Zener Diodes Collate

MCC
MCC Note
R
Micro Commercial Components
Series C001
An Introduction to zener diodes

Solid state voltage regulator diodes or Zeners have been diode for very small changes in voltage over a wide operating
popular since the late 1950’s when they replaced bulky vacuum temperature range. Other zener configurations for transient
tubes. Discrete zeners ranging from 500 mW to 5 watts or less suppression have also evolved into their own specialized
have particularly remained a commonly used semiconductor design features. These have been identified as Transient
product, despite the evolution of integrated circuits. High power Voltage Suppressors described separately in the MCC Note
zeners above 5 watts have increasingly been replaced by D001 series.
regulator ICs for power supply outputs, nevertheless power Discrete zeners provide optimum versatility in many
zeners are still used in a variety of areas. applications with significant levels of dc and transient power
A zener diode is a specially processed single PN junction that capability compared to those
provides relatively constant voltage across two terminal despite designed into application specific integrated circuits. These
changes in zener current. Because of this unique characteristic, devices are typically available up to 200 volts and dc power
it is used as a voltage regulator when placed in parallel across a levels to 50 watts or higher. Transient power capabilities are
load to be regulated. In special compensated multiple PN significantly higher.
junction configurations, it may also be used as a “Zero-TC” A zener diode is operated in reverse bias for normal
reference voltage
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MCC R
Micro Commercial Components
MCC Note
Series C001
An Introduction
to
Zener Voltage
voltage regulation. When sufficient reverse voltage is applied fluctuations in typical applications, since it is powered by a
(cathode end biased positively), the zener is driven into its higher unregulated voltage source as shown in Figure 2. The
reverse breakdown avalanche mode of operation. This is operating current IZ. is determined by a resistor value R
usually displayed in the third quadrant of a diode placed between the zener and the higher voltage source by:
current-voltage relation as shown in Figure1. The initial IZ=[(VS -V Z)/R] - IL
transition into avalanche breakdown is often called the ”knee” where V S is the higher unregulated voltage source and IL is
region, only minor change in voltage ( V Z) will occur as further the current through the load.
increases in operating current ( IZ) occur. When applied When dynamic impedance is specified at the rated teat
voltage is still below the avalanche region current (IZT) for voltage V Z, it is called ZZK . This latter value of
of the zener, leakage current (IR) is very low typically less ZZK is always higher in ohms compared to ZZT since it is
than a microamp. In the forward voltage closer to the transition knee region of the device. At
direction (first quadrant), the voltage is comparatively low for operating currents as described in MCC Note C002.
current flow similar to rectifiers. Temperature and applied power also influence zener voltage.
A measure of the voltage regulation capability is called These will be further described in MCC Note C002.
dynamic impedance (ZZ) in ohms which equates to the Temperature and applied power also influence zener voltage.
quotient of V Z / IZ at a given operating current IZ. The lower These will be further described in MCC Note C003 and C004
this value in ohms, the better the voltage regulation of a. for zener diodes.
zener diode. Zeners will experience some operating current
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What is the impedance of a Zener diode?

Zener impedance is the equivalent series resistance of a Zener diode when it is conducting current. It is calculated
as a change of Zener voltage, ΔVZ, that occurs as a result of a tiny change in Zener current, ΔIZ. Zener impedance
should ideally be zero, but in reality, a Zener diode has some impedance. Thus, a Zener diode acts as such only in a
limited current range.
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Module 2.4
Zener Diodes
What you´ll learn in Module 2.4
After studying this section, you should be able to:

• Describe typical Zener Diode construction.
• Describe the Zener effect.
• Describe the Avalanche effect in Zener Diodes.
• Describe typical Applications for Zener Diodes.
• Shunt voltage regulation.
• Series voltage regulation.
• Calculate appropriate values for current limiting resistors for Zener Diodes.
Zener Diode Construction

Zener diodes are a modified form of PN silicon diode used extensively for voltage regulation. The P type and N type silicon
used is doped more heavily than a standard PN diode. As shown in Fig. 2.4.1, this results in a relatively thin junction layer, and
consequently a reverse breakdown voltage that can be much lower than in a conventional diode. The actual breakdown voltage
is controlled during manufacture by adjusting the amount of doping used. Breakdown voltages can be selected in this way to
occur at precise preset values anywhere between about 3V and 300V. Zener diodes can also withstand higher reverse current
flow than comparable PN diodes, and are available with various power ratings, typically from 500mW to 50W.
When Zener diodes are biased in their forward direction, with the anode voltage higher than the cathode, they behave in the
same way as a normal silicon diode. When they are reverse biased they exhibit a very high resistance, and consequently a low
value of reverse leakage current. However when a reverse bias reaches the value of the diode´s reverse breakdown voltage (the
Zener voltage) a rapid drop in resistance and increase in current occurs. To prevent this current increasing to a value that would
exceed the diode´s power rating and destroy it, the Zener diode uses a resistor connected in series with the diode to limit the
reverse current to a safe value.
Figure 2.4.1. Zener Diode Construction
Operating the diode in this condition means that, due to the very steep slope of the diode´s reverse characteristic, any slight change in voltage across the
diode will cause a large change in current through the diode. This effect is very useful in voltage regulator circuits, as explained in our Power Supplies
Modules 2.1(Shunt Voltage Regulators) and 2.2 (Series Voltage Regulators). Zener diodes are also useful for providing an accurate reference voltage for
purposes such as waveform clamping. This rapid increase in reverse current in Zener diode operation is due to one or both of two effects:
Figure 2.4.2. Alternative

Zener Diode Symbols
1. The Zener Effect

Because of the heavily doped P and N materials at either side of the junction, which are therefore good
conductors, and the very thin depletion layer, the electric field strength across the depletion layer is very strong,
and it becomes relatively easy, even at low voltages, for holes and electrons to cross the depletion layer and
combine to create a reverse current. This effect mostly happens in Zener diodes with a low reverse breakdown
voltage, typically 5 to 6V or less and leads to a gradual, rather than a sudden increase in reverse current.
Figure 2.4.3. Zener & Avalanche Effects

2. The Avalanche Effect
In Zener diodes with wider depletion layers and therefore higher breakdown voltages, the increase in current at the breakdown voltage is much more sudden, giving an abrupt reduction in
the reverse resistance of the diode and a nearly vertical region to the diode´s reverse current characteristic. This effect happens mainly in diodes with a higher reverse breakdown voltage
(above about 5V) and less heavily doped P and N regions. Below the reverse breakdown voltage, although only a small reverse leakage current is flowing, some current does flow and
therefore electrons and holes are entering the depletion layer. As the reverse voltage approaches the reverse breakdown voltage the electrons and holes entering the depletion layer come
under the effect of a strong electric field and are rapidly accelerated. In this accelerated state they begin to collide with other atoms and knock electrons from their atomic bonds in a process
called ‘impact ionisation’, so creating more electron/hole pairs that are also greatly accelerated by the electric field. These secondary current carriers in turn ionise other atoms, creating a
very rapid increase in reverse current through the diode. This process is called ‘Avalanche Breakdown’
Practical Zener Diodes

Practical zener diodes may use either the zener effect or the avalanche effect and in some diodes both effects can also occur at the same time, but it is common practice to call all these
diodes zener diodes. Both the zener and avalanche effects are also dependant to some degree on the junction temperature of the diode. However, whist the current in a purely zener diode has
a negative temperature coefficient i.e. the current reduces with an increase in temperature, the opposite effect occurs in a diode using the avalanche effect. Therefore it is possible to
manufacture zener diodes that use both effects and so these temperature effects tend to cancel each other out, producing diodes that have very minimal current variation due to temperature.
Zener diodes are widely used in power supply circuits for both voltage regulation and over voltage protection, how they are used is discussed in much more detail in our Power Supplies
Module 2.1.
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How to Use Zener Diodes
Rod Elliott (ESP)
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About Zeners
Zener diodes are very common for basic voltage regulation tasks. They are used as discrete components, and also within ICs that require a
reference voltage. Zener diodes (also sometimes called voltage reference diodes) act like a normal silicon diode in the forward direction, but
are designed to break down at a specific voltage when subjected to a reverse voltage.
All diodes will do this, but usually at voltages that are unpredictable and much too high for normal voltage regulation tasks. There are two
different effects that are used in Zener diodes ...
Impact ionisation (also called avalanche breakdown) - positive temperature coefficient

Zener breakdown - negative temperature coefficient
Below around 5.5 Volts, the zener effect is predominant, with avalanche breakdown the primary effect at voltages of 8V or more. While I have
no intention to go into specific details, there is a great deal of information on the Net (See References) for those who want to know more.
Because the two effects have opposite thermal characteristics, zener diodes at close to 6V usually have very stable performance with respect
to temperature because the positive and negative temperature coefficients cancel.
Very high thermal stability can be obtained by using a zener in series with a normal diode. There are no hard and fast rules here, and it
normally requires device selection to get the combination to be as stable as possible. A zener of around 7-8V can be selected to work with a
diode to cancel the temperature drift. Needless to say, the diode and zener junctions need to be in intimate thermal contact, or temperature
cancellation will not be a success.
The zener diode is a unique semiconductor device, and it fulfils many different needs unlike any other component. A similar device (which is in
fact a specialised zener itself) is the TVS (transient voltage suppressor) diode. There are several alternatives to TVS diodes though, unlike
zeners. Precision voltage reference ICs may be thought of as being similar to zeners, but they aren't - they are ICs that use a bandgap
reference (typically around 1.25V). These are ICs, containing many internal parts. A zener diode is a single part, with a single P-N junction.
Using Zener Diodes

For reasons that I don't understand, there is almost no information on the Net on exactly how to use a zener diode. Contrary to what one might
expect, there are limitations on the correct usage, and if these are not observed, the performance will be much worse than expected. Figure 1
shows the standard characteristics of a zener, but as with almost all such diagrams omits important information.
Figure 1 - Zener Diode Conduction
So, what's missing? The important part that is easily missed is that the slope of the breakdown section is not a straight line. Zeners have what
is called 'dynamic resistance' (or impedance), and this is something that should be considered when designing a circuit using a zener diode.
The actual voltage where breakdown starts is called the knee of the curve, and at this region the voltage is quite unstable. It varies quite
dramatically with current, so it is important that the zener is operated above the knee, where the slope is most linear.
Some data sheets will give the figure for dynamic resistance, and this is usually specified at around 0.25 of the maximum rated current.
Dynamic resistance can be as low as a couple of ohms at that current, with zener voltages around 5 - 6V giving the best result. Note that this
coincides with the best thermal performance as well.
This is all well and good, but what is dynamic resistance? It is simply the 'apparent' resistance that can be measured by changing the current.
This is best explained with an example. Let's assume that the dynamic resistance is quoted as 10 ohms for a particular zener diode. If we vary
the current by 10mA, the voltage across the zener will change by ...
V = R × I = 10Ω * 10mA = 0.1V (or 100mV)

So the voltage across the zener will change by 100mV for a 10mA change in current. While that may not seem like much with a 15V zener for
example, it still represents a significant error. For this reason, it is common to feed zeners in regulator circuits from a constant current source,
or via a resistor from the regulated output. This minimises the current variation and improves regulation.
Manufacturers' data sheets will often specify the dynamic resistance at both the knee and at a specified current. It is worth noting that while the
dynamic resistance of a zener may be as low as 2-15 ohms at 25% of maximum current (depending on voltage and power ratings), it can be
well over 500 ohms at the knee, just as the zener starts to break down. The actual figures vary with breakdown voltage, with high voltage
zeners having very much higher dynamic resistance (at all parts of the breakdown curve) than low voltage units. Likewise, higher power parts
will have a lower dynamic resistance than low power versions (but require more current to reach a stable operating point).
Finally, it is useful to look at how to determine the maximum current for a zener, and establish a rule of thumb for optimising the current for
best performance. Zener data sheets usually give the maximum current for various voltages, but it can be worked out very easily if you don't
have the datasheet to hand ...
I=P/V where I = current, P = zener power rating, and V = zener voltage rating.
For example, a 27V 2W zener can carry a maximum continuous current of ...
I = 2 / 27 = 0.074A = 74mA (at 25°C)
As noted in the 'transistor assisted zener' app note (AN-007), for optimum zener operation, it is best to keep the current to a maximum of 0.7 of
the rated current, so a 27V/2W zener should not be run at more than about 47mA. The ideal is between 20-30% of the maximum , as this
minimises wasted energy, keeps the zener at a reasonable temperature, and ensures that the zener is operating within the most linear part of
the curve. If you look at the zener data table below, you will see that the test current is typically between 25% and 36% of the maximum
continuous current. The wise reader will figure out that this range has been chosen to show the diode in the best possible light, and is
therefore the recommended operating current .
While none of this is complex, it does show that there is a bit more to the (not so) humble zener diode than beginners (and many professionals
as well) tend to realise. Only by understanding the component you are using can you get the best performance from it. This does not only
apply to zeners of course - most (so called) simple components have characteristics of which many people are unaware.
Remember that a zener is much the same as a normal diode, except that it has a defined reverse breakdown voltage that is far lower than any
standard rectifier diode. Zeners are always connected with reverse polarity compared to a rectifier diode, so the cathode (the terminal with the
band on the case) connects to the most positive point in the circuit.
Zener Clamps
Often, it is necessary to apply a clamp to prevent an AC voltage from exceeding a specified value. Figure 2 shows the two ways you may
attempt this. The first is obviously wrong - while it will work as a clamp, the peak output voltage (across the zeners) will only be 0.65V. Zeners
act like normal diodes with reverse polarity applied, so the first figure is identical to a pair of conventional diodes.
Figure 2 - Zener Diode AC Clamp
In the first case, both zener diodes will conduct as conventional diodes, because the zener voltage can never be reached. In the second case,
the actual clamped voltage will be 0.65V higher than the zener voltage because of the series diode. 12V zeners will therefore clamp at around
12.65V - R1 is designed to limit the current to a safe value for the zeners, as described above.
The important thing to remember is that zener diodes are identical to standard diodes below their zener voltage - in fact, conventional diodes
can be used as zeners. The actual breakdown voltage is usually much higher than is normally useful, and each diode (even from the same
manufacturing run) will have a different breakdown voltage that is normally far too high to be useful.
Zener Diode Data
The data below is fairly typical of 1W zeners in general, and shows the zener voltage and one of the most important values of all - the dynamic
resistance. This is useful because it tells you how well the zener will regulate, and (with a bit of calculation) how much ripple you'll get when
the zener is supplied from a typical power supply. An example of the calculation is shown further below.
If if you wanted to measure the dynamic resistance for yourself, it's quite easy to do. First, use a current of about 20% of the rated maximum
from a regulated power supply via a suitable resistor. Measure and note down the voltage across the zener diode. Now, increase the current
by (say) 10mA for zeners less than 33V. You'll need to use a smaller current increase for higher voltage types. Measure the zener voltage
again, and note the exact current increase.
For example, you might measure the following ...
Zener voltage = 11.97 V at 20 mA

Zener voltage = 12.06 V at 30 mA
ΔV = 90 mV, ΔI = 10 mA
R = ΔV / ΔI = 0.09 / 0.01 = 9 ohms
This process can be used with any zener. You just need to adjust the current to suit, ensuring that the initial and final test currents are within
the linear section of the zener's characteristics. The accuracy depends on the accuracy of your test equipment, and it's important to ensure the
zener temperature remains stable during the test or you'll get the wrong answer due to the zener's thermal coefficient. If at all possible, the
tests should be of very short duration using pulses, but this is very difficult without specialised equipment.
The following data is a useful quick reference for standard 1W zeners. The basic information is from the Semtech Electronics data sheet for
the 1N47xx series of zeners. Note that an 'A' suffix (e.g. 1N4747A) means the tolerance is 5%, and standard tolerance is usually 10%. Zener
voltage is measured under thermal equilibrium and DC test conditions, at the test current shown (Izt).
Notice that the 6.2V zener (1N4735) has the lowest dynamic resistance of all those shown, and will generally also show close to zero
temperature coefficient. This means that it is one of the best values to use where a fairly stable voltage reference is needed. Because it's such
a useful value, it has been highlighted in the table. If you need a really stable voltage reference then don't use a zener diode, but use a
dedicated precision voltage reference IC instead.
Knee Peak Cont.

