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KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the branch of mathematics that deals So, we define velocity as the rate of change of
with the motion of a particle in relation to time. In displacement.
this topic, we are concerned with quantities such as
displacement (and distance), velocity (and speed) and Displacement
Velocity=
acceleration. In studying the motion of objects, we Time
will examine travel graphs, laws of motion and the
application of calculus to problems in kinematics. When the velocity (or speed) of a moving object is
increasing the object is accelerating. If the velocity
Speed, distance and time or speed decreases it is said to be decelerating.
When a particle moves at a constant speed, its rate of Acceleration is, therefore, the rate of change of
change of distance remains the same. Constant speed velocity. Constant acceleration is calculated from the
is calculated from the basic formula formula
Distance Velocity
Speed = Acceleration =
Time Time
If speed changes in an interval, the average speed When speed is constant, there is no acceleration, that
during the period of travel can be calculated from the is, acceleration is equal to zero.
formula: Since acceleration is velocity per unit time, units for
acceleration will take the form such as ms-2, cms-2,
Total distance covered or travelled kmh-2. For example:
Average Speed =
Total time taken Velocity ms −1
Acceleration = = = ms −1−1 = ms −2
Time s
Units
In calculations involving speed, distance and time, Example 2
units must be consistent. So, if the units in a given A car starts from rest and within 10 seconds is
situation are not consistent, then we ought to change moving at a velocity of 20ms-1. What is its
the units to successfully solve the problem. acceleration, given that the acceleration is
constant?
Example 1
If a car travels at a speed of 10ms-1 for 3 minutes, Solution
calculate the distance it covers. At rest, velocity = 0 ms-1
=
(6 − 18) ms -1
=−
1
ms-2
ii. At 9 a.m. he was 10 km away from home and at
10 a.m. he was 20 km away from home. Also,
24 s 2
between 2 p.m. and 3 p.m. he was 60 km away
(The negative sign indicates that the particle is from home. This was the maximum distance
decelerating) travelled.
iii. At 3 p.m., he began his return journey and
\Deceleration is 1 ms-2 between 3 p.m. and 5 p.m., he was travelling
2 towards home.
iv. Between 10 and 11 a.m. and between 2 and 3
Travel graphs p.m. the cyclist was at rest. Horizontal lines on
Travel graphs display the motion of a particle over a the graph for these periods indicate that there is
period of time. Some of the simplest kinds are graphs no motion.
of distance (or displacement) versus time and v. The cyclist travelled at a constant speed during
velocity (or speed) versus time. On travel graphs, the periods 8 a.m. to 10 a.m., 11 a.m. to 2 p.m.,
time always appears on the horizontal axis because it and 3 p.m. to 5 p.m.
is the independent variable. vi. The speed during each of the 3 segments is
calculated from the gradient of the lines as
(a) Displacement/Distance-time graphs shown below.
In these graphs, the vertical axis displays the distance
from a certain point and the horizontal axis displays Speed from 8 a.m.to 10 a.m
the time. When a body is moving at constant speed, a 20 km
straight line distance-time graph is obtained. The =
2 hr
journey of a cyclist is shown below.
= 10kmh -1
Speed from 11 a.m.to 2 p.m
40 km
=
3 hr
= 13.3 kmh -1
Speed from 3 p.m.to 5 p.m
60 km
=
2 hr
= 30 kmh −1
Solution
Example 5
A velocity/time graph is shown below.
First Law
By definition,
Change in velocity
Constant Acceleration =
Time
v -u
\a = or v - u = at (1)
t
Second law
(ii). The velocity after 2 seconds can be By definition, for constant acceleration
obtained by a read-off from the graph. As Displacement = average velocity ´ time
shown on the graph, the velocity at t = 2 is æu+vö
s=ç ÷´t
12 ms-1. è 2 ø
(iii). To obtain acceleration at t = 6, we draw the Replace v by u + at
tangent at this point and find the gradient æ u + u + at ö æ 2u + at ö &
of the tangent. We calculate, s=ç ÷´t = ç ÷ ´ t = (𝑢 + * 𝑎𝑡) × 𝑡
è 2 ø è 2 ø
Rise 5
= = -2 ms .-2
1
Run -2.5 s = ut + at 2 (2)
2
Hence, the acceleration at t = 6, is estimated as
Third law
-2 ms-2.
If we square the first equation:
( v = u + at )
2
æ 1 ö
v 2 = u 2 + 2uat + a 2 t 2 = u 2 + 2a ç ut + at 2 ÷
è 2 ø
1
Recall: s = ut + at 2
2
\ v = u + 2as
2 2
(3)
The equations (1), (2) and (3) are called the three
equations of linear motion and may be used in
calculations where there is linear motion under a
constant acceleration.
Example 8
A particle passes a fixed point, A, and decelerates Recall that velocity is the rate of change of distance
uniformly at 3 ms-2 for 12 s until it reaches a point (𝑣 =
<=
), and acceleration is the rate of change of
<>
B. The velocity at B is 24 ms-1. <?
i. Calculate the velocity at A. velocity (𝑎 = ). From these two relationships, we
<>
ii. Calculate the distance from A to B. can use calculus to derive other relationships as
iii. From B, how long will the particle take to shown below.
come to rest?
