “C” – High Perfomance Alloys: HT 2000 S.G. Roberts 3: 30