Current Leakage Leakage Current Current
Type VZ (Nom) IZt mA RZt Ω RZ Ω at ... (mA) µA Voltage (mA) (mA)
1N4728 3.3 76 10 400 1 150 1 1375 275
1N4729 3.6 69 10 400 1 100 1 1260 252
1N4730 3.9 64 9.0 400 1 100 1 1190 234
1N4731 4.3 58 9.0 400 1 50 1 1070 217
1N4732 4.7 53 8.0 500 1 10 1 970 193
1N4733 5.1 49 7.0 550 1 10 1 890 178
1N4734 5.6 45 5.0 600 1 10 2 810 162
1N4735 6.2 41 2.0 700 1 10 3 730 146
1N4736 6.8 37 3.5 700 1 10 4 660 133
1N4737 7.5 34 4.0 700 0.5 10 5 605 121
1N4738 8.2 31 4.5 700 0.5 10 6 550 110
1N4739 9.1 28 5.0 700 0.5 10 7 500 100
1N4740 10 25 7.0 700 0.25 10 7.6 454 91
1N4741 11 23 8.0 700 0.25 5 8.4 414 83
1N4742 12 21 9.0 700 0.25 5 9.1 380 76
1N4743 13 19 10 700 0.25 5 9.9 344 69
1N4744 15 17 14 700 0.25 5 11.4 304 61
1N4745 16 15.5 16 700 0.25 5 12.2 285 57
1N4746 18 14 20 750 0.25 5 13.7 250 50
1N4747 20 12.5 22 750 0.25 5 15.2 225 45
1N4748 22 11.5 23 750 0.25 5 16.7 205 41
1N4749 24 10.5 25 750 0.25 5 18.2 190 38
1N4750 27 9.5 35 750 0.25 5 20.6 170 34
1N4751 30 8.5 40 1000 0.25 5 22.8 150 30
1N4752 33 7.5 45 1000 0.25 5 25.1 135 27
1N4753 36 7.0 50 1000 0.25 5 27.4 125 25
1N4754 39 6.5 60 1000 0.25 5 29.7 115 23
1N4755 43 6.0 70 1500 0.25 5 32.7 110 22
1N4756 47 5.5 80 1500 0.25 5 35.8 95 19
1N4757 51 5.0 95 1500 0.25 5 38.8 90 18
1N4758 56 4.5 110 2000 0.25 5 42.6 80 16
1N4759 62 4.0 125 2000 0.25 5 47.1 70 14
1N4760 68 3.7 150 2000 0.25 5 51.7 65 13
1N4761 75 3.3 175 2000 0.25 5 56.0 60 12
1N4762 82 3.0 200 3000 0.25 5 62.2 55 11
1N4763 91 2.8 250 3000 0.25 5 69.2 50 10
1N4764 100 2.5 350 3000 0.25 5 76.0 45 9
Table 1 - Zener Characteristics, 1N4728-1N4764
1. IZt = zener test current

2. RZt = dynamic resistance at the stated test current
3. RZ = dynamic resistance at the current shown in the next column (Knee Current (mA))
4. Leakage current = current through the zener below the knee of the zener conduction curve, at the voltage shown in the next column
(Leakage Voltage)
5. Peak current = maximum non-repetitive short term current (typically < 1ms)
6. Continuous current = maximum continuous current, assuming that the leads at 10mm from the body are at 25°C (highly unlikely in
practice)
Figure 3 - Zener Diode Temperature Derating
Like all semiconductors, zeners must be derated if their temperature is above 25°C. This is always the case in normal use, and if the
guidelines above are used then you usually won't need to be concerned. The above graph shows the typical derating curve for zener diodes,
and this must be observed for reliability. Like any other semiconductor, if a zener is too hot to touch, it's hotter than it should be. Reduce the
current, or use the boosted zener arrangement described in AN-007.
Zener diodes can be used in series, either to increase power handling or to obtain a voltage not otherwise available. Do not use zeners in
parallel, as they will not share the current equally (remember that most are 10% tolerance). The zener with the lower voltage will 'hog' the
current, overheat and fail. When used in series, try to keep the individual zener voltages close to the same, as this ensures that the optimum
current through each is within the optimum range. For example, using a 27V zener in series with a 5.1V zener would be a bad idea because
the optimum current through both cannot be achieved easily.
Putting Zeners To Use
Using zener diodes as regulators is easy enough, but there are some things that you need to know before you wire everything up. A typical
circuit is shown below for reference, and is not intended to be anything in particular - it's simply an example. Note that if you need a dual
supply (e.g. ±15V), then the circuit is simply duplicated for the negative supply, reversing the polarity of the zener and C1 as required. We will
use a 1W zener, in this case a 1N4744, a 15V diode. The maximum current we'd want to use is about half the calculated maximum (no more
than 33mA). The minimum acceptable current is around 10% (close enough to 7mA).
Figure 4 - Typical Zener Regulator Circuit
Firstly, you need to know the following details about your intended circuit ...
1. Source voltage - from a power amplifier supply for example (including any ripple voltage)
2. Maximum and minimum values of the source voltage - it will vary depending on mains voltage, load current and ripple
3. Desired regulated voltage - preferably using a standard value zener. We'll use 15V
4. Load current - the expected current drain of the circuitry powered from the zener regulated supply
When you have this information, you can determine the series resistance needed for the zener and load. The resistor needs to pass enough
current to ensure that the zener is within its linear region, but well below the maximum to reduce power dissipation. If the source voltage varies
over a wide range, it may not be possible to use a simple zener regulator successfully.
Let's assume that the source voltage comes from a 35V power supply used for a power amplifier. The maximum voltage might be as high as
38V, falling to 30V when the power amp is driven to full power at low mains voltage. Meanwhile, the preamp that needs a regulated supply
uses a pair of opamps, and draws 10mA. You want to use a 15V supply for the opamps. This is all the required info, so we can do the
calculations. Vs is source voltage, Is is source current, Iz is zener current, IL is load current and Rs is source resistance.
Iz (max) = 30mA (worst case, no load on main supply and maximum mains voltage)
IL = 10mA (current drawn by opamps)
Is (max) = 40mA (again, worst case total current from source)
From this we can work out the resistance Rs. The voltage across Rs is 23V when the source voltage is at its maximum, so Rs needs to be ...
Rs = Vs / I = 23 / 40m = 575 ohms
When the source voltage is at its minimum, there will be only 15V across Rs, so we need to check that there will still be enough zener current
...
Is = V / R = 15 / 575 ohms = 26mA
Iz = Is - IL = 26mA - 10mA = 16mA
When we take away the load current (10mA for the opamps), we still have a zener current of 16mA available, so the regulation will be quite
acceptable, and the zener diode won't be stressed. 575 ohms is not a standard value, so we'd use a 560 ohm resistor instead. There's no
need to re-calculate everything because the change is small and we were careful to ensure that the design was conservative to start with. The
next step is to work out the worst case power dissipated in the source resistor Rs ...
Is = 23V / 560 ohms = 41mA P = Is² × R = 41mA² * 560 ohms = 941mW
In this case, it would be unwise to use less than a 2W resistor, but a 5W wirewound type would be better. In the same way as the resistor
power was calculated, it's also a good idea to double check the zener's worst case dissipation. It may be possible to disconnect the opamps, in
which case the zener will have to absorb the full 41mA, so dissipation will be 615mW. That's higher than the target set at the beginning of this
exercise, but it's within the zener's 1W rating and will never be a long-term issue. Normal worst case dissipation is only 465mW when the
opamps are connected, and that's quite acceptable.
Figure 4 shows a 220µF capacitor in parallel with the zener. This does not make any appreciable difference to the output noise, because the
impedance (aka dynamic resistance) of the zener is so low. We used an example of a 15V zener, so we expect it's impedance to be about 14
ohms (from the table). To be useful at reducing noise, C1 would need to be at least 1,000uF, but in most cases much lower values are used
(typically 100-220uF). The purpose is to supply instantaneous (pulse) current that may be demanded by the circuit, or in the case of opamps,
to ensure that the supply impedance remains low up to at least 2MHz or so.
Because zener diodes have a dynamic resistance, there will be some ripple at the output. It's possible to calculate it based on the input ripple,
change of source current and the zener's dynamic resistance. Let's assume that there is 2V P-P ripple on the source voltage. That means the
current through Rs will vary by 3.57mA ( I = V / R ). The zener has a dynamic resistance of 14 ohms, so the voltage change across the zener
must be ...
V = R × I = 14 × 3.57m = 50mV peak-peak (less than 20mV RMS)
Provided the active circuitry has a good power supply rejection ratio (PSRR), 20mV of ripple at 100Hz (or 120Hz) will not be a problem. If that
can't be tolerated for some reason, then it's cheaper to use a 3-terminal regulator than to use any of the established methods for ripple
reduction. The most common of these is to use two resistors in place of Rs, and place a high value cap (not less than 470µF) from the junction
of the resistors to ground. Doing this will reduce the ripple to well below 1mV, depending on the size of the extra capacitor.
Maximising Stability (Voltage Reference)
The standard resistor zener feed is subject to wide variations of current and power dissipation as the input voltage varies. A simple feedback
circuit can help to maintain a very stable current through the zener, and therefore provide a more stable reference voltage. As discussed
earlier, a 6.2V zener diode has a very low thermal coefficient of voltage, and if we can ensure it gets a stable current, this further improves the
voltage regulation. Feeding a zener with a current source is standard practice in IC fabrication, and it's easy enough to do in discrete designs
as well.
The arrangement shown below is not intended for use as a power supply, but to provide a fixed reference voltage for other circuitry that may
require a stable voltage for comparators (for example). The circuit can't compete with a dedicated precision voltage reference, but it will be
surprisingly good for many general purpose applications. The current mirror (Q2b and Q3b) is fed from a current source (Q1b) which takes its
reference from the zener, so there is a closed loop and the current variation through the zener itself can be very small. With the values shown,
the zener current is only 2.5mA, which seems to defy the guidelines given earlier. However, increasing the zener current doesn't help a great
deal, but it increases dissipation in the transistors. For example, if R1b is reduced to 1k, the zener current is increased to 5.4mA, dissipation in
Q1b and Q3b is doubled, but the regulation is only improved marginally.
Figure 5 - 'Conventional' Vs. Precision Zener Regulator Circuit
Compare (a) and (b) in the Figure 5 circuits, and it's immediately apparent that the voltage from the stabilised version (b) should be very stable
indeed, even with a wide variation of input voltage. Simulated over a voltage range from 10V up to 30V, there is less than a 3mV voltage
change across the zener, and it follows that zener current and zener power dissipation barely change over the entire voltage range. This also
means that ripple rejection is extremely high, so with the addition of three cheap transistors and four resistors, we can get close to a real
precision voltage reference circuit. R4b is needed so the circuit can start when voltage is applied, but unfortunately it does adversely affect the
performance. A higher resistance reduces the effects, but may cause unreliable start-up.
The standard zener regulator (a) will show a typical voltage change of around 110mV from an input voltage of 10-30V, with zener current
changing from 1.7mA to over 15mA. This is significantly worse than the stabilised version, but it may not represent a problem at all if the input
voltage is fairly stable. In reality, it's unlikely that you will ever need to use the more complex stabilised zener, and it's included here purely in
the interests of completeness.
References
1 Reverse Biased / Breakdown - Discussing the phenomenon when the diode is reverse biased/breakdown. Bill Wilson
2 RadioElectronics.com - Summary of the zener diode
3 Data Sheet Archive - BZX2C16V Micro Commercial Components 2 Watt Zener Diode 3.6 to 200 Volts.
4 Zener Diode Theory - OnSemi Handbook HBD854/D (No longer available from OnSemi.)
Bâtiments industriels & agricoles

Batimentsmoinschers.com en kit à prix réduit. Devis gratuit en
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App. Notes Index

Main Index
Copyright Notice.This article, including but not limited to all text and diagrams, is the intellectual property of Rod Elliott, and is Copyright © 2004. Reproduction or re-
publication by any means whatsoever, whether electronic, mechanical or electro-mechanical, is strictly prohibited under International Copyright laws. The author (Rod
Elliott) grants the reader the right to use this information for personal use only, and further allows that one (1) copy may be made for reference while constructing the
project. Commercial use is prohibited without express written authorisation from Rod Elliott.
Page Created and Copyright © Rod Elliott 30 Jun 2005./ Jul 2015 - Updated info, added Figure 4.
Zener diode
A Zener diode is a particular type of diode that, unlike a normal one, allows current to flow not only from its anode to its
Zener diode
cathode, but also in the reverse direction, when the Zener voltage is reached.
Zener diodes have a highly doped p-n junction. Normal diodes will also break down with a reverse voltage but the voltage and
sharpness of the knee are not as well defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal diodes are not designed to operate in the
breakdown region, but Zener diodes can reliably operate in this region.
The device was named after Clarence Melvin Zener, who discovered the Zener effect. Zener reverse breakdown is due to
electron quantum tunnelling caused by a high-strength electric field. However, many diodes described as "Zener" diodes rely
instead on avalanche breakdown. Both breakdown types are used in Zener diodes with the Zener effect predominating under
Zener diode
5.6 V and avalanche breakdown above.
Type Active
Zener diodes are widely used in electronic equipment of all kinds and are one of the basic building blocks of electronic circuits.
Working Zener breakdown
They are used to generate low power stabilized supply rails from a higher voltage and to provide reference voltages for circuits,
principle
especially stabilized power supplies. They are also used to protect circuits from overvoltage, especially electrostatic discharge
Invented Clarence Melvin
(ESD).
Zener
Pin anode and
configuration cathode
Contents
Electronic symbol
Operation
Construction
Surface Zeners
Subsurface Zeners
Uses
Waveform clipper
Voltage shifter
Voltage regulator
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Operation
A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if it is reverse-biased above its reverse breakdown
voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due
to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode may be permanently damaged due
to overheating. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to
have a reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a
reverse-biased Zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown and allows the current to keep the voltage across the
Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V
exhibits a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is therefore
ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage
stabilizer for low-current applications.[1]
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode.[1] The two
types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon Current-voltage characteristic of a Zener diode
with a breakdown voltage of 17 volts. Notice the
diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature
change of voltage scale between the forward
coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature biased (positive) direction and the reverse biased
coefficient.[2] (negative) direction.
In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together, and their temperature coefficients nearly cancel each other out,
thus the 5.6 V diode is useful in temperature-critical applications. An alternative, which is used for voltage
references that need to be highly stable over long periods of time, is to use a Zener diode with a temperature
coefficient (TC) of +2 mV/°C (breakdown voltage 6.2–6.3 V) connected in series with a forward-biased silicon
diode (or a transistor B-E junction) manufactured on the same chip.[3] The forward-biased diode has a
temperature coefficient of −2 mV/°C, causing the TCs to cancel out.
Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible
temperature coefficients, but as higher-voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises
dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode.
Zener and avalanche diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of
"Zener diode".
Temperature coefficient of Zener voltage against
nominal Zener voltage.
Under 5.6 V, where the Zener effect dominates, the IV curve near breakdown is much more rounded, which calls for more care in targeting its biasing conditions. The IV
curve for Zeners above 5.6 V (being dominated by Avalanche), is much sharper at breakdown.
Construction
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction. The depletion region formed in the diode is very thin (<1 µm) and the electric field is
consequently very high (about 500 kV/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5 V, allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to
the conduction band of the n-type material.
At the atomic scale, this tunnelling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier
between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of doping on both sides.[2] The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite
accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.07% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available
Zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts.
For diodes that are lightly doped the breakdown is dominated by the avalanche effect rather than the Zener effect. Consequently, the breakdown voltage is higher (over 5.6
V) for these devices.[4]
Surface Zeners
The emitter-base junction of a bipolar NPN transistor behaves as a Zener diode, with breakdown voltage at about 6.8 V for common bipolar processes and about 10 V for
lightly doped base regions in BiCMOS processes. Older processes with poor control of doping characteristics had the variation of Zener voltage up to ±1 V, newer processes
using ion implantation can achieve no more than ±0.25 V. The NPN transistor structure can be employed as a surface Zener diode, with collector and emitter connected
together as its cathode and base region as anode. In this approach the base doping profile usually narrows towards the surface, creating a region with intensified electric
field where the avalanche breakdown occurs. The hot carriers produced by acceleration in the intense field sometime shoot into the oxide layer above the junction and
become trapped there. The accumulation of trapped charges can then cause 'Zener walkout', a corresponding change of the Zener voltage of the junction. The same effect
can be achieved by radiation damage.
The emitter-base Zener diodes can handle only smaller currents as the energy is dissipated in the base depletion region which is very small. Higher amount of dissipated
energy (higher current for longer time, or a short very high current spike) causes thermal damage to the junction and/or its contacts. Partial damage of the junction can
shift its Zener voltage. Total destruction of the Zener junction by overheating it and causing migration of metallization across the junction ("spiking") can be used
intentionally as a 'Zener zap' antifuse.[5]
Subsurface Zeners
A subsurface Zener diode, also called 'buried Zener', is a device similar to the Surface Zener, but with the avalanche region
located deeper in the structure, typically several micrometers below the oxide. The hot carriers then lose energy by collisions
with the semiconductor lattice before reaching the oxide layer and cannot be trapped there. The Zener walkout phenomenon
therefore does not occur here, and the buried Zeners have voltage constant over their entire lifetime. Most buried Zeners have
breakdown voltage of 5–7 volts. Several different junction structures are used.[6]
Uses Buried zener structure
Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits. When
connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse
breakdown voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.[7]
Zener diode
shown with
typical
packages.
In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, Uin, is regulated down to a stable output voltage Uout. The breakdown Reverse current
voltage of diode D is stable over a wide current range and holds Uout relatively constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a fairly is shown.
wide range. Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, resistor R is used to limit current through the circuit.
In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined using Ohm's law and the known voltage drop across the resistor R;
The value of R must satisfy two conditions:
1. R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. The value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the
common BZX79C5V6[8] device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W Zener diode, has a recommended reverse current of 5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then Uout is
unregulated and less than the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage-regulator tubes where the output voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise
as high as Uin). When calculating R, allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not shown in this diagram, connected across Uout.
2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power
dissipation Pmax correlate as such: .
A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the Zener stays in reverse breakdown, the diode provides a stable voltage source to the load.
Zener diodes in this configuration are often used as stable references for more advanced voltage regulator circuits.
Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor be small enough to avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input voltage
concurrent with high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in the diode much of the time, making for a fairly wasteful regulator with high quiescent power
dissipation, only suitable for smaller loads.
These devices are also encountered, typically in series with a base-emitter junction, in transistor stages where selective choice of a device centered on the avalanche or
Zener point can be used to introduce compensating temperature co-efficient balancing of the transistor p–n junction. An example of this kind of use would be a DC error
amplifier used in a regulated power supply circuit feedback loop system.
Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes.
Another application of the Zener diode is the use of noise caused by its avalanche breakdown in a random number generator.
Waveform clipper
Two Zener diodes facing each other in series will act to clip both halves of an input
signal. Waveform clippers can be used not only to reshape a signal, but also to
prevent voltage spikes from affecting circuits that are connected to the power
supply.[9]
Voltage shifter
A Zener diode can be applied to a circuit with a resistor to act as a voltage shifter.
This circuit lowers the output voltage by a quantity that is equal to the Zener
diode's breakdown voltage.
Voltage regulator
A Zener diode can be applied in a voltage regulator circuit to regulate the voltage Examples of a waveform clipper
applied to a load, such as in a linear regulator.
See also
Backward diode
E-series of preferred numbers
Transient voltage suppression diode
References
1. Millman, Jacob (1979). Microelectronics. McGraw Hill. pp. 45–48. ISBN 978-
0071005968. Examples of a voltage shifter
2. Dorf, Richard C., ed. (1993). The Electrical Engineering Handbook. Boca
Raton: CRC Press. p. 457. ISBN 0-8493-0185-8.
3. Calibration: Philosophy in Practice. Fluke. 1994. pp. 7–10. ISBN 0963865005.
4. Rakesh Kumar Garg, Ashish Dixit, Pavan Yadav, Basic Electronics, p. 150,
Firewall Media, 2008 ISBN 8131803023.
5. Comer, Donald T. (1996). "Zener Zap Anti-Fuse Trim in VLSI Circuits". VLSI
Design. 5: 89. doi:10.1155/1996/23706 (https://doi.org/10.1155%2F1996%2F
23706).
6. Hastings, Alan (2005). The Art of Analog Layout (Second ed.). Prentice Hall.
ISBN 9780131464100.
7. Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 0-521-37095-7.
8. "BZX79C5V6 − 5.6V, 0.5W Zener Diode - data sheet" (http://www.fairchildse Examples of a voltage regulator
mi.com/pf/BZ/BZX79C5V6.html). Fairchild Semiconductor. Retrieved July 22,
2014.
9. Diffenderfer, Robert (2005). Electronic Devices: Systems and Applications (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=Bs6sz1TlfaIC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=wa
veform+clipper+zener+diode). Thomas Delmar Learning. pp. 95–100.
ISBN 1401835147. Retrieved July 22, 2014.
Further reading
TVS/Zener Theory and Design Considerations; ON Semiconductor; 127 pages; 2005; HBD854/D. (Free PDF download) (https://web.archive.org/web/20150708062839/http://ww
w.onsemi.com/pub_link/Collateral/HBD854-D.PDF)
External links
Zener Diode Axial Part Number Table (https://web.archive.org/web/20090216233625/http://www.logwell.com/tech/components/zener.html)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zener_diode&oldid=873529683"
This page was last edited on 13 December 2018, at 17:32 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy
Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Home / Diodes / The Zener Diode
The Zener Diode