dx dv
v= a=
Solution dt dt
(i) Let velocity at A be u ms-1 and acceleration, the dx = vdt dv = adt
deceleration, 𝑎 = −3𝑚𝑠 %* , time, t = 12 s and the
final velocity (or velocity at B), v = 24 ms-1
ò dx = ò vdt ò dv = ò adt
v = u + at x = ò vdt v = ò adt
\ 24 = u + ( -3)(12 ) dx
v=
u = 24 + 36 dt
d d æ dx ö
= 60 ms-1 (v ) = ç ÷
dt dt è dt ø
(ii) Let the distance from A to B be s dv d 2 x
&
=
s= 𝑢𝑡 + * 𝑎𝑡 * dt dt 2
& d2x
s= 60(12) + * (−3)(12)* a= 2
dt
𝑠 = 720 ∗ (−216)
𝑠 = 504 𝑚
Summary Example 10
It is important to note that in using calculus to solve A particle starts to move at O and travels in a
problems in kinematics we must be given an straight line with velocity v cms-1, where
expression for x or v or a, in terms of t. We then v = 2t - t 2 and t is the time in seconds after leaving
choose to integrate or differentiate, with respect to t, O. The particle comes to rest at A. Calculate
to solve for the required unknown quantity. a. the value of t at A.
b. the acceleration, a cms-2 at A.
𝒅𝒙 c. the distance, s cm, from O to A.
𝒗= G 𝒂 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒗
𝒅𝒕 d. the total distance covered from t = 0 to t = 4 .
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂= = G 𝒗 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐 Solution
a. v = 2t - t 2 , At A, particle is at rest, so v = 0
2t - t 2 = 0
Example 9
t (2 - t ) = 0
The velocity, v ms-1, of a particle moving from O,
in a straight line, is given by v = 6t 2 - 5t + 3 , t = 0 or t = 2
where t is the time in seconds after leaving O. t = 0 at O and
Calculate t = 2 at A.
a. the initial acceleration of the particle
b. the distance from O when t = 4 . b. The acceleration at A
v = 2t - t 2
Solution dv
a= , \ a = 2 - 2t
a. The initial acceleration is the acceleration when dt
t = 0.
At A, a = 2 - 2 ( 2) = -2 cms-2.
v = 6t 2 - 5t + 3
Let the acceleration at time t be a.
dv c. The distance from O to A
a= = 6 ( 2t ) - 5 = 12t - 5
dt s = ò v dt
Initial acceleration is at t = 0,
a = 12(0) −7 = -5 ms-2. t3
s = ò ( 2t - t 2 ) dt = t 2 - +C
3
b. Let the distance from O at time t be s. s = 0 at t = 0
6t 3 5t 2
( )
s = ò v dt = ò 6t 2 - 5t + 3 dt =
3
-
2
+ 3t + C ,
\ s = ( 0) -
2 ( 0)
3
+C , C = 0
where C is a constant 3
, s = ( 2 )2 - ( ) = 1 1
5 t3 2
3
\ s = 2t 3 - t 2 + 3t + C \s = t2 -
2 3 3 3
s = 0 at t = 0 (data) d. The total distance covered from t = 0 to t = 4 .
5 2
\ s = 2 (0) - (0) + 3 (0) + C
3
From part (a), we note that the particle was at rest
2 at 𝑡 = 2 sec.
\C = 0 Total distance covered from 2 to 4 seconds is
5 H
s = 2t 3 - t 2 + 3t H
𝑡K
2 G (2𝑡 − 𝑡 *)
𝑑𝑡 = J𝑡 * − L
5 2 * 3 *
s = 2 ( 4 ) - ( 4 ) + 3 ( 4 ) = 100
3
NH P & & *
2 = M16 − O − M4 − KO = −5 K − 1 K = −6 Kcm
K
Distance from O when t = 4 is 100 m.
\16 = + + 6 ( 2)
4 2 Solution
4 p + 2q = 4
For particle Q
2 p + q = 2 …(1)
a = 2 - 6t \ v = ò ( 2 - 6t )dt
a = 32 when t = 2 v = 2t - 3t 2 + C
dv Since the initial velocity of Q is 2 cms-1,when
a= = p ´ 3t 2 + q 𝑣 = 2, 𝑡 = 0
dt
\ 2 = 2(0) - 3(0) + C
2
and 32 = 3 p ( 2 ) + q
2
12 p + q = 32 …(2) \C = 2
v = 2t - 3t 2 + 2
Equation (2) – Equation (1) Let s be the distance travelled by Q after t
12 p + q = 32 seconds,
2p + q = 2 (
s = ò v dt = ò 2t - 3t 2 + 2 dt )
10 p = 30 and p = 3 2
2t 3t 3
s= - + 2t + K
From (1) 𝑞 = 2 − 2(3) = −4 2 3
\ p = 3 and q = -4 s = t 2 - t 3 + 2t + K
When 𝑠 = 0, 𝑡 = 0
b. The velocity when a = 0 \0 = ( 0) - ( 0) + 2 ( 0) + K ,
2 3
\ 28 + 4t - 5t 2 - t 3 = t 2 - t 3 + 2t
- 6t 2 + 2t + 28 = 0
6t 2 - 2t - 28 = 0
3t 2 - t - 14 = 0
(3t - 7 )(t + 2) = 0
1 1
t=2 or t = -2 Since t > 0, t = 2 only
3 3
For P
s = 28 + 4t - 5t 2 - t 3
ds
\v = = 4 - 10t - 3t 2
dt
2
æ7ö æ7ö
When the velocity of P v = 4 - 10 ç ÷ - 3 ç ÷
è3ø è3ø
1 1
= 4 - 23 - 16 = negative
3 3
For Q
2
1 æ7ö æ7ö
When t = 2 v = 2 ç ÷ - 3 ç ÷ + 2
3 è3ø è3ø
2 1
= 4 - 16 + 2
3 3
2 1
= 4 - 16 + 2 = negative
3 3