A Semiconductor Diode blocks current in the reverse direction, but will
suffer from premature breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage
applied across becomes too high
However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are basically the same as the standard PN
junction diode but they are specially designed to have a low and speci ed Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any
reverse voltage applied to it.
The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward
direction, that is Anode positive with respect to its Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any ow of current through itself when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes
more positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the
reverse direction.
This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device a process called
Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to ow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.
The current now owing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a
series resistor) and once achieved, this reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse voltages. The
voltage point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, ( Vz ) and for zener diodes this
voltage can range from less than one volt to a few hundred volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to ow through the diode can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1%
tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor construction giving the diode a speci c zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From
the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant
negative voltage regardless of the value of the current owing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes
in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The
fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the
zener diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator applications.
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the
supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls
below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.
The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying load current conditions. By passing a
small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct
suf cient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave recti ers contains ripple superimposed
onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser
circuit as shown below across the output of the recti er, a more stable output voltage can be produced.
Zener Diode Regulator
The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current ow through the diode with the voltage source, VS being
connected across the combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode. The zener diode is
connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its
breakdown condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current owing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit current passes through the zener diode
which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the
load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken
when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load
or high-impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There
is a minimum zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay above this value
operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating
of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply
as it tries to stabilise the voltage. Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling
capacitor across the zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.
Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. A voltage regulator circuit can be designed
using a zener diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the
load current. The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the input voltage VS with the
zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be
the same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.
Zener Diode Example No1
A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of
the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener regulator circuit above calculate:
a). The maximum current owing through the zener diode.
b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.
d). The zener current IZ at full load.
Zener Diode Voltages

As well as producing a single stabilised voltage output, zener diodes can also be connected together in series along with normal silicon
signal diodes to produce a variety of different reference voltage output values as shown below.
Zener Diodes Connected in Series
The values of the individual Zener diodes can be chosen to suit the application while the silicon diode will always drop about 0.6 – 0.7V
in the forward bias condition. The supply voltage, Vin must of course be higher than the largest output reference voltage and in our
example above this is 19v.
A typical zener diode for general electronic circuits is the 500mW, BZX55 series or the larger 1.3W, BZX85 series were the zener
voltage is given as, for example, C7V5 for a 7.5V diode giving a diode reference number of BZX55C7V5.
The 500mW series of zener diodes are available from about 2.4 up to about 100 volts and typically have the same sequence of values as
used for the 5% (E24) resistor series with the individual voltage ratings for these small but very useful diodes are given in the table
below.
Zener Diode Standard Zener Voltages
BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating 500mW
2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V
5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V

11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 22V
24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V
BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W
3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6 6.2V
6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V
15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V
33V 36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V
Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Thus far we have looked at how a zener diode can be used to regulate a constant DC source but what if the input signal was not steady
state DC but an alternating AC waveform how would the zener diode react to a constantly changing signal.
Diode clipping and clamping circuits are circuits that are used to shape or modify an input AC waveform (or any sinusoid) producing a
differently shape output waveform depending on the circuit arrangement. Diode clipper circuits are also called limiters because they
limit or clip-off the positive (or negative) part of an input AC signal. As zener clipper circuits limit or cut-off part of the waveform across
them, they are mainly used for circuit protection or in waveform shaping circuits.
For example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform at +7.5V, we would use a 7.5V zener diode. If the output waveform tries to exceed
the 7.5V limit, the zener diode will “clip-off” the excess voltage from the input producing a waveform with a at top still keeping the
output constant at +7.5V. Note that in the forward bias condition a zener diode is still a diode and when the AC waveform output goes
negative below -0.7V, the zener diode turns “ON” like any normal silicon diode would and clips the output at -0.7V as shown below.
Square Wave Signal
The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as an AC regulator producing what is jokingly called a “poor man’s square wave
generator”. Using this arrangement we can clip the waveform between a positive value of +8.2V and a negative value of -8.2V for a 7.5V
zener diode.
So for example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform between two different minimum and maximum values of say, +8V and -6V, we
would simply use two differently rated zener diodes. Note that the output will actually clip the AC waveform between +8.7V and -6.7V
due to the addition of the forward biasing diode voltage.
In other words a peak-to-peak voltage of 15.4 volts instead of expected 14 volts, as the forward bias volt drop across the diode adds
another 0.7 volts in each direction.
This type of clipper con guration is fairly common for protecting an electronic circuit from over voltage. The two zener’s are generally
placed across the power supply input terminals and during normal operation, one of the zener diodes is “OFF” and the diodes have little
or no affect. However, if the input voltage waveform exceeds its limit, then the zener’s turn “ON” and clip the input to protect the
circuit.
In the next tutorial about diodes, we will look at using the forward biased PN junction of a diode to produce light. We know from the
previous tutorials that when charge carriers move across the junction, electrons combine with holes and energy is lost in the form of
heat, but also some of this energy is dissipated as photons but we can not see them.
If we place a translucent lens around the junction, visible light will be produced and the diode becomes a light source. This effect
produces another type of diode known commonly as the Light Emitting Diode which takes advantage of this light producing
characteristic to emit light (photons) in a variety of colours and wavelengths.
230 Comments
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SUBMIT
R Robert Mears
Question. Can a number of Zener diodes be connected in parallel to increase the wattage handling capacity of the regulated voltage? Recognizing that the
inline resistor wattage capacity would have be increased to handle the total current owing through all of the diodes.
Posted on December 15th 2018 | 9:02 pm  Reply
W Wayne Storr
In theory yes. However even if they have the same zener voltage rating, they will not switch together at the same time or share the current
equally. Also, if one or more zener diode fails or does not regulate then the rest will be overloaded. Zener diodes are available with different
power ratings, nd one that you require.
Posted on December 16th 2018 | 9:21 am  Reply
S Shahid
I am of student of biomedical. I make power supply project. So one problem is occur.
Voltage of capacitor and zenor are equal .
How I solved it plz tell me.

A Anuraj
D5304 zener diode pls voltag send
R Rithika Maria
What’s all this?
R Roshan AHire
A Zener diode is the best thing, but I think why to waste current (Iz). What is your suggestion to reduce the current through Zener? Suppose I am using a
battery of 3.6v, to my device, and I use zener to regulate voltage to 2.7v…My circuit has consumption of 2mA,, but zener draws more current… It reducing
my battery life…
W Wayne Storr
There is a minimum zener current, Iz in the reverse bias state for which the stabilization of the zener voltage, Vz is effective, so a zener current
must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon
the power rating of the zener device. Please consult the datasheet of the device you are using.
S Sherif
Thanks very much for presenting these articles. It is a nice work, just missing some solved problems or examples in the given titles for physics students.
J Jon Toro
I believe there is an error in the second equation (b) of the for the Zener Regulator circuit:
Shouldn’t it be
b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS
Rs = Vs-Vz / Is ?
M MD SHAHWAJ Shahwaj
I want to learn basic electrinics
Posted on November 27th 2018 | 7:49 am  Reply

B BRUCE RATCLIFFE
EXCELLENT explanation! Clear, precise, includes an illustrative example of calculating relevant quantities, and schematics to make the application of
zener diodes clear to anyone with a basic understanding of electronics. Where do I send my nancial support for such a wonderful contribution the the
knowledge of the community?
Posted on November 25th 2018 | 2:32 pm  Reply
More
A Anjeet
Nice
Posted on November 22nd 2018 | 4:52 am  Reply
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12/16/2015 | BY JIA (RABIYYA KHAN)
Zener Diode Basic Opera on and Applica ons

A Zener diode (h ps://www.digikey.com/short/jzfz3r) is a
silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in
either a forward or reverse direc on. The diode consists of
a special, heavily doped p-n junc on, designed to conduct
in the reverse direc on when a certain specified voltage is
reached.
The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown

voltage, at which it starts conduc ng current, and con nues
opera ng con nuously in the reverse-bias mode without
ge ng damaged. Addi onally, the voltage drop across the
diode remains constant over a wide range of voltages, a
feature that makes Zener diodes suitable for use in voltage
regula on.
Zener diode opera on
The Zener diode operates just like the normal diode when in the forward-bias mode, and has a turn-on voltage of between
0.3 and 0.7 V. However, when connected in the reverse mode, which is usual in most of its applica ons, a small leakage
current may flow. As the reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), a current starts flowing
through the diode. The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by the series resistor, a er which it stabilizes
and remains constant over a wide range of applied voltage.
Figure 1: Zener diode IV characteris cs
Zener breakdown
The breakdown is either due to the Zener breakdown effect that occurs below 5.5 V, or impact ioniza on that occurs above
5.5 V. Both mechanisms result in the same behavior and do not require different circuitry; however, each mechanism has a
different temperature coefficient.
The Zener
Login effect has a nega ve temperature coefficient
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temperature effects are almost equal at 5.5 V and cancel out each other to make the Zener diodes rated at around 5.5 V the
most stable over a wide range of temperature condi ons.
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Zener diode specifica ons
Zener diodes vary in specifica ons such as nominal working voltage, power dissipa on, maximum reverse current, and
packaging. Some commonly used specifica ons include:
Voltage Vz: The Zener voltage refers to the reverse breakdown voltage—2.4 V to about 200 V; can go up to 1 kV while the
maximum for the surface-mounted device (SMD) is about 47 V).
Current Iz (max.): Maximum current at the rated Zener voltage Vz—200 uA to 200 A).
Current Iz (min.): Minimum current required for the diode to break down—5 mA and 10 mA.
Power ra ng: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate; given by the product of voltage across the diode and the
current flowing through. Typical values are 400 mW, 500 mW, 1 W, and 5 W; for surface mounted, 200 mW, 350 mW, 500
mW, and 1 W are typical.
Voltage tolerance: Typically ±5%.
Temperature stability: Diodes around 5 V have the best stability.
Package: Leaded devices and the surface mount either as discrete devices or within integrated circuits.
Zener resistance (Rz): The diode exhibits some resistance as evident from the IV characteris cs.
Figure 2: Zener diode resistance
Zener diode applica ons
Zener diodes are used for voltage regula on, as reference elements, surge suppressors, and in switching applica ons and
clipper circuits.
Voltage regulator
The load voltage equals breakdown voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor limits the current through the diode and
drops the excess voltage when the diode is conduc ng.
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Figure 3: Zener diode shunt regulator
Zener diode in overvoltage protec on
If the input voltage increases to a value higher than the Zener breakdown voltage, current flows through the diode and
create a voltage drop across the resistor; this triggers the SCR and creates a short circuit to the ground. The short circuit
opens up the fuse and disconnects the load from the supply.
Figure 4: SCR overvoltage crowbar circuit
Zener Diode Clipping Circuits
Zener diodes are used to modify or shape AC waveform clipping circuits. The clipping circuit limits or clips off parts of one or
both of the half cycles of an AC waveform to shape the waveform or provide protec on.
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Figure 5: Zener diode clipping circuits
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Understanding Zener diode datasheet Ask Question
I am a beginner in electronics, and if you have a look at my

profile, you'll understand that I'm completely confused in
0 nomenclature of components.
I recently downloaded a datasheet of a Zener diode series, but I

need a bit of help in studying it. I can't understand most of the
column headings.
The above one is a picture of the diode characteristics table.
Please correct me (or help me) in identification of the column

headings:
1. Zener voltage - this is the voltage that can be applied

across the diode in reverse bias state.
2. IZ - the current in the zener diode in reverse bias state.
3. ZZ @ IZ - as far as I can guess, it's the resistance offered
by the diode in reverse bias mode.
4. Leakage current - I haven't come across this term. Does it
have something to do with the efficiency?
5. TC - the temperature conditions in which the diode works
the best.
6. C - the capacitance of the diode.
datasheet zener
edited Jan 27 '18 at 21:11

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asked Jan 27 '18 at 21:04
Wrichik Basu
150 1 12
1 can you link to the datasheet, please? – Marcus Müller Jan 27 '18 at
21:10
Added link. Thanks for the mathjax edit. – Wrichik Basu Jan 27 '18
at 21:12
5 Answers
I'll keep this short. (I assume you are just asking generally and
not about a specific application. Writing a book on all uses of the
5 zener is beyond the scope here.)
The zener voltage is probably better seen as the "break down

voltage" for the reverse-biased zener diode. If you impress a
higher voltage on it, it will collapse from the applied voltage and
allow huge currents to flow if there isn't something else to limit
those currents.
So if you take the 6V2 and hook up a 10 V power supply to it,

you will pretty much destroy the zener.
However, if you put a 680 Ω resistor in series with the zener and
that same 10 V power supply, then at first there will be no
current (for all intents) and the voltage drop across the resistor
starts out at 0 V (for the tiniest moment.) This impresses the
entire 10 V across the zener, which immediately begins to
collapse and start a current flowing. The current rapidly rises and
as it does the voltage drop across the 680 Ω resistor increases,
thereby reducing the voltage difference across the zener (good
thing.) Eventually, the whole process stabilizes when the voltage
drop across this resistor is about 3.8 V , leaving the desired
6.2 V across the zener itself. At this point, the zener stops
increasing the current and just allows the impressed voltage

across it to remain stable at this value.
Different zeners will be designed to reach this stable point at

different voltages. It is your job as a designer to make sure that
the current that results in the zener is the rated value
(approximately.) In your datasheet example, this current is
5 mA . So, with the 680 Ω resistor I mentioned, we can expect
3.8 V
about 680 Ω ≈ 5.6 mA . And this is close enough to the spec
that you can expect about the right voltage across the 6V2 zener.
From this discussion you have your answer about IZ .
Note also that this datasheet includes maximums and minimums

for the zener voltage. This means that you cannot actually
expect a precise 6.2 V from the 6V2, but instead 6.2 ± 0.4 V .
This is over the range of parts you might find in a box, or in a
bunch of different boxes of them bought at different times. They
are telling you that you cannot expect too much accuracy from
these devices.
The value of ZZ can be used to estimate the worst case

variation of the voltage across the zener, if you know the current
variations. So let's continue with the 6V2 with ZZ = 10 Ω. We
just computed an estimate of 5.6 mA using a 680 Ω resistor
and assuming an exact zener voltage (that we now know we
can't be entirely sure of.)
Let's see where that takes us. The zener voltage for the 6V2
should be 6.2 ± 0.4 V . Assuming a 1% resistor of 680 Ω, we
10 V−6.6 V
may have a current ranging from ≈ 4.95 mA to
680 Ω+1%
10 V−5.8 V
≈ 6.24 mA . A difference of about 1.25 mA . While
680 Ω−1%
we don't know the exact voltage for some specific zener here,
we can still estimate that there will be an additional variation of
about 1.25 mA ⋅ 10 Ω ≈ 12.5 mV due to ZZ .
This is actually not so important here, though. It's just mathy

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number twisting, haveWhere
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instead
when you add a circuit that uses the zener voltage. Often, this is
an emitter follower BJT. (See this question: Explain the logic of a
12 V to 9 V conversion.) The base of the BJT will require some
base current and this base current will vary depending on the
load requirements.
So the point here is that a designer can estimate the load current
variation for some larger circuit that uses the zener. And from
this load current variation estimate a base current variation. And
from this base current variation and ZZ estimate how much the
zener voltage will vary due to the load current variation.
This may be important (or not.) But it gives you a starting point to
estimate how bad it might be once you calibrate your circuit and
Home start applying a realistic load, now.
Questions
Tags The value of IR includes a referenced voltage in the table. This

basically helps you to understand how much prior leakage you
Users can expect from the zener diode if the impressed reverse voltage
Unanswered
is LESS than the face value. So if you have the 6V2, you can
see that they specify it for 4 V , which is well below their
minimum of 5.8 V . (But it is also as big as possible, short of
that, so that the leakage current will be a "worst case" scenario.)
So if you didn't use a 10 V power supply but instead applied
4 V , then this value of IR is the worst you would expect to see
(about 3 μA.) This would produce only about 2 mV across the

680 Ω resistor, in the example case I've been discussing here.
But there are other circumstances where this leakage might be

more important to know.
answered Jan 27 '18 at 21:45

jonk
32.3k 1 25 70
Zz @Izt = Rz = Rs = ESR at some specified current.
Same incremental resistance or slope method can be applied to

LED's , Avalanche diodes and CMOS drivers Vol/Iol = RdsOn @
Iol etc.
Not shown but Zzt is the knee resistance @ Izt (threshold)

reverse leakage current tends to be flat, constant and here
rated at -1V
Tc is the Temperature coefficient slope or Tempco. always in

[mV/'C]
Notice how it changes polarity. All diodes reducing capacitance
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acknowledge
Reversethat you have
voltage so Cread and understand
is measured at 0Vour
forCookie
Cmax. Policy, Privacy Policy, and our Terms of Service.
C also
increases with size or power rating and opposite to Zz so the
product Zz*C tends to be limit.

Tony EE rocketscientist
62.5k 2 21 94
The Zener voltage is the voltage that will be developed across

the reverse-biased diode when passing the Iz test current.
1 Leakage current is the current that will flow at the stated reverse
voltage.
Tc states how much the Zener voltage will vary with changes in
temperature.

Peter Bennett
36.9k 1 29 67
So how do I understand which voltage is the breakdown voltage? –

Wrichik Basu Jan 27 '18 at 21:30
The breakdown voltage is the Zener voltage. – Peter Bennett Jan 27

'18 at 21:33
It sounds like item 4 'Leakage current' is your main uncertainty.
Leakage current is the current that will flow through the Zener
1 diode while the voltage is below its actual breakdown voltage.
For example, the 3V9 part will undergo reverse breakdown and
start conducting properly at somewhere between 3.7 V and 4.1 V.
With just 1 V across it, it will only conduct 10 uA.
Zener diodes are often used in protection circuits, such as a

crowbar circuit for a power supply rail using a resistor, SCR and
Zener diode. The Zener used has a higher breakdown voltage
than the normal supply rail voltage. If the rail goes out of its spec'
and excessively high due to a fault, the diode conducts and the
current triggers the protection. Itvs therefore useful to know what
the Zener will draw when the rail's at its normal voltage, below
Zener breakdown.

TonyM
8,577 1 11 29
1. No. Zener voltage is the voltage that will remain between a

resistor and zener cathode if the anode is connected to
0 ground. Or the voltage substracted from the intput voltage if
the input voltage is applied on the cathode and the output
voltage on the anode.

Fredled
483 1 8
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Explain the logic of a 12 V to 9 V conversion Ask Question
How does the below circuit work?
I know what resistors, capacitors, and transistors do and have

18 played with them on a microcontroller board, but am I trying to
understand the logic of the circuit.
I assume there is a relationship between the 22 ohm and the 470

ohm resistors.
converter 12v

SamGibson
10.8k 4 15 37
asked Jan 25 '18 at 19:57

stack web
97 1 5
2 The IN757 is a voltage reference for the transistor which regulates the
voltage. This circuit is a poor excuse for a voltage regulator, use a
7809. circuitstoday.com/voltage-regulators – laptop2d Jan 26 '18 at
16:55
IMHO it's not sensible to add a new circuit to the question after 4 days,
as you've just done. The result would be a mix of answers, some
referring to one circuit, some referring to the other circuit and so
potential confusion for readers. That is why the rule here is to ask one
question, so that the answers clearly refer to that question. I
recommend you revert back to the previous version of the question
(use the rollback feature) and, if you still need help, ask about the new
circuit in a new question (link to this one, if relevant). – SamGibson
Jan 29 '18 at 18:08
In any case I think that my answer below and others give you enough
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works.
If you post it as another question then please link to this one and
explain exactly what you don't understand given all the explanation
below. – Transistor Jan 29 '18 at 18:36
1 I have removed the extra circuit for clarity. THanks all again. –
stack web Jan 30 '18 at 23:22
3 Answers
It breaks up into three simple sections that are each relatively

easy to explain:
54
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simulate this circuit – Schematic created using CircuitLab
The first part is the diode that provides reverse voltage

protection. If for some reason the polarity of the input voltage is
wired opposite to what it is supposed to be, then D1 will block it
and the output will also be essentially off. Only if the polarity is
correct, with the rest of the circuit be operational. The price of
including this added protection is a voltage drop of perhaps
700 mV . (I exaggerated this voltage drop a little in the diagram.
But it gets the point across.)
The next section is below that. It's a zener regulator. The resistor
is there to limit the current. The zener tends to have the same
voltage across it, when reverse-biased with sufficient voltage
(and 11 − 13 V is more than sufficient.) With R1 as given, you'd
expect the current to be somewhere from about 5 mA to
10 mA . This is a "normal" operating current for many zeners.
(You could go look up the datasheet and find out, exactly. I didn't
bother here.) So the voltage at the top of the zener should be
close to 9.1 V . The exact current through the zener will have a
slight impact on this. But not much. (The capacitor, C1 , is there
to "average out" or "smooth out" the zener noise. It's not critical.
But it is helpful.)
The final section on the right is there to "boost up" the current
compliance. Since the zener only has a few milliamps to work
with, if you didn't include this added section your load could only
draw a very small few milliamps, at most, without messing up the
zener's regulated voltage. So to get more than that, you need a
current boosting section. This is composed of what is often called
an "emitter follower" BJT. This BJT's emitter will "follow" the
voltage at the base. Since the base is at 9.1 V , and since the
base-emitter voltage drop will be about 600 − 700 mV , you can
expect the emitter to "follow," but here with a slightly lower
voltage (as indicated in the schematic.) This BJT doesn't require
much base current in order to allow a lot of collector current. So
the BJT here may "draw" current from its collector, by also
drawing a much smaller, tiny base current ("stolen" from the
zener, so it can't be allowed to be very much), and then this sum
of the two becomes the total emitter current. This emitter current
can be as much as several hundred times the base current. So
here, the BJT might draw 1 mA of base current (which is okay,
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order to handle perhaps as much as 200 mA of emitter current.
In keeping with the idea of "being conservative" the specification
only says 100 mA -- and that's very much the right way to go
when telling someone what this is capable of. Be conservative.
R2 is there as a bit of a short-circuit current limit. It doesn't serve

much else. But if the load tries to pull too much current via the
emitter then there will be an increasingly larger voltage drop
across R2 and this will cause the collector to have access to
lower remaining voltage. At some point, the emitter will be
"cramped." In this case, a drop of more than 2 V (perhaps a little
more) will probably begin the process of cramping the output.
2 V
This means the limit is somewhere above 22 Ω ≈ 100 mA .
Overall, R2 is a very cheap way to add some modest protection
to help make the whole thing just a little more bullet-proof, so to
speak.
Note: C2 is an output capacitor providing some added current

compliance if there's a momentary, short-term demand by the
load. I'd also normally want to include an output resistor across
C2 (not shown) of perhaps 4.7 kΩ as a bleed resistor to provide
a DC path to ground from the output and to discharge C2 after a

few seconds, when the input source of power is removed.

jonk
32.3k 1 25 70
2 @stackweb yes. a zener diode, well any diode really, can be thought
of as a device that changes it's resistance to maintain the voltage
across itself within some bounds. – Trevor_G Jan 26 '18 at 8:46
1 @Trevor_G True. There is some dissipation sharing there with R2. I

had considered the idea of discussing dissipation but decided that it
was beyond the scope of an appropriate answer. I worried that it might
even blunt or damage the main points. So I dropped the idea. – jonk
Jan 26 '18 at 8:48
1 @Trevor_G Yeah. I chose the word "cramps" as being sufficient here.

The exact details aren't too difficult. But this is a good beginner's
circuit to understand and the nuances that the resistor forces
saturation and that saturation entails rapid increase in base current
which then may remove much or all of the zener's current starts to get
to be "too much detail," and therefore again confusing. So I returned to
"cramps" as good enough for now. – jonk Jan 26 '18 at 8:54
1 :) good man. Personally I prefer the word "chokes". I think it's a much
better visual, but that may be something Freudian, or Sadistic.. about
me LOL – Trevor_G Jan 26 '18 at 8:58
3 @Trevor_G There aren't enough really good "beginner's circuits," to

be honest. This one sits in a really cool "sweet spot" which provides:
(1) a useful circuit; (2) can be fabricated and tested on a breadboard;
(3) can be checked out with a basic meter almost anyone can get
cheaply using common skills; (4) includes enough protection ideas to
make it relatively safe to use and abuse; and (5) is right at the point
where it might be a small struggle to understand and yet still
accessible to those with a few basic ideas. – jonk Jan 26 '18 at 9:02
The TIP41A is configured as a voltage follower. The emitter

voltage will be equal to the base voltage minus about 0.7 V.
17 The 470 Ω resistor provides the base current to turn on the
transistor and pull the base towards the supply voltage.
The zener diode will turn on if the base voltage goes above
9.1 V (its breakdown voltage). Therefore the base will be
held at 9.1 V.
There will be about 3 V dropped across the 470 Ω resistor so
3
the current will be 470 = 6 mA approx.
The load current will pass through the 22 Ω resistor and the
transistor. At 100 mA the resistor voltage drop will be
I R = 0.1 ⋅ 22 = 2.2 V and the power dissipated will be
I R = 0.1 ⋅ 22 = 0.22 W .
2 2
Dropping most of the voltage across the resistor reduces the

power dissipated in the transistor. We'll come back to that.
The 1N4007 is to protect the circuit from reverse voltage
input connection. We will lose about 0.7 V across it.
Back to the transistor: lets work it out for the maximum 14 V

input.
Vin = 14 V.
V after the 1N4007 = 13.3 V.
V after the 22 Ω resistor at 100 mA = 13.3 - 2.2 = 11.1 V.
V across the transistor = 11.1 - 8.5 = 2.6 V (allowing about
0.6 V voltage drop between the base and the emitter).
Power dissipated in the transistor
= V I = 2.6 ⋅ 0.1 = 0.26 W.
Without the 22 Ω resistor the power dissipated in the

transistor would be (2.2 + 2.6)0.1 = 0.46 W.
I assume there is a relationship between the 22ohms and the

470 ohms.
Not really. They are serving independent functions and don't

interact.

Transistor
80.7k 7 78 174
4 +1 though it's really an 8.5V regulator, and not a very good one. –
Trevor_G Jan 25 '18 at 20:31
The key element of this circuit causing it outputting +9 V is zener

diode 1N757. When the circuit is supplied with the power (+12 to
2 +14 V) the 1 µF capacitor is discharged, and the transistor is
switched off. With some delay, the 1 µF capacitor gets charged
through the 470 ohm resistor to the zener diode's nominal
voltage, and it opens the transistor up to its emitter having a 9 V
output voltage.
The 22 ohm resistor here is limiting the current if something goes

wrong (will protect from shortage/overcurrent for short time, but
for longer periods transistor may overheat and fry). The 1N4007
diode, as I understand, is to ensure that if you accidentally
connect AC input voltage, circuit would not fry from negative the
voltage.

Peter Mortensen
1,590 3 14 22

Anonymous
5,080 1 7 29
Understanding Zener Diode Datasheet Specifications
Like any other component, the Zener diode / voltage reference diode has its characteristics specified to enable the
correct device to be chosen for any given design.
Zener / Reference Diode Tutorial Includes:

Zener diode Zener diode theory of operation Zener diode datasheet specs Zener diode circuits
Other diodes: Diode types
Datasheets state a variety of different parameters or specifications for Zener diodes.
When selecting a suitable Zener voltage reference diode for any given position in a circuit, it is necessary to ensure that it will fulfil its requirements. Understanding
the datasheet specifications is key to selecting a suitable device.
Zener IV characteristics
The IV characteristic of the Zener / voltage reference diode is the key to its operation. In the forward direction, the diode performs like any other, but it is in the
reverse direction where its specific performance parameters can be utilised.
Current
Forward
conduction
Specified
voltage
Voltage
Reverse
breakdown
Current for
specified
voltage
Zener diode voltage-current characteristic
Zener diode specifications

When looking at the specification sheet for a Zener diode there are several parameters that will be included. Each details a different aspect of the Zener voltage
reference diode performance. Looking at each different characteristic it is possible to understand the performance of the diode and ensure it will operate correctly
in any given circuit.
Voltage Vz: The Zener voltage or reverse voltage specification of the diode is often designated by the letters Vz. Voltages are available over a wide range of
values, often following the E24 ranges, although not all diodes are bound by this convention.
Values generally start at around 2.4 V although not all ranges extend as low as this. Values below this are not available. Ranges may extend top anywhere in
the region of 47 V to 200 V, dependent upon the actual Zener diode range. Maximum voltages for SMD variants are often around 47 V.
Current : The current, IZM, of a Zener diode is the maximum current that can flow through a Zener diode at its rated voltage, VZ.
Typically there is also a minimum current required for the operation of the diode. As a rough rule of thumb, this can be around 5 to 10 mA for a typical leaded
400 mW device. Below this current level, the diode does not break down adequately to maintain its stated voltage.
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Power rating: All Zener diodes have a power rating that should not be exceeded. This defines the maximum power that can be dissipated by the package,
and it is the product of the voltage across the diode multiplied by the current flowing through it.
For example many small leaded devices have a dissipation of 400mW at 20°C, but larger varieties are available with much higher dissipation levels. Surface
mount varieties are also available, but generally have lower dissipation levels in view of the package size and their ability for heat removal.
Common power ratings for leaded devices include 400mW (most common), 500 mW, 1W, 5W. Values for surface mount devices may be around 200, 350, 500
mW with occasional devices extending up to 1 W.
Zener resistance Rz: The IV characteristic of the Zener diode is not completely vertical in the breakdown region. This means that for slight changes in
current, there will be a small change in the voltage across the diode. The voltage change for a given change in current is the resistance of the diode. This value
of resistance, often termed the resistance is designated Rz.
Current
Forward
conduction
Voltage
Slope = 1 / Rz
Zener diode resistance
The inverse of the slope shown is referred to as the dynamic resistance of the diode, and this parameter is often noted in the manufacturers' datasheets.
Typically the slope does not vary much for different current levels, provided they are between about 0.1 and 1 times the rated current Izt.
Voltage tolerance: With diodes being marked and sorted to meet the E12 or E24 value ranges, typical tolerance specifications for the diode are ±5%. Some
datasheets may specify the voltage as a typical voltage and then provide a maximum and minimum.
Temperature stability: For many applications, the temperature stability of the Zener diode is important. It is well known that the voltage of the diode varies
according to temperature. In fact the two mechanisms that are used to provide breakdown within these diodes have opposite temperature coefficients, and one
effect dominates below about 5 Volts and the other above. Accordingly diodes with voltages around 5 V tend to provide the best temperature stability.
Current
Forward
conduction
Voltage
T=0C
T = 50 C
T = 100 C
5.15V
5.10V
5.12V
Zener diode temperature characteristic
It can be seen in the example given that there is a noticeable difference between the specification for the Zener diode reverse voltage at 0°C and 50°C. This
needs to be taken into account if the circuit and equipment in which the Zener diode is to be used is subject to temperature change.
Junction temperature specification: In order to ensure the reliability of the diode, the temperature of the diode junction is key. Even though the case may be
sufficiently cool, the active area can still be very much hotter. As a result, some manufacturers specify the operating range for the junction itself. For normal
design, a suitable margin is normally retained between the maximum expected temperature within the equipment and the junction. The equipment internal
temperature will again be higher than the temperature external to the equipment. Care must be taken to ensure that individual items do not become too hot
despite there being an acceptable ambient temperature outside the equipment.
Package: Zener diodes are specified in a variety of different packages. The main choice is between surface mount and traditional leaded devices. However
the package chosen will often define the package heat dissipation level. The choices available will be detailed in the Zener diode datasheet specification.
Example Zener diode datasheet characteristics

To give some idea of the datasheet characteristics to be expected from a Zener diode a real example is provided below. The main parameters that would be
needed in a circuit design are given.
BZY88 leaded Zener diode This diode is described as a miniature Zener diode for regulated power supply circuits, surge protection, arc suppression and
other functions in a variety of areas. The 5V1 (5.1 Volt) version has been taken as an example.
TYPICAL BZY88 ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS / SPECIFICATIONS

CHARACTERISTIC TYPICAL VALUE UNIT DETAILS
DC Power dissipation 400 mW @ Tl = 50°C: de-rate above 50°C 3.2 mW / °C
Junction temperature -65 to +175 °C
Voltage Vz @ 5mA 4.8 min V
5.1 typ
5.4 max
Zzt @5mA 76 Ohms
IR @VR 1 @ 2.0 µA
The datasheet parameters given for this common Zener diode give a useful indication of specification given for a Zener diode. Although they are only for a small
diode, the same sorts of data are given for other Zener diodes as well.
est 3 Applications Involving in Zener Diode Working
Functionality
ELECTRONICS 10 COMMENTS
Zener diodes are normal PN junction diodes operating in a reverse biased condition. Working of the Zener diode is similar to a PN junction
diode in forward biased condition, but the uniqueness lies in the fact that it can also conduct when it is connected in reverse bias above
its threshold / breakdown voltage. These are among the basic types of diodes used frequently, apart from the normal diodes.
Zener Diode Working
Semiconductor diode in reverse bias condition

If you can recall, a simple PN junction diode is formed by a combination of a p type semiconductor material with an n type semiconductor
material. When one side of a semiconductor crystal is doped with donor impurities and the other side with acceptor impurities, a PN junction is
formed.
Unbiased Semiconductor diode

In normal conditions, holes from the p side tend to diffuse to a low concentration region and the same thing happens for electrons from n-side.
Thus the holes diffuse to the n-side and the electrons diffuse to the p-side. This results in accumulation of charges around the junction, forming
a depletion region.
Unbiased semiconductor diode
An electric polarity or electric dipole is formed across the junction, causing flow of flux from n side to p side. This results in varying negative
electric field intensity, generating an electric potential across the junction. This electric potential is actually the threshold voltage of the diode
and is around 0.6V for silicon and 0.2V for Germanium. This acts as a potential barrier for flow of majority charge carriers and the device does
not conduct.
Now when a normal diode is biased such that a negative voltage is applied to the n side and positive voltage to
the p side, the diode is said to be in forward biasing condition. This applied voltage tends to decrease the
potential barrier after it goes beyond the threshold voltage.
At this point and afterwards, the majority carriers cross the potential barrier and the device starts conducting
with flow of current through it.
When the diode is biased in reverse condition to above, the applied voltage is such that it adds to the potential barrier and hinders the flow of
majority carriers. However it does allow the flow of minority carriers (holes in n type and electrons in p type). As this reverse bias voltage
increases, the reverse current tends to increase gradually.
At a certain point, this voltage is such that it causes breakdown of the depletion region, causing a massive increase in the flow of current. This
is where the zener diode working comes into play.
Principle behind Zener diode Working

As stated above the basic principle behind the working of a zener diode lies in the cause of breakdown for a diode in reverse biased condition.
Normally there are two types of breakdown- Zener and Avalanche.
Principle behind zener diode working
Zener Breakdown
This type of breakdown occurs for a reverse bias voltage between 2 to 8V. Even at this low voltage, the electric field intensity is strong enough
to exert a force on the valence electrons of the atom such that they are separated from the nuclei. This results in formation of mobile electron
hole pairs, increasing the flow of current across the device. Approximate value of this field is about 2*10^7 V/m.
This type of break down occurs normally for highly doped diode with low breakdown voltage and larger electric field. As temperature
increases, the valence electrons gain more energy to disrupt from the covalent bond and less amount of external voltage is required. Thus
zener breakdown voltage decreases with temperature.
Avalanche breakdown
This type of breakdown occurs at the reverse bias voltage above 8V and higher. It occurs for lightly doped diode with large breakdown
voltage. As minority charge carriers (electrons) flow across the device, they tend to collide with the electrons in the covalent bond and cause
the covalent bond to disrupt. As voltage increases, the kinetic energy (velocity) of the electrons also increases and the covalent bonds are
more easily disrupted, causing an increase in electron hole pairs. The avalanche breakdown voltage increases with temperature.
3 Zener diode applications

1. Zener Diode as a voltage
In a DC circuit, Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator or to provide voltage reference. The main use of zener diode lies in the fact
that the voltage across a Zener diode remains constant for a larger change in current. This makes it possible to use a Zener diode as a
constant voltage device or a voltage regulator.
In any power supply circuit, a regulator is used to provide a constant output (load) voltage irrespective of variation in input voltage or variation
in load current. The variation in input voltage is called line regulation, whereas the variation in load current is called load regulation.
Zener Diode as voltage regulator
A simple circuit involving Zener diode as a regulator requires a resistor of low value connected in series with the input voltage source. The low
value is required so as to allow the maximum flow of current through the diode, connected in parallel. However, the only constraint being, the
current through zener diode should not be less than minimum zener diode current. Simply put, for a minimum input voltage and a maximum
load current, the Zener diode current should always be Izmin.
While designing a voltage regulator using zener diode, the latter is chosen with respect to its maximum power rating. In other words, the
maximum current through the device should be:-
Imax = Power/Zener Voltage
Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier to choose a zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the
load voltage, i.e. Vz ~=Vo.
The value of the series resistor is chosen to be
R =(Vin – Vz)/(Izmin + IL), where IL = Load Voltage/Load resistance.
Note that for load voltages up to 8V, a single zener diode can be used. However for load voltages beyond 8V, requiring Zener voltages of
higher voltage value, it is advisable to use a forward biased diode in series with the Zener diode. This is because the Zener diode at higher
voltage follows the avalanche breakdown principle, having a positive temperature of coefficient.
Hence a negative temperature coefficient diode is used for compensation. Of course, these days, practical temperature compensated Zener
diodes are used.
2. Zener Diode as a voltage reference
Zener diode as voltage reference
In power supplies and many other circuits, Zener diode finds its application as a constant voltage provider or a voltage reference. The only
conditions are that the input voltage should be greater than zener voltage and the series resistor should have a minimum value such that the
maximum current flows through the device.
3. Zener Diode as a voltage clamper
In a circuit involving AC input source, different from the normal PN diode clamping circuit, a Zener diode can also be used. The diode can be
used to limit the peak of the output voltage to zener voltage at one side and to about 0V at other side of the sinusoidal waveform.
Zener Diode Circuit Working and Applications
ELECTRONICS 18 COMMENTS
The diode is one of the basic components in electronic circuits. When you want to know about voltage considerations you should know about
the diodes. The diode is basically made up of semiconductors which have two characteristics, ‘P’ type and ‘N’ type. The ‘P’type and ‘N’ type
semiconductors represent positive and negative type semiconductors. ‘P’type semiconductor will have excess amount of holes in configuration
and ‘N’ type semiconductor will have excess amount of electrons. If both types of characteristics present in a single crystal then it can be
termed as a diode. The positive terminal of the battery connects with the ‘P’ side and the negative side is connected with the ‘N’ side. Let’s
discuss about Zener diode working, It is nothing but a simple diode connecting in reverse bias.
Zener Diode
Zener Diode
It is mainly a special property of the diode rather than any special type of equipment. The person named Clearance Zener invented this
property of the diode that’s why it is named after him as a remembrance. The special property of the diode is that there will be a breakdown in
the circuit if the voltage applied across a reversely biased circuit. This does not allow the current to flow across it. When the voltage across the
diode is increased, temperature also increases and the crystal ions vibrate with greater amplitude and all these leads to the breakdown of the
depletion layer. The layer at the junction of ‘P’ type and ‘N’ type. When the applied voltage exceeds an specific amount Zener breakdown
takes place.
Zener Diode V-I Characteristics
Zener diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a reverse bias mode and Zener diode can be connected in reverse bias positive in a
circuit as shown as picture.we can connect it for different applications.
The circuit symbol of Zener diode is as shown in the figure. For convenience it is used normally. When discussing about the diode circuits we
should look through the graphical representation of the operation of the Zener diode. It is called the V-I characteristics of a general p – n
junction diode.
Zener Diode connection
Characteristics of a Zener Diode

The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode behavior. When the diode is connected in forward bias diode acts as a
normal diode. When the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage then the Zener breakdown voltage occurs. To get
breakdown voltage sharp and distinct doping is controlled and the surface imperfections are avoided. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the
Zener voltage. And also the knee voltage because at this point the current is the current is very rapid.
Zener Diode behaviour
Application of Zener Diode

Zener diode is popularly used as Shunt Regulator or Voltage Regulator. As we have gone through the first part of the article we know what is
Zener diode and what is the basic principle of operation. Here the question arises where this type of diodes can be useful. Main application of
this type of diodes are as voltage regulator.Over voltage protector, as voltage reference.
ELECTRONICS (HTTPS://CIRCUITDIGEST.COM/ELECTRONICS-PROJECTS)
Zener Diodes (/tutorial/zener-diode-types-

applications-and-operational-principle)
By (page_author.html)Odunlade Emmanuel (/users/odunlade-emmanuel)  Jan 08, 2018 6
Zener Diode
Introduction
Diodes generally are known as a device that allows the ow of current in one direction (forward biased) and
offers resistance to the ow of current when used in reverse bias. Zener Diode (Named after the American
scientist C. Zener who rst explained its operational principles) on the other hand, not only allow the ow of
current when used in forward bias, but they also allow the ow of current when used in the reversed bias so far
the applied voltage is above the breakdown voltage known as the Zener Breakdown Voltage. Or in other words
Breakdown voltage is the voltage, on which Zener Diode starts conducting in reverse direction.
Circuit Design
Electronic Circuit
Operational Principle of Zener Diode:
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Zener Diode Symbol
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In normal diodes (https://circuitdigest.com/article/what-is-diode-types-working-pn-junction-theory), the
breakdown voltage is very high and the diode gets damaged totally if a voltage above the breakdown diode is
applied, but in Zener diodes, the breakdown voltage is not as high and does not lead to permanent damage of
the zener diode if the voltage is applied.
As the reverse voltage applied to the Zener diode increases towards the speci ed Breakdown Voltage (Vz), a
current starts owing through the diode and this current is known as the Zener Current and this process is
known as Avalanche Breakdown. The current increases to a maximum and get stabilized. This current remains
constant over the wider range of applied voltage and allows the Zener diode to withstand with higher voltage
without getting damaged. This current is determined by the series resistor.
Consider the Images below of a normal diode in action.
Lamp On (Forward Biased) Lamp Off (Reversed bias)
To show the operations of the zener diode, consider the two experiments (A and B) below.
12v Zener diode operation 6v Zener diode operation
In Experiment A, a 12V zener diode is connected in reversed biased as shown in the image and it can be seen
that the zener diode blocked the voltage effectively because it was less/equal to the breakdown voltage of the
particular zener diode and the lamp thus stayed off.
In Experiment B, a 6v Zener Diode used is conducting (the bulb comes on) in reverse biased because the
applied voltage is greater than its breakdown voltage and thus shows that the breakdown region is the region
of operation of the zener diode.
The current-voltage characteristic curve of the Zener diode is shown below.
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Zener diode V-I characteristics
From the graph, it can be deduced that the zener diode operated in the reverse bias mode will have a fairly
constant voltage irrespective of the amount of current supplied.
Applications of Zener Diode:

Zener diodes are used in three main applications in electronic circuits;
1. Voltage Regulation
2. Waveform Clipper
3. Voltage Shifter
1. Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

This is arguably the most common application of zener diodes.
This application of the zener diodes relies heavily on the ability of the zener diodes to maintain a constant
voltage irrespective of variations in supply or load current. The general function of a voltage regulation device is
to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel to it irrespective of variations in the energy
drawn by the load (Load current) or variations and instability in the supply voltage.
The Zener diode will provide constant voltage provided current stays within the range of the maximum and
minimum reverse current.
The circuit diagram showing the Zener diode being used as a Voltage regulator is shown below.
Zener Diode Voltage Regulator
A resistor, R1 is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the amount of current owing through the
cookies. For morediode and theread
information, inputour
voltage Vin (Which
cookie policy must be greater than the zener voltage) is
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and privacy policy across as shown
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in the image and the output voltage Vout, is taken across the zener diode with Vout = Vz (Zener Voltage). Since
the zener diode’s reverse bias characteristics are what is needed to regulate the voltage, it is connected in
reversed bias mode, with the cathode being connected to the positive rail of the circuit.
Care must be taken when selecting the value of resistor R1, as a small value resistor will result in a large diode
current when the load is connected and this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode which
could become higher than the maximum power rating of the zener and could damage it.
The value of resistor to be used can be determined using the formula below.
R1 = (Vin – VZ) / IZ
Where;
R1 is the value of the series resistance.
Vin is the input voltage.
Vz which is same as Vout is the Zener voltage
And Iz is the zener current.
By using this formula it becomes easy to ensure that the value of the resistor selected doesn’t lead to the ow
of current higher than what the zener can handle.
One little problem experienced with zener diode based regulator circuits is that the Zener sometimes generate
electrical noise on the supply rail while making attempts to regulate the input voltage. While this may not be a
problem for most applications, this problem may be solve by the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor
across the diode. This helps stabilize the output of the zener.
Stabilizing the output of the Zener diode voltage regulator by

adding Capacitor
2. Zener Diode as Waveform Clipper

One of the uses of normal diodes is in the application of clipping and clamping circuits which are circuits that
are used to shape or modify an input AC waveform or signal, producing a differently shaped output signal
depending on the speci cations of the clipper or clamper.
Clippers circuits generically are circuits that are used to prevent the output signal of a circuit from going
beyond a predetermined voltage value without changing any other part of the input signal or waveform.
These circuits along with clampers are widely used in Analog television and FM radio transmitters for the
removal of interference (clamping circuits) and limiting noise peaks by clipping of high peaks.
Since Zener diodes generically behave like normal diodes when the applied voltage is not equal to the
breakdown voltage, they are also thus used in clipping circuits.
Clipping circuits could be designed to clip the signal either in the positive, negative or both regions. Although
the diode will naturally clip off the other region at 0.7V irrespective of whether it was designed as a positive or
negative clipper.
For example, consider the circuit below.
Zener Diode in as Clipper Circuit
The clipper circuit is designed to clip the output signal at 6.2v, so a 6.2v zener diode was used. The zener diode
prevents the output signal from going beyond the zener voltage irrespective of the input waveform. For this
particular example, a 20v input voltage was used and the output voltage on the positive swing was 6.2v
consistent with the voltage of the zener diode. During the negative swing of the AC voltage however, the zener
diode behaves just like the normal diode and clips the output voltage at 0.7V, Consistent with normal silicone
diodes.
Generated Waveforms of Zener diode Clipper Circuit
To implement the clipping circuit for the negative swing of the AC circuit as well as the positive swing in such
a way that the voltage is clipped at different levels on the positive and negative swing, a double zener clipping
circuit is used. The circuit diagram for the double zener clipping circuit is shown below.
Generated Waveforms of Double Zener diode Clipper Circuit
In the clipping circuit above, the voltage Vz2 represents the voltage on the negative swing of the AC source at
which the output signal is desired to be clipped, while voltage Vz1 represents the voltage on the positive swing
of the AC source at which the output voltage is desired to be clipped.
3. Zener Diode as Voltage Shifter

The voltage shifter is one of the simplest but interesting applications of the zener diode. If you have had
experience especially with connecting a 3.3v sensor to a 5V MCU, and have seen rst-hand the errors in
readings, etc, that this can lead to them you will appreciate the importance of voltage shifters. Voltage shifters
help convert signal from one voltage to another and with the ability of the zener diode to maintain steady
output voltage in the breakdown region, it makes them Ideal component for the operation.
In a zener diode based voltage shifter, the circuit, lowers the output voltage, by a value equal to the breakdown
voltage of the particular zener diode that is used. The circuit diagram for the voltage shifter is illustrated below.
Zener Diode as Voltage Shifter
Consider the experiment below,
Getting 3.3v Zener diode based voltage shifter
The circuit describes a 3.3v zener diode based voltage shifter. The output voltage (3.72V) of the circuit is given
by subtracting the breakdown voltage (3.3V) of the zener diode from the input voltage (7V).
Vout = Vin –Vz
Vout = 7 – 3.3 = 3.7v
The voltage shifter as describe earlier on has several applications in modern day electronic circuits design as
the design engineer may have to work with up to three different voltage level at times during design process.
Types of Zener Diodes:

Zener diodes are categorized into types based on several parameters which include;
1. Nominal Voltage
2. Power Dissipation
3. Forward drive current
4. Forward voltage
5. Packaging type
6. Maximum Reverse Current
Nominal Voltage
The nominal Operation voltage of a zener diode is also known as the breakdown voltage of the zener diode,
depending on the application for which the diode is to be used, this is often the most important criteria for
Zener diode selection.
Power dissipation
This represents the maximum amount of power the zener current can dissipate. Exceeding this power rating
leads to excessive increase in the temperature of the zener diode which could damage it and lead to the failure
of the things connected to it in a circuit. Thus this factor should be considered when selecting the diode with
the use in mind.
Maximum Zener Current
This is the maximum current that can be passed through the zener diode at the zener voltage without
damaging the device.
Minimum Zener Current
This refers to the minimum current required for the zener diode to start operating in the breakdown region.
Other parameters that serve as the speci cation for the diode all need to be fully considered before a decision
is made on the type on the kind of zener diode needed for that peculiar design.

Conclusion:
Here are 5 points you should never forget about the zener diode.
1. A zener diode is like an ordinary diode only that it has been doped to have a sharp a breakdown
voltage.
2. The Zener diode maintains a stable output voltage irrespective of the input voltage provided the
maximum zener current is not exceeded.
3. When connected in forward bias, the zener diode behaves exactly like the normal silicone diode. It
conducts with the same 0.7v voltage drop that accompanies the use of the normal diode.
4. The zener diode default operational state is in the breakdown region (reversed biased). It means it
actually starts to work when the applied voltage is higher than Zener Voltage in reverse biased.
5. The zener diode is mostly used in applications involving, voltage regulation, clipping circuits and
Voltage shifters.
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COMMENTS
Rainer
Jan 09, 2018
Very informative article. Well laid out and well written. :)

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victor kaseke
Jan 09, 2018
very educational
AlexYun
Jan 09, 2018
Good info.
Crystal Light
Jan 11, 2018
I don't think I want to understand the article doe, but I gat brotherly love for the writter!
Gbam!
Tonisage
Jan 11, 2018
Brain refreshing... Good teacher

k srinivas
Jun 24, 2018
Good explanation, well understanding manner.

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Zener Diode Reference

Here is a handy zener diode list if you work with these critters. This list is far from complete, but
these are some common numbers we encounter.
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10-99
Last 12-23-08
1N4728A to 1N4764A
www.vishay.com
Vishay Semiconductors
Zener Diodes
FEATURES
• Silicon planar power Zener diodes
• For use in stabilizing and clipping circuits with
high power rating
• Standard Zener voltage tolerance is ± 5 %
• AEC-Q101 qualified
• Material categorization:
for definitions of compliance please see
www.vishay.com/doc?99912
DESIGN SUPPORT TOOLS click logo to get started APPLICATIONS

• Voltage stabilization
Models
Available
PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
VZ range nom. 3.3 to 100 V
Test current IZT 2.5 to 76 mA
VZ specification Thermal equilibrium
Circuit configuration Single
ORDERING INFORMATION
MINIMUM ORDER
DEVICE NAME ORDERING CODE TAPED UNITS PER REEL
QUANTITY
1N4728A to 1N4764A 1N4728A to 1N4764A -series-TR 5000 per 13" reel 25 000/box
5000 per ammopack
1N4728A to 1N4764A 1N4728A to 1N4764A-series-TAP 25 000/box
(52 mm tape)
PACKAGE
MOLDING COMPOUND MOISTURE SENSITIVITY
PACKAGE NAME WEIGHT SOLDERING CONDITIONS
FLAMMABILITY RATING LEVEL
MSL level 1
DO-41 310 mg UL 94 V-0 260 °C/10 s at terminals
(according J-STD-020)
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS (Tamb = 25 °C, unless otherwise specified)

PARAMETER TEST CONDITION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT
Valid provided that leads at a distance of 4 mm
Power dissipation Ptot 1300 mW
from case are kept at ambient temperature
Zener current IZ PV/VZ mA
Valid provided that leads at a distance of 4 mm
Thermal resistance junction to ambient air RthJA 110 K/W
from case are kept at ambient temperature
Junction temperature Tj 175 °C
Storage temperature range Tstg -65 to +175 °C
Forward voltage (max.) IF = 200 mA VF 1.2 V
Rev. 2.4. 16-Feb-18 1 Document Number: 85816

For technical questions within your region: DiodesAmericas@vishay.com, DiodesAsia@vishay.com, DiodesEurope@vishay.com
THIS DOCUMENT IS SUBJECT TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE. THE PRODUCTS DESCRIBED HEREIN AND THIS DOCUMENT
ARE SUBJECT TO SPECIFIC DISCLAIMERS, SET FORTH AT www.vishay.com/doc?91000
1N4728A to 1N4764A
www.vishay.com
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (Tamb = 25 °C, unless otherwise specified)

ZENER VOLTAGE DYNAMIC
TEST REVERSE LEAKAGE SURGE REGULATOR
RESISTANCE
RANGE (1) CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT (3) CURRENT (2)
f = 1 kHz
PART
NUMBER VZ at IZT1 IZT1 IZT2 IR at VR ZZT at IZT1 ZZK at IZT2 IR IZM
V mA mA μA V  mA mA
NOM. MAX. TYP. MAX. MAX.
1N4728A 3.3 76 1 100 1 10 400 1380 276
1N4729A 3.6 69 1 100 1 10 400 1260 252
1N4730A 3.9 64 1 50 1 9 400 1190 234
1N4731A 4.3 58 1 10 1 9 400 1070 217
1N4732A 4.7 53 1 10 1 8 500 970 193
1N4733A 5.1 49 1 10 1 7 550 890 178
1N4734A 5.6 45 1 10 2 5 600 810 162
1N4735A 6.2 41 1 10 3 2 700 730 146
1N4736A 6.8 37 1 10 4 3.5 700 660 133
1N4737A 7.5 34 0.5 10 5 4 700 605 121
1N4738A 8.2 31 0.5 10 6 4.5 700 550 110
1N4739A 9.1 28 0.5 10 7 5 700 500 100
1N4740A 10 25 0.25 10 7.6 7 700 454 91
1N4741A 11 23 0.25 5 8.4 8 700 414 83
1N4742A 12 21 0.25 5 9.1 9 700 380 76
1N4743A 13 19 0.25 5 9.9 10 700 344 69
1N4744A 15 17 0.25 5 11.4 14 700 304 61
1N4745A 16 15.5 0.25 5 12.2 16 700 285 57
1N4746A 18 14 0.25 5 13.7 20 750 250 50
1N4747A 20 12.5 0.25 5 15.2 22 750 225 45
1N4748A 22 11.5 0.25 5 16.7 23 750 205 41
1N4749A 24 10.5 0.25 5 18.2 25 750 190 38
1N4750A 27 9.5 0.25 5 20.6 35 750 170 34
1N4751A 30 8.5 0.25 5 22.8 40 1000 150 30
1N4752A 33 7.5 0.25 5 25.1 45 1000 135 27
1N4753A 36 7 0.25 5 27.4 50 1000 125 25
1N4754A 39 6.5 0.25 5 29.7 60 1000 115 23
1N4755A 43 6 0.25 5 32.7 70 1500 110 22
1N4756A 47 5.5 0.25 5 35.8 80 1500 95 19
1N4757A 51 5 0.25 5 38.8 95 1500 90 18
1N4758A 56 4.5 0.25 5 42.6 110 2000 80 16
1N4759A 62 4 0.25 5 47.1 125 2000 70 14
1N4760A 68 3.7 0.25 5 51.7 150 2000 65 13
1N4761A 75 3.3 0.25 5 56 175 2000 60 12
1N4762A 82 3 0.25 5 62.2 200 3000 55 11
1N4763A 91 2.8 0.25 5 69.2 250 3000 50 10
1N4764A 100 2.5 0.25 5 76 350 3000 45 9
Notes
(1) Based on DC measurement at thermal equilibrium while maintaining the lead temperature (T ) at 30 °C + 1 °C, 9.5 mm (3/8") from the
L
diode body
(2) Valid provided that electrodes at a distance of 4 mm from case are kept at ambient temperature
(3) t = 10 ms.
p

1N4728A to 1N4764A
www.vishay.com
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS (Tamb = 25 °C, unless otherwise specified)
1400
Ptot - Power Dissipation (mW)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200
Tamb- Ambient Temperature (°C)
Fig. 1 - Admissible Power Dissipation vs. Ambient Temperature

Ptot = f (Tamb)
PACKAGE DIMENSIONS in millimeters (inches): DO-41_1N47xx
Cathode Identification
Ø 0.86 max. [0.034]
Ø 2.6 max. [0.102]

Ø 2.1 min. [0.081]
26 min. [1.024] 26 min. [1.024]
Ø 0.7 min. [0.027]
4.1 max. [0.161]

3.3 min. [0.128]
Document no. S8-V-3901.04-001(4)

Rev. 1 - Date: 30. Nov. 2011
22624

Legal Disclaimer Notice
www.vishay.com
Vishay
Disclaimer

ALL PRODUCT, PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS AND DATA ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE TO IMPROVE
RELIABILITY, FUNCTION OR DESIGN OR OTHERWISE.
Vishay Intertechnology, Inc., its affiliates, agents, and employees, and all persons acting on its or their behalf (collectively,
“Vishay”), disclaim any and all liability for any errors, inaccuracies or incompleteness contained in any datasheet or in any other
disclosure relating to any product.
Vishay makes no warranty, representation or guarantee regarding the suitability of the products for any particular purpose or
the continuing production of any product. To the maximum extent permitted by applicable law, Vishay disclaims (i) any and all
liability arising out of the application or use of any product, (ii) any and all liability, including without limitation special,
consequential or incidental damages, and (iii) any and all implied warranties, including warranties of fitness for particular
purpose, non-infringement and merchantability.
Statements regarding the suitability of products for certain types of applications are based on Vishay’s knowledge of
typical requirements that are often placed on Vishay products in generic applications. Such statements are not binding
statements about the suitability of products for a particular application. It is the customer’s responsibility to validate that a
particular product with the properties described in the product specification is suitable for use in a particular application.
Parameters provided in datasheets and / or specifications may vary in different applications and performance may vary over
time. All operating parameters, including typical parameters, must be validated for each customer application by the customer’s
technical experts. Product specifications do not expand or otherwise modify Vishay’s terms and conditions of purchase,
including but not limited to the warranty expressed therein.
Except as expressly indicated in writing, Vishay products are not designed for use in medical, life-saving, or life-sustaining
applications or for any other application in which the failure of the Vishay product could result in personal injury or death.
Customers using or selling Vishay products not expressly indicated for use in such applications do so at their own risk.
Please contact authorized Vishay personnel to obtain written terms and conditions regarding products designed for
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No license, express or implied, by estoppel or otherwise, to any intellectual property rights is granted by this document
or by any conduct of Vishay. Product names and markings noted herein may be trademarks of their respective owners.
© 2017 VISHAY INTERTECHNOLOGY, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Revision: 08-Feb-17 1 Document Number: 91000

Application Note AN-43 ®
TOPSwitch-HX Family
Design Guide
Introduction up and shutdown of the power supply during line sag or line
surge conditions. Power Integrations’ EcoSmart® technology
The TOPSwitch-HX is a highly integrated monolithic off-line enables supplies designed around the TOPSwitch-HX family to
switcher IC designed for off-line power supplies. TOPSwitch-HX consume less than 200 mW at no load and maintain constant
integrated circuits enable design of power supplies up to 195 W, efficiency over the full line and load range. TOPSwitch-HX family
while providing high efficiency under all load conditions. of solutions easily meets energy efficiency standards such as the
TOPSwitch-HX also provides very good performance at low load California Energy Commission (CEC), European Code of Conduct
and during standby (no load) operation. The TOPSwitch-HX and ENERGY STAR.
family allows the designer to meet the efficiency requirements for
the new energy-efficiency standards. Innovative and proprietary Basic Circuit Configuration
features enable design of compact and cost effective switching
power supplies while reducing overall design cycle time and The discussion of the function of application-specific
system cost. The TOPSwitch-HX family also enables the design requirements, such as constant current, constant power outputs,
of power supplies with robust functionality and provides etc., are beyond the scope of this design guide. However, such
enhanced safety features such as output overvoltage protection, requirements may be satisfied by adding additional circuitry to
overload power limiting and hysteretic thermal protection. the basic converter descriptions shown here. For more
information on additional circuit capabilities, design examples
Each member of the family has a high-voltage power MOSFET and other information visit the Power Integrations web site or
and its controller combined monolithically. Internal start-up bias contact your PI sales representative.
current is drawn from a high-voltage current source connected to
the DRAIN pin, eliminating the need for external start-up circuitry. Scope
The internal oscillator is frequency modulated (jitter) to reduce
EMI. In addition, the ICs have integrated functions that provide This application note is intended for engineers designing an
system-level protection. The auto-restart function limits power isolated AC-DC flyback power supply using the TOPSwitch-HX
dissipation in the MOSFET, the transformer and the output diode family of devices. It provides guidelines to enable an engineer
during overload, output short-circuit or open-loop conditions. to quickly select key components and also complete a suitable
The auto-recovering hysteretic thermal shutdown function also transformer design. To help simplify the task, the application
disables MOSFET switching if temperature exceeds safe limits. note refers directly to the PI Xls design spreadsheet that is part of
A programmable UV/OV detection feature allows glitch free start- the PI Expert™ design software suite available at no charge from
+
AC DC
IN OUT
RLS -
ROVP VROVP
D V
CONTROL
TOPSwitch-HX C
S X F
RIL
PI-4687-092007
Figure 1. Typical TOPSwitch-HX Flyback Power Supply With Primary Sensed Overvoltage Protection.
www.powerint.com October 2007

Application Note AN-43
powerint.com. The basic configuration used in TOPSwitch-HX • Enter loss allocation factor Z [B10]
flyback power supplies is shown in Figure 1, which also serves 0.5 for typical application (adjust the number accordingly
as the reference circuit for component identifications used in after first prototype-board evaluation)
descriptions throughout this application note. • Enter CIN input capacitance [B13]
3 μF/W for universal (85-265 VAC) or single (100/115 VAC)
In addition to this application note, the reader may also find the Use 1 μF/W single 230 VAC for single (185-265 VAC).
TOPSwitch-HX Reference Design Kits (RDKs). Each contains a • Select the TOPSwitch-HX part from the drop down list or
fully functional engineering prototype board, engineering report enter directly [B17]
and device samples. Further details on downloading PI Expert, • Select the device in the table below according to output
and obtaining an RDK and updates to this document can be power and line input voltage
found at www.powerint.com. • Enter Operating Frequency – [B22]
“H” for 66 kHz operation
Quick Start “F” for 132 kHz operation
If P, G and M packages are chosen, selecting “H” or “F” in
Readers familiar with power supply design and Power cell B22 does not change the design as these
Integrations design software may elect to skip the step-by-step parts only operate at 66 kHz (nominal) frequency.
design approach described later, and can use the following • Enter core type (if desired) from drop down menu [B52]
information to quickly design the transformer and select the A suggested core size will be selected automatically if
components necessary for a first prototype. For this approach, none is entered
only the information described below needs to be entered into If any warnings are generated, make changes to the
the PI Xls spreadsheet, other parameters will be automatically design by following instructions in spreadsheet column F
selected based on typical design requirements. References to • Build transformer
spreadsheet cell locations are provided in square brackets [cell • Select key components
reference]. See Steps 7 through 12.
• Build prototype and iterate design as necessary, replacing
• Enter AC input voltage range VACMIN, VACMAX and minimum line estimates in the spreadsheets with measured values as
frequency fL [B3, B4, B5] appropriate (e.g. efficiency, VMIN).
• Enter Nominal Output Voltage VO [B6] • Power Integrations offers a transformer prototyping service
• For designs with a peak load condition, enter average output and links to other vendors: for details see www.powerint.com/
power, else enter continuous output power [B7] componentsuppliers.htm
• For designs with a peak load current, enter peak load current
else leave blank [B8] Step-by-Step Transformer Design Procedure
• Enter efficiency estimate [B9]
0.8 for universal input voltage (85-265 VAC) or single Introduction
100/115 VAC (85-132 VAC) and 0.85 for a single 230 VAC
(185-265 VAC) design. Adjust the number accordingly The design flow allows for design of power supplies both with
based on measurement at peak load and VACMIN. or without a peak output power requirement. This is of
particular relevance when using the P, G or M packages. Here
the current limit enables design of power supplies capable of
Output Power Table

230 VAC ±15%4 85-265 VAC 230 VAC ±15% 85-265 VAC
Product5 Open Open Product5 Open Open
Adapter1 Peak3 Adapter 1
Peak 3
Adapter1 Adapter1
Frame2 Frame2 Frame2 Frame2
TOP254P/GN 47 W 30 W
16 W 28 W 11 W 20 W TOP254YN 30 W 62 W 20 W 43 W
TOP254MN 62 W 40 W
19 W 30 W 13 W 22 W TOP255YN 40 W 81 W 26 W 57 W
TOP255MN 81 W 52 W
21 W 34 W 15 W 26 W TOP256YN 60 W 119 W 40 W 86 W
TOP256MN 98 W 64 W
25 W 41 W 19 W 30 W TOP257YN 85 W 157 W 55 W 119 W
TOP257MN 119 W 78 W
29 W 48 W 22 W 35 W TOP258YN 105 W 195 W 70 W 148 W
TOP258MN 140 W 92 W
Table 1. Output Power Table.

Notes:
1. Minimum continuous power in a typical non-ventilated enclosed adapter measured 3. Peak power capability in any design at +50 °C ambient.
at +50 °C ambient. Use of an external heat sink will increase power capability. 4. 230 VAC or 110/115 VAC with doubler.
2. Minimum continuous power in an open frame design at +50 °C ambient. 5. Packages: P: DIP-8C, G: SMD-8C, M: SDIP-10C, Y: TO-220-7C. See part
ordering information.
2
Rev. C 10/07 www.powerint.com
AN-43 Application Note
delivering peak power for a short duration limited only by Power (W)
thermal characteristics of the TOPSwitch-HX package and P3

ratings of other components in the circuit.
As average power increases, based on the measured

transformer and device temperature, it may be necessary to
PI-4329-030906
P2
select a larger transformer to allow increased copper area for
the windings and/or to increase the amount of device heat
sinking P1
The power table (Table 1) provides guidance for peak and

continuous (average) power levels obtainable in both sealed Δt1 Δt2 Time (t)
adapter and open frame applications. For the P, G and M T
packages, the power values for Adapter and Open Frame are Figure 2. Continuous (average) output power calculation example.
thermally limited. The peak values represent the electrically
limited output power, assuming operation at current limit (ILIM(MIN)).
The peak power is used to select the TOPSwitch-HX device and
For the Y package, the Adapter power values are also thermally
design the transformer for power delivery at minimum input line
limited, however, the Open Frame values are electrically limited
voltage while continuous (or average power if the peak load is
and therefore also represent the peak output power. As the
periodic) is used for thermal design and may affect the size of the
continuous power values are thermally limited, they indicate the
transformer and the heat sink.
upper limit of continuous power for worst case conditions but
may vary depending on the specific application. For example, if Step 1. Enter Application Variables VACMIN, VACMAX, fL , VO,
the peak power condition has a very low duty cycle, such as the
PO(AVE), PO(PEAK) , η, Z, VB, tC, CIN
1-second peak required to close the drawer in a DVD player,
then the thermal rise of the device (and transformer) is only a Determine the input voltage range from Table 2.
function of the continuous average power. However, if the peak Nominal Input Voltage (VAC) VACMIN VACMAX
power is repetitive with a significant duty cycle, then it would
need to be considered as a limiting factor in the design. 100 / 115 85 132
230 195 265
Figure 2 shows how to calculate the average power Universal 85 265
requirements for a design with two different peak load
conditions. Table 2. Standard Worldwide Input Line Voltage Ranges.
Line Frequency, fL
PAVE = P1 + ] P3 - P1 g # d1 + ] P2 - P1 g # d2
50 Hz for universal or single 100 VAC, 60 Hz for single 115 VAC
Dt Dt input. 50 Hz for single 230 VAC input. These values represent
d1 = T 1 , d2 = T 2
typical line frequencies rather than minimums. For most
applications this gives adequate overall design margin. For
Where PX are the different output power conditions, Δt X are the absolute worst case or based on the product specification,
durations of each peak power condition and T is the period of reduce these numbers by 6% (47 Hz or 56 Hz). For half-wave
one cycle of the pulsed load condition rectification, use FL/2. For DC input, enter the voltage directly
into Cells B65 and B66.
The design procedure requires both peak and continuous
(average) powers to be specified. If there is no peak power Nominal Output Voltage, VO (V)
requirement for the design, the same value should be used for Enter the nominal output voltage of the main output during the
continuous as well as peak power. continuous load condition. Generally the main output is the
output from which feedback is derived.
Figure 3. Application Variable Section of TOPSwitch-HX Design Spreadsheet.
3
www.powerint.com Rev. C 10/07
Figure 4. DC Input Voltage Parameters Showing Grey Override Cells for DC Input Designs.
Continuous / Average Output Power PO(AVE) (W) Bridge Diode Conduction Time, tC (ms)
Enter the average output power of the power supply. If the Enter a bridge diode conduction time of 3.00 ms if there is no
power supply is a multiple output power supply, enter the sum better data available.
total power of all the outputs.
Total Input Capacitance, CIN (μF)
Peak Output Power PO(PEAK) (W) Table 3 suggests suitable multiplication factors to be used for
Enter the peak output power under peak load conditions. If the calculating input capacitance for different AC input formats.
design does not have a peak load condition, then leave this
entry blank and a value equal to PO(AVE) is assumed. PO(PEAK) is Total Input Capacitance per Watt
used to calculate the primary inductance value. Output Power (μF/W)
AC Input Voltage (VAC) Full Wave Rectification
In multiple output designs, the output power of the main output
(typically the output from which feedback is taken) should be 100/115 3
increased such that the peak power (or maximum continuous 230 1
output power as applicable) matches the sum of the output 85-265 3
power from all the outputs in the design. The individual output
voltages and currents should then be entered at the bottom of Table 3. Suggested Total Input Capacitance for Different Input Voltage Ranges.
the spreadsheet (cells [B120 to B166]).
The capacitance is used to calculate the minimum and
Power Supply Efficiency, η maximum DC voltage across the bulk capacitor and should be
Enter the estimated efficiency of the complete power supply selected to keep the minimum DC input voltage, VMIN >70 V.
measured at the output terminals under peak load conditions
and worst-case line (generally lowest input voltage). Start with a Step 2 – Enter TOPSwitch-HX Variables: TOPSwitch-HX
value of 80% for VACMIN of 85 VAC and 85% for 195 VAC. These device, Current Limit, VOR, VDS, VD,
are typical for a design where the majority of the output power is
drawn from an output voltage of 12 V and no current sensing is Select the correct TOPSwitch-HX device
present on the secondary. Once a prototype has been First, refer to the TOPSwitch-HX power table and select a
constructed, then measured efficiency can be entered and a device based on the peak output power design. Then compare
further transformer iteration performed, as appropriate. the continuous power to adapter column numbers in the power
table, if the power supply is of fully enclosed type, or compare
Power Supply Loss Allocation Factor, Z to the open-frame column if the power supply is an open-frame
This factor represents the proportion of losses between the design. If the continuous power exceeds the value given in the
primary and the secondary of the power supply. Z factor is power table (Table 1), then the next largest device should be
used together with the efficiency number to determine the actual selected. Similarly, if the continuous power is close to the
power that must be delivered by the power stage. For example, adapter power levels given in the power table, then it may be
losses in the input stage (EMI filter, rectification, etc) are not necessary to switch to a larger device based on the measured
processed by the power stage (transferred through the thermal performance of the prototype.
transformer) and therefore, although they reduce efficiency, the
transformer design is not effected by their effect on efficiency. Peak power values are only given for P, G and M packages.
For Y packages, high peak and continuous ratings are the
Secondary Side Losses same. This is due to the power dissipation capability of the Y
Z=
Total Losses package. For the P, G and M, the maximum device dissipation
For designs that do not have a peak power requirement, a value is limited by both the junction to case and case to ambient
of 0.48 is recommended. For designs with a peak power thermal impedance. However, for Y package the junction to
requirement, enter 0.65. case impedance is low, and the device can be connected to a
heat sink sized to maintain an acceptable device temperature.
Bias Winding Output Voltage (VB)
Enter the voltage at the output of the bias winding output. A External Current Limit Reduction Factor KI
value of 15 V is recommended. The voltage may be set to The factor KI sets the value of the current limit threshold. This
different values, for example, when the bias winding output is allows the current limit level to be adjusted slightly above the
also used as a primary side (non-isolated) auxiliary output. minimum peak current (IP) required for power delivery. This
Higher voltages increase no-load input power. Values below optimizes the transformer design by limiting the peak flux
10 V are not recommended as at light load there may be density during overload and start-up.
insufficient voltage to correctly bias the optocoupler, causing
loss of output regulation. A 10 μF, 50 V electrolytic capacitor is
recommended for the bias winding output filter.
4
For higher efficiency and improved thermal performance, KI, TOPSwitch-HX ON State Drain to Source Voltage, VDS (V)
also allows the selection of a larger TOPSwitch-HX device to be This parameter is the average ON state voltage developed
used than required for power delivery by reducing KI, such that across the DRAIN and SOURCE pins of TOPSwitch-HX. By
the current limit of the larger device is equal to the original default, if the grey override cell is left empty, a value of 10 V is
smaller part selected. assumed. Use the default value if no better data is available.
High Line Operating Mode Output Diode Forward Voltage Drop, VD (V)
This parameter confirms the mode of operation of the Enter the average forward voltage drop of the (main) output
TOPSwitch-HX at high line. It is desirable to operate in diode. Use 0.5 V for a Schottky diode or 0.7 V for a PN diode
full-frequency mode at high line as the switching frequency jitter if no better data is available. By default, a value of 0.5 V is
feature will be enabled. (See TOPSwitch-HX datasheet for an assumed.
explanation of operating modes). This provides improved EMI
performance. Performance Goal VOR Value Comment
Suggestion
Reflected Output Voltage, VOR (V)
Maximum output power / 135 V Maximizes power from
This parameter is the secondary winding voltage during diode smallest TOPSwitch-HX given device
conduction, reflected back to the primary through the turns ratio Device
of the transformer. The default value is 135 V; however the
Highest Efficiency 100 V - 120 V Gives lowest overall
acceptable range for VOR is between 80 V and 135 V, providing
losses between,
no warnings in the spreadsheet are triggered. For design conduction, output diode
optimization purposes, the following should be kept in mind: and leakage inductance
1. Higher VOR allows increased power delivery at VMIN, which Multiple Output Design 90 V - 110 V Improves cross regulation
minimizes the value of the input capacitor and maximizes by reducing transformer
power delivery from a given TOPSwitch-HX device. leakage inductance and
2. Higher VOR reduces the voltage stress on the output diodes, peak secondary currents
which in some cases may allow the use of a lower forward
Table 4. Suggested Values for VOR.
drop Schottky diode for higher efficiency.
3. Higher VOR increases leakage inductance that reduces Bias Winding Diode Forward Voltage Drop, VDB (V)
efficiency of the power supply. Enter the average forward voltage drop of the bias winding
4. Higher VOR increases peak and RMS current on the output diode. Use 0.7 V for an ultra-fast recovery diode.
secondary side, which may increase secondary side copper
and diode losses. Ripple to Peak Current Ratio, KP
Figure 6 shows Kp < 1, indicating continuous conduction mode,
Optimal selection of the VOR value depends on the specific KP is the ratio of ripple to peak primary current.
application and is based on a compromise between the factors
mentioned above.
Values below 80 V are not usually recommended. Low VOR may

cause excessive triggering of the MOSFET self-protection
feature during startup, especially in designs where all
outputs are >5 V.
Figure 5. TOPSwitch-HX Section of Design Spreadsheet.
5
I
KP / KR = IR
P
Figure 7 shows Kp > 1, indicating discontinuous conduction
mode, KP is the ratio of primary MOSFET off time to the
secondary diode conduction time.
The value of KP should be in the range of 0.3 < KP < 6, and

guidance is given in the comments cell if the value is outside
this range.
A KP value of <1 will result in higher efficiency by lowering the

primary RMS current. Typically the highest efficiency for a given
core size will be obtained with a KP range of 0.65 to 0.55, but
values outside this range are acceptable.
The spreadsheet will calculate the values of peak primary

current, the RMS ripple current, average primary current and
the maximum duty cycle for the design.
Figure 6. Continuous Mode Current Waveform, Kp≤1.
VOR # ]1 - D MAX g
K P / K DR =
]VMIN - V DS g # D MAX
Figure 7. Discontinuous Mode Current Waveform, Kp≥1.
6
Figure 8. Circuit Protection Component Section of Design Spreadsheet.
Step 4 – Choose Protection Features, Line Under / reduces by greater than the 4 μA V pin hysteresis requirement. If
Overvoltage, Output Overvoltage and Overload Power the current through the Zener and into the V (or M pin) exceeds
Limiting - Optional 336 μA, the latching shutdown feature of TOPSwitch-HX is
triggered, and the power supply latches off. To reset the latched
The optional line undervoltage lockout feature of TOPSwitch-HX, condition, either the input AC supply has to be removed for long
defines the startup voltage of the supply and prevents the power enough for the control pin capacitor to discharge below VC(RESET)
supply output from gliching when the input voltage is below the (~3 V) or the V (or M pin) can be externally pulled below 1 V.
normal operating range. Connecting a resistor from the input
capacitor to the V pin enables this feature. Enter the desired DC In a typical circuit, a high series resistance ROVP in the order of
voltage across the input capacitor, at which the power supply 5.1 kΩ will result in a non-latching shutdown. A low resistance in
should operate in the cell adjacent to the range of 4.7 Ω to 22 Ω will result in a latching shutdown.
VUV_STARTUP. The spreadsheet calculates the ideal resistor
value RLS. It is recommended that the resistor should be connected to the
V pin and the Zener diode cathode should be connected to the
The value of RLS also defines the line OV threshold. The bias winding output.
calculated voltage (VOV(SHUTDOWN)) at which the power supply will
stop operating due to an input overvoltage condition is Output Power Limiting vs Input Voltage (Optional)
displayed. The X-pin on the TOPSwitch-HX can be used to program a
current limit value lower than the maximum internal current limit
Output Overvoltage Shutdown - Optional for the part selected. A resistor connected from the X-pin to the
The output voltage of the bias winding can be used for primary source pin (RIL in Figure 1) allows selection of a fixed externally
sensed output overvoltage. This is an inexpensive way of programmed current limit. See datasheet for current limit
protecting the power supply should a component in the resistor selection curves.
feedback circuit fail.
The addition of a second resistor connected from the X-pin to
This feature can be enabled by connecting a series combination the DC-Bus (RPL), as shown in Figure 12, allows reduction of the
of a resistor and Zener diode from the bias winding output to the programmed current limit as a function of the line voltage. This
V pin (as shown in Figure 1). The spreadsheet estimates a value is desirable as typical Flyback power supplies that operate in
of the Zener diode required to initiate shutdown in case of loss continuous conduction mode at low line (KP <1) will have a higher
of feedback but without false triggering during transient overload power capability at high line by 200-300%. In certain
conditions such as during dynamic load changes. applications this may require over design of the output diode,
transformer and output capacitors to handle the increased
During a fault, the bias winding, voltage rises causing the Zener dissipation.
diode to conduct and current to flow into the V (or M) pin . If this
current exceeds 112 μA (IOV ) for longer than 100 μs , then The PIXls spreadsheet calculates the values of the two resistors
switching is disabled and the supply enters auto-restart. This required for power limiting vs line based on the choice of the
prevents further increase in output voltage but does not latch off TOPSwitch-HX part and the value of Kp selected. At VMIN the
the power supply. Switching is enabled again when the current target current limit value is equal to ILIMIT(MIN_EXT). At high line the
7
Figure 9. Transformer Core and Construction Variables Section of Spreadsheet.
target current limit value is calculated based on the value size and, each will have different mechanical spacing. Refer to
required for specified PO(PEAK) multiplied by the margin factor, the bobbin datasheet or seek guidance from your safety expert
Overload Current Limit Ratio at VMAX. The recommended or transformer vendor to determine what specific margin is
value of 120% ensures that the MOSFET protection mode is not required.
triggered during startup, especially with high output voltage
designs. Lower values are acceptable, but startup into 66 kHz 132 kHz
maximum (peak) load at high input line voltage must be verified. Output Triple Triple
Power Margin Margin
Insulated Insulated
Wound Wound
Resistor values are calculated using the worst case current limit Wire Wire
reduction curves provided in the TOPSwitch-HX datasheet. EF12.6 EI22 EF12.6 EI22
EE13 EE19 EE13 EE19
Step 5 – Choose Core and Bobbin Based on Output EF16 EI22/19/6 EF16 EI22/19/6
Power and Enter AE, LE, AL , BW, M, L, NS 0 - 10 W EE16 EEL16 EE16 EEL16
EE19 EF20
Core effective cross-sectional area, AE: (cm2) EI22 EI25
Core effective path length, LE: (cm). EI22/19/6 EEL19
Core ungapped effective inductance, AL: (nH/turn2). EF20 EI28 EE19 EF20
Bobbin width, BW: (mm) 10 W - EEL22 EI22 EI25
Tape margin width equal to half the total margin, M (mm) 20 W EF25 EI22/19/6 EEL19
Primary Layers, L EF20
Secondary Turns, NS 20 W -
EF25 EI30 EI28
EPC30
30 W
Core Type EEL25
If the core type cell is left empty, the spreadsheet will default to EI28 E30/15/7 EF25 EEL22
the smallest commonly available core suitable for the continuous EI30 EER28
(average) output power specified. The entire list of cores E30/15/7 ETD29
30 W - EER28 EI35
available can be selected from the drop down list in the tool bar
50 W EI33/29/
of the PIXls design software.
13-Z
The grey override cells can be used to enter the core and EER28L
bobbin parameters directly. This is useful if a core is selected ETD29 EF32 EI28 EEL25
50 W -
that is not on the list, or the specific core or bobbin information EI35 ETD34 E30/15/7
70 W
differs from that referenced by the spreadsheet. EF32 EER28
ETD34 EI40 EI30 ETD29
Table 5 provides a list of commonly available cores and power E36/18/11 E36/18/11 E30/15/7 EI35
levels at which these cores can be used for typical designs. 70 W - EI40 EER35 EER28 EI33/29/
100 W ETD29 13-Z
Safety margin, M (mm) EER28L
For designs that require safety isolation between primary and EF32
secondary but do not use triple-insulated wire, the width of the ETD39 ETD39 EI35 ETD34
safety margin to be used on each side of the bobbin should be 100 W - EER40 EER40 EF32 EI40
entered here. For universal input designs, a total windings 150 W E42/21/15 ETD34 E36/18/11
margin of 6.2 mm would be required, and a value of 3.1 mm EER35
would be entered into the spreadsheet. For vertical bobbins the E42/21/15 E42/21/20 E36/18/11 ETD39
margin may not be symmetrical. However, if a total margin of E42/21/20 E55/28/21 EI40 EER40
6.2 mm were required, then 3.1 mm would still be entered even E55/28/21 ETD39 E42/21/15
if the physical margin were only on one side of the bobbin. >150 W EER40 E42/21/20
E42/21/15 E55/28/21
For designs using triple insulated wire, it may still be necessary E42/21/20
E55/28/21
to enter a small margin in order to meet the required safety Table
creepage distances. Typically, many bobbins exist for any core 5. Transformer Core Table.
8
As the margin reduces the available area for the windings, the Maximum Operating Flux Density, BM (Gauss)
margin format described above may not be suitable for small A maximum value of 3000 Gauss during normal operation is
core sizes. If after entering the margin, more than 3 primary recommended. This limits transformer core loss and audible
layers (L) are required, it is suggested that either a larger core be noise generated at light load levels. Under these conditions the
selected or switch to a zero margin design approach using output voltage is low, and little reset of the transformer occurs
triple-insulated wire. during the MOSFET off time. This allows the transformer flux
density to staircase above the normal operating level. A value
Primary Layers, L of 3000 Gauss at the peak current limit of the selected device,
Primary layers should be in the range of 1 < L < 3, and in together with the built in protection features of TOPSwitch-HX,
general it should be the lowest number that meets the primary provides sufficient margin to prevent core saturation under
current density limit (CMA). Values of 100 Cmils/Amp for startup or output short circuit conditions.
designs <5 W scaling linearly to 500 Cmils/Amp at 200 W are
typical in designs without forced air cooling. Designs with more The MCM mode of operation used in TOPSwitch-HX can
than 3 layers are possible, but the increased leakage inductance generate audio frequency components in the transformer,
and issues associated with the physical fit of the windings especially if a long core is used. This audible noise generation
should be considered. A split primary construction may be is minimized when a value of 3000 Gauss is used for BM. This
helpful for designs where leakage inductance clamp dissipation results in an operating flux density of 750 Gauss in MCM mode.
is too high. Here half of the primary winding is placed on either Following this guideline and using the standard transformer
side of the secondary (and bias) winding in a sandwich production technique of dip varnishing practically eliminate
arrangement. audible noise. A careful evaluation of the audible noise
performance should be made using production transformer
Secondary turns, NS samples before approving the design. Ceramic capacitors that
If the grey override cell is left blank, the minimum number of use dielectrics, such as Z5U, when used in clamp circuits may
secondary turns is calculated such that the maximum operating also generate audio noise. If this is the case, a cure may be to
flux density BM is kept below the recommended maximum of replace them with capacitors having a different dielectric, for
3000 Gauss (300 mT). In general, it is not necessary to enter a example a polyester film type.
number in the override cell except in designs where a lower
operating flux density is desired (see the explanation of BM
limits). Peak Flux Density, BP (Gauss)
A maximum value of 4200 Gauss is recommended to limit the
Step 6 – Iterate Transformer Design / Generate maximum flux density under start up and output short circuit
Prototype conditions. This calculation assumes worst-case current limit
and inductance values. In high ambient temperature
Iterate the design making sure that no warnings are displayed. applications, such as sealed adapters, this value may need to
Any parameters outside the recommended range of values can be reduced to 3600 Gauss due to the higher operating ambient
be corrected by following the guidance given in the right hand temperature. It is important to verify that core saturation does
column. not occur at maximum ambient temperature under overload
conditions just prior to loss of regulation.
Once all warnings have been cleared, the output transformer
design parameters can be used to wind a prototype transformer Maximum Primary Wire Diameter, OD (mm)
or sent to a vendor for samples. (See note on transformer By default, if the override cell is empty, double insulated wire is
prototying services in Quick Start section.) assumed and the standard wire diameter is chosen. The grey
override cells can be used to enter the wire diameter directly by
The key transformer electrical parameters are: the user.
Primary Inductance, LP (μH) The other factors automatically calculated by the
This is the target nominal primary inductance of the transformer. spreadsheet include:
Primary Inductance Tolerance, LPTOLERANCE(%)
Estimated Total Insulation Thickness, INS (mm)
This is the assumed primary inductance tolerance. A value of
Primary wire size, DIA: (mm)
10% is used by default; however if specific information is known
Primary wire gauge, AWG
from the transformer vendor, then this may be entered in the
Number of primary layers, L
grey override cell.
Estimated core center leg gap length: Lg: (mm)
Number of Primary Turns, NP Number of secondary turns, Ns
For low leakage inductance applications, a split primary Secondary wire size, DIAs: (mm)
construction may be used, and is recommended for designs Secondary wire gauge, AWG
above 20 W.
In multiple output design NSx, CMSx, AWGSx (where x is the
Gapped Core Effective Inductance, ALG: (nH/N2) output number) should also be used.
Used by the transformer vendor to specify the core center leg air gap.
9
Figure 10. Transformer Primary Design Parameters Section of Spreadsheet.
Figure 11. Transformer Secondary Design Parameters Section of Spreadsheet – Multiple Outputs.
10
LPF
+ +
VAC CPF VO
-
CIN 470 7VO = 12 V) CIRCUIT PERFORMANCE

100 7VO = 5 V) Circuit Tolerance p1%
RD Load Regulation p0.2%
UTV817A RBIAS Line Regulation p0.2%
TOPSwitch-HX
1 k7 RS1
D V
CONTROL
RPL C VO - 2.5
100 nF R= X 10 k7
3.3 k7 2.5
S X F
TL431
Optional 100 nF RS2
10 k7
Feedback Circuit
PI-4836-101507
Figure 12. Typical TOPSwitch-HX Flyback Power Supply Using Optocoupler-TL431 Feedback Circuit.
C6 C7 C12
3.9 nF 2.2 nF R11 470 pF
1 kV 250 VAC 33 7 100 V
D7 C13 C14 C15

R6 T1 SB560 680 MF 680 MF L2 220 MF
22 k7 2 EER28 7 25 V 25 V 3.3 MH 25 V +12 V,
2W 2A
D1 D2 VR1 C16 C18
P6KE200A 470 pF R12 L3 RTN
1N4937 1N4007 33 7 3.3 MH 220 MF
100 V 10 V
3 11 +5 V,
2.2 A
R7 D8
20 7 SB530
4 9
1/2 W RTN
C10 C17
6 2200 MF
10 MF
D5 R10 50 V C11 10 V
D3 D4 R3 D6
2.0 M7 FR106 FR106 4.7 7 2.2 nF R19
1N4937 1N4007 250 VAC
5 10 7
L1 R4
6.8 mH 2.0 M7 VR3
R14 BZX55B8V2
C4 R13 22 7 8.2 V
R1 R2 100 MF 330 7 C19 2%
1 M7 1 M7 400 V VR2 1.0 MF
R5 1N5250B 50 V
5.1 k7 20 V U2B
C3 PS2501- R15
220 nF 1-H-A 1 k7
F1 275 VAC
3.15 A
U2A
TOPSwitch-HX PS2501-
RT1 O D M U1
L 10 7 t 1-H-A R18 R20
CONTROL TOP258PN 196 k7 12.4 k7
E C 1% 1%
R16 R17
10 k7 10 k7
N S R8 D9
C8 6.8 7 1N4148
90 - 265 100 nF C21
VAC 50 V C9 220 nF
47 MF 50 V
16 V C20
10 MF U3 R21
50 V TL431 10 k7
2% 1%
PI-4747-091407
Figure 13. Universal Input, 35 W Power Supply Using TOP258PN.
11
Step 7 – Selection of TOPSwitch-HX External Components output power is reduced, resulting in lower light-load efficiency
and higher no-load consumption.
Control Pin – External Components
The schematic in Figure 12 shows the external components Figure 13 shows an example of an optimized clamp
required for a typical TOPSwitch-HX power supply design. It is arrangement. The clamp ensures that peak drain voltage is
strongly recommended that a 100 nF capacitor be connected limited to an acceptable level under worst-case conditions of
between the CONTROL pin and the SOURCE pin of the maximum input voltage, the overload power or output short
TOPSwitch-HX. This capacitor should be located adjacent to circuit and maximum ambient temperature.
the TOPSwitch-HX with short traces. In designs using surface
mount components, this capacitor should be located directly at
the pins of the TOPSwitch-HX. Rec. Diode VR(V) ID(A) Package Manufacturer
Schottky
In addition to the 100 nF capacitor connected to the CONTROL
1N5819 40 1 Axial General Semi
pin, a series combination of a 6.8 Ω resistor and a 47 μF
electrolytic capacitor is required to be connected between the SB140 40 1 Axial General Semi
CONTROL pin and the SOURCE terminal of the TOPSwitch-HX. SB160 60 1 Axial General Semi
The capacitor provides both timing for auto-restart and, together MBR160 60 1 Axial IR
with the dynamic impedance Zc of the CONTROL pin, sets the
11DQ06 60 1.1 Axial IR
dominant pole for the control loop. The combination of the
capacitor and series resistor adds a zero to the transfer function 1N5822 40 3 Axial General Semi
of the control loop, The resulting phase boost at approximately SB340 40 3 Axial General Semi
200 Hz improves the bandwidth of the power supply. MBR340 40 3 Axial IR
Step 8 – Selection of Line - Undervoltage / Overvoltage SB360 60 3 Axial General Semi

Components MBR360 60 3 Axial IR
SB540 40 5 Axial General Semi
The line undervoltage detection feature prevents the power SB560 60 5 Axial General Semi
supply from starting until the input voltage is above a defined
MBR745 45 7.5 TO-220 General Semi / IR
level. During power-up or when the switching of the power
MOSFET is disabled during auto-restart, the current into the EN/ MBR760 60 7.5 TO-220 General Semi
UV pin must exceed 25 μA to initiate switching (lUV in data sheet). MBR1045 45 10 TO-220 General Semi / IR
As a resistor from the DC rail to the V pin is used to sense the MBR1060 60 10 TO-220 General Semi
input voltage, the supply voltage that causes the current into the
MBR10100 100 10 TO-220 General Semi
V pin to exceed 25 μA defines the undervoltage threshold. The
resistor connected to the V pin also sets the voltage at which a MBR1645 45 16 TO-220 General Semi / IR
line input overvoltage condition will be detected. MBR1660 60 16 TO-220 General Semi
MBR2045CT 45 20(2×10) TO-220 General Semi / IR
The sense resistor should be rated above 400 V, generally
MBR2060CT 60 20(2×10) TO-220 Genreal Semi
requiring either a single 0.5 W or two 0.25 W devices connected
in series. A typical value of 4 MΩ is suggested for use as line MBR20100 100 20(2×10) TO-220 General Semi / IR
sense resistor for Universal input applications. Additional UFR
guidance is provided by the design spreadsheet. UF4002 100 1 Axial General Semi
UF4003 200 1 Axial General Semi
If the undervoltage (UV) or the overvoltage (OV) functions are
to be used selectively, a number of circuits are provided in the MUR120 200 1 Axial General Semi
TOPSwitch-HX family datasheet to ease the selection of external EGP20D 200 2 Axial General Semi
components. If the V pin function is not used, the V pin should BYV27-200 200 2 Axial General Semi /
be connected to the source pin. The V pin should not be left Philips
unconnected.
UF5401 100 3 Axial General Semi
Step 9 – Selection of Primary Clamp Components UF5402 200 3 Axial General Semi
EGP30D 200 3 Axial General Semi
It is recommended that either a Zener clamp or an RCD BYV28-200 200 3.5 Axial General Semi /
combined with a Zener clamp be used in TOPSwitch-HX Philips
designs. This is to ensure that the peak drain voltage is limited
MUR420 200 4 TO-220 General Semi
to below the BVDSS of the internal MOSFET while still maximizing
efficiency and minimizing no-load consumption. BYW29-200 200 8 TO-220 General Semi
Philips
A standard RCD clamp designed to limit the peak drain voltage BYV32-200 200 18 TO-220 General Semi /
under peak load conditions represents a significant load as the Philips
Table 6. List of Diodes Suitable for use as the output rectifier.
12
The peak drain voltage should be limited to a maximum of 650 V Step 10 – Select Output Rectifier Diode
under these conditions to provide a margin for component
variation. In the design shown in Figure 13, the peak drain For each output use the values of peak inverse voltage (VR) and
voltage was limited to 600 V. The clamp diode (D2) must be a output current (IO) provided in the design spreadsheet to select
fast or an ultra-fast recovery type with a reverse recovery time the output diodes. Table 6 shows some commonly available
<500 ns. Under no circumstances should a standard recovery types.
rectifier diode be used. The high dissipation that may result
during startup or an output short circuit can cause failure of the VR ≥ 1.25 x PIVS: where PIVS is taken from the Voltage Stress
diode. Resistor R13 damps ringing for reduced EMI. Parameters section of the spreadsheet and Transformer
Secondary Design Parameters (Multiple Outputs).
Power supplies using different members of the TOPSwitch-HX
family will have different peak primary currents and leakage ID ≥ 2 x IO: where ID is the diode rated DC current, and IO is the
inductances, and therefore different leakage energy. Capacitor average output current. Depending on the temperature rise
C5 and R17 must be optimized for each design. As a general and the duration of the peak load condition, it may be
rule, minimize the value of capacitor C5 and maximize the value necessary to increase the diode current rating once a prototype
of resistor R17 while still meeting the recommended 650 V peak has been built. This also applies to the amount of heatsinking
drain voltage limit. required.
LPF
+ +
VAC CPF VO
-
CIN CIRCUIT PERFORMANCE

47 7
RBIAS Circuit Tolerance p5%
RD 470 7
Load Regulation p1%

Line Regulation p0.5%
TOPSwitch-HX
D V LTV817A
CONTROL
C
Feedback Circuit
S X F
DZ
Optional 100 nF Zener
2%
PI-4837-092107
* 47 7is suitable for VO upto 7.5 V. For VO >7.5 V, a higher value may be required for optimum transient response.
**470 7 is good for Zeners with IZT = 5 mA. Lower values are needed for Zeners with higher IZT. (E.g. 150 7 for IZT = 20 mA).
Figure 14. Typical Zener Feedback Circuit.
LPF
+ +
VAC CPF VO
-
CIN 470 7VO = 12 V) CIRCUIT PERFORMANCE

100 7VO = 5 V) Circuit Tolerance p1%
RD Load Regulation p0.2%
UTV817A RBIAS Line Regulation p0.2%
TOPSwitch-HX RS1
D V 1 k7
CONTROL
C VO - 2.5
100 nF R= X 10 k7
3.3 k7 2.5
S X F
TL431
Optional 100 nF RS2
10 k7
Feedback Circuit
PI-4836-092107
Figure 15. Optocoupler-TL431 Feedback Circuit.
13
Step 11 – Select Output Capacitor P/N CTR(%) BVCEO Manufacturer

Ripple Current Rating 4 Pin DIP
The spreadsheet calculates output capacitor ripple current using PC123Y6 80-160 70 V Sharp
the average output power. Therefore the actual rating of the
PC817X1 80-160 70 V Sharp
capacitor will depend on the peak to average power ratio of the
design. In most cases this assumption will be valid as capacitor SFH615A-2 63-125 70 V Vishay, Isocom
ripple rating is a thermal limitation, and most peak load durations SFH617A-2 63-125 70 V Vishay, Isocom
are shorter than the thermal time constant of the capacitor SFH618A-2 63-125 55 V Vishay, Isocom
(< 1 s). For such designs, select the output capacitor(s) such
ISP817A 80-160 35 V Vishay, Isocom
that the ripple rating is greater than the calculated value of IRIPPLE
from the spreadsheet. However, in designs with high peak to LTV817A 80-160 35 V Liteon
continuous (average) power and long duration peak load LTV816A 80-160 80 V Liteon
conditions, the capacitor rating may need to be increased based LTV123A 80-160 70 V Liteon
on the measured capacitor temperature rise under worst-case K1010A 60-160 60 V Cosmo
load and ambient conditions.
6 Pin DIP
In either case, if a suitable individual capacitor cannot be found, LTV702FB 63-125 70 V Liteon
then two or more capacitors may be used in parallel to achieve a LTV703FB 63-125 70 V Liteon
combined ripple current rating equal to the sum of the individual LTV713FA 80-160 35 V Liteon
capacitor ratings.
K2010 60-160 60 V Cosmo
Many capacitor manufacturers provide factors that increase the PC702V2NSZX 63-125 70 V Sharp
ripple current rating as the capacitor operating temperature is PC703V2NSZX 63-125 70 V Sharp
reduced from its data sheet maximum. This should also be PC713V1NSZX 80-160 35 V Sharp
considered to ensure that the capacitor is not oversized.
PC714V1NSZX 80-160 35 V Sharp
ESR Specification MOC8102 73-117 30 V Vishay, Isocom
The switching ripple voltage is equal to the peak secondary MOC8103 108-173 30 V Vishay, Isocom
current multiplied by the ESR of the output capacitor. It is
MOC8105 63-133 30 V Vishay, Isocom
therefore important to select low ESR capacitor types to reduce
the ripple voltage. In general, selecting a capacitor rated for the CNY17F-2 63-125 70 V Vishay, Isocom,
output ripple, will result in an acceptable value of ESR. Liteon
Table 7. Optocouplers.
Voltage Rating
Select a voltage rating such that VRATED≥1.25 x VO
For improved accuracy, Figure 15 shows a typical
Step 12 – Select Feedback Circuit Components implementation using a reference IC. A TL431 is used to set the
output voltage and is programmed via a resistor divider RS1
The choice of the feedback circuit for a power supply is and RS2. Resistor RBIAS provides the minimum operating
governed by the desired output regulator. A simple feedback current for the TL431 while RFB1 sets the DC gain. The 100 nF
circuit can be configured using a Zener diode in series with the capacitor and series resistor roll off the gain of TL431 so that it
optocoupler diode. Though this method is inexpensive, it relies does not respond to cycle-by-cycle output ripple voltage. AC
on the Zener diode to control the output voltage, which limits feedback is provided directly through the optocoupler. An RC
performance due to the device’s typically poor tolerance and circuit placed across the resistor RFB1 can provide additional
temperature coefficient. phase boost to improve control loop bandwidth.
Figure 14 shows a typical implementation of Zener feedback. A post filter (LPF and CPF) is typically added to reduce high
The drop across the Zener diode DZ, optocoupler series resistor frequency switching noise and ripple. Inductor LPF should be in
RFB1 and the optocoupler LED determine the output voltage. the range of 1 μH – 3.3 μH with a current rating above the peak
Resistor RBIAS provides a 1 mA bias current so that the Zener output current. Capacitor CPF should be in the range of 100 μF
diode is operating close to its knee voltage. Resistor RFB1 sets to 330 μF with a voltage rating ≥1.25 x VOUT. If a post filter is
the DC gain of the feedback. Both these can be 0.125 W or used then the optocoupler should be connected as shown,
0.25 W, 5% types. Selecting a Zener with a low test current before the post filter inductor and the sense resistors, after the
(lZT≤ 5 mA) is recommended to minimize the current needed to post filter inductor (when applicable).
bias the feedback network, reducing no-load input power
consumption. Table 7 is a list of commonly used optocouplers for feedback
control of isolated switching power supplies. Use of an
optocoupler with a CTR of 0.8 to 2 is recommended.
14
Isolation Barrier
Optional PCB slot for external C2 Y1-

heatsink in contact with R4 Capacitor
C6
SOURCE pins T1
Input Filter R3 C10 R9
VR1
Capacitor Output
Rectifier
D1
J1
D3 Output Filter
+ Transformer C7 Capacitor
S D
HV S
U1
- C1 S C
L1
S M
JP1
C3 C4
R8 C5
C8
R1 R2
D2 J2
R14
R13
R6
R11
R7
JP2 U3
R8 R10
Maximize hatched copper C9
areas ( ) for optimum U2
VR2
heat sinking R12
DC
- +
Out PI-4753-070307
Figure 16. PCB Layout Example Using P-Package.
Isolation Barrier
C2
Y1-
Optional PCB slot for external Capacitor
heatsink in contact with R6 C6 T1
SOURCE pins
Input Filter R5 R12 Output
VR1
Capacitor Rectifier
J1 D1
+ D3 Output Filter
HV Transformer C7 Capacitor
-
S D
S
S U1 C L1
C1 S X
S V
JP1
R7 C4
C5 C9 R13
R8
C3 R14
D2 C8
R1 R2 U3
R9
R10
R15
R11
R3 R4 JP2 J2
VR2 R16
Maximize hatched copper U2
areas ( ) for optimum R17
heat sinking
- DC +
Out PI-4752-070307
Figure 17. PCB Layout Example Using M-package.
15
Isolation Barrier
C2
Y1-
R4 Capacitor
C6 T1
Input Filter
VR1
R3 R12
Capacitor Output
C10 Rectifier
D1
J1 Output Filter
+ Transformer
D3 Capacitor
HV HS1
U1 D
- S C7
F
C L1
C1 V
X
JP1
C4
R7 R10
R13
R1 R2 C5 C9
R8
D2 U3
C8
R14
JP2
R16
R11
R3 R4 J2
R9
R15
U2
R17
VR2 R12
- DC +
Out
PI-4751-070307
Figure 18. PCB Layout Example Using Y-package.
Tips for Designs • The CONTROL pin bypass capacitor should be located as
close as possible to the SOURCE and CONTROL pins and its
Design Recommendations: SOURCE connection trace should not be shared by the main
• A soft finish circuit is recommended for high output voltage MOSFET switching currents or bias winding return connection.
designs ( > 12 V). This ensures startup with full load at low • All SOURCE pin referenced components connected to the
line. In Figure 22, R23, D6 and C19 show one implementa- MULTI-FUNCTION (M), VOLTAGE MONITOR (V) or EXTERNAL
tion of the soft finish circuit. CURRENT LIMIT (X) pins should also be located closely
• A 10 μF, 50 V electrolytic capacitor is recommended for the between that pin and the SOURCE pin. The SOURCE
bias winding output filter to ensure appropriate bias voltage connection trace of these components should not be shared
for the optocoupler when the power supply is unloaded. The by the main MOSFET switching or bias winding return
bias winding output voltage should be a minimum of 10 V or currents. It is very critical that the SOURCE pin switching
higher. current is returned to the input capacitor negative terminal
through a separate trace that is not shared by the compo-
Circuit Board Layout nents connected to CONTROL, MULTI-FUNCTION,
TOPSwitch-HX is a highly integrated power supply solution that VOLTAGE-MONITOR or EXTERNAL CURRENT LIMIT pins.
integrates on a single die both the controller and the high This is because the SOURCE pin is also the controller ground
voltage MOSFET. The presence of high switching currents and reference pin. Any traces to the M, V or X pins should be kept
voltages together with analog signals makes it especially as short as possible and physically away from the DRAIN
important to follow good PCB design practice to ensure stable node, clamp components or any node with high di/dt or
and trouble free operation of the power supply. dv/dt, to prevent noise coupling.
• The LINE-SENSE resistor should be located close to the M or
When designing a PCB for the TOPSwitch-HX based power V pin to minimize the trace length on the high impedance M or
supply, it is important to follow the following guidelines: V pin side. The DC bus side of the V pin resistor should be
connected as close to the bulk capacitor as possible.
Primary Side Connections
• In addition to the 47 μF CONTROL pin capacitor, a high
• Use a single point (Kelvin) connection at the negative terminal
frequency 0.1 μF bypass capacitor in parallel should be used
of the input filter capacitor for the TOPSwitch-HX SOURCE
for local decoupling (C4 in Figures 16, 17 and 18).
pin and bias winding return. This improves surge capabilities
• The feedback optocoupler output should be routed away from
by returning surge currents from the bias winding directly to
any high voltage or high current traces to prevent noise
the input filter capacitor.
coupling.
16
✓ Recommended Layout Preferred Y capacitor

✘ Poor Bias Winding Return Connection
placement CY1
(B+ to output RTN)
B+
B+
CLAMP
Line sense resistor CLAMP
(RLS) connected at
input capacitor
RLS placed CY2

physically
close to V-pin
IBIAS
RLS +
ICY2
D V TOPSwitch-HX
D V TOPSwitch-HX
CONTROL
Y capacitor and bias
RIL placed C CONTROL
return connected C
physically
with dedicated trace
close to X-pin Bias winding return and
S X F directly to PRI RTN
Kelvin connect at at input capacitor S X
primary to secondary
F
SOURCE pin, no displacement currents (via CY2)
RIL CONTROL pin decoupling flow through signal traces.
power currents flow
in signal traces capacitor placed directly Voltage drop ($VS) across trace
between CONTROL and impedances modulates source
SOURCE pins PRI RTN reference of controller
PRI RTN
PI-4838-092407 PI-4839-092407
$VS
For correct device operation ensure that good layout practices are followed Poor layout may cause higher output ripple or prevent proper device operation
✘ Poor Signal Source Connection ✘ Poor Line Sense Resistor Location and Connection
B+ IB+
B+
CLAMP $VB+
Voltage drop across CLAMP
trace impedance ($VB+)
modulates V-pin current
RLS placed away from
device. Increases V-pin
node area, increasing RLS
potential noise coupling
V-pin trace routed in

close proximity to
D V TOPSwitch-HX
Without Kelvin connection drain node causing
CONTROL noise coupling D V TOPSwitch-HX
at SOURCE pin, power
current (IS) creates voltage C CONTROL
drop in trace ($VS), which C
modulates source reference S X F
of controller
S X F
IS
PRI RTN
PRI RTN
PI-4840-092407
$VS PI-4841-092407
Poor layout may cause higher output ripple or prevent proper device operation Poor layout may cause changes in UV/OV thresholds and higher output ripple
Figure 19. Layout Considerations (Shown Schematically) and Common Mistakes.
Y-Capacitor Secondary
The preferred Y-capacitor connection is close to the transformer To minimize leakage inductance and EMI, the area of the loop
secondary output return pin(s) and the positive primary DC input connecting the secondary winding, the output diode and the
pin of the transformer. If the Y capacitor is connected between output filter capacitor should be minimized. In addition, sufficient
primary and secondary RTN, then the primary connection copper area should be provided at the anode and cathode
should be made via a dedicated trace from the Y-capacitor to terminal of the diode for heatsinking. A larger area is preferred at
the negative input capacitor terminal. This ensures that surge the quiet cathode terminal as a large anode area can increase
currents across the isolation barrier are routed away from traces high frequency radiated EMI.
connected to the TOPSwitch-HX.
17
URYS YURYS UELDV 1N4148 ROVP VROVP RBIAS
D V D V 0 to 47 W
CONTROL CONTROL
C C
100 nF
S X F S X F
PI-4822-092107 PI-4821-092107
Figure 20. Primary Sensed OVP circuit for TOPSwitch-HX based Flyback Figure 21. Primary Sensed Overvoltage Protection Circuit for a Flyback
Power Supply. Power Supply Using TOPSwitch-HX with Additional V-pin
Noise Decoupling.
Common Layout Problems to Avoid If the value of the series resistor ROVP is very small (in the range
A poor layout will often result in performance issues that may of 5 ohm to 22 ohm), the change of V-pin voltage in response to
be time consuming to analyze, and they may occur at the end the injected current reaching 112 uA is often adequate to cause
of development, when PCB design changes are difficult. Figure a current in excess of 336 uA to flow which results in latched
19 will help quickly identify the root cause of a problem and overvoltage condition, requiring a reset.
correct the layout. The figure schematically shows common
layout mistakes and the reasons they should be avoided In some designs the Zener diode connected from the bias
winding may become a source of noise injected into the V-pin.
Implementing Overvoltage Protection Feature This happens when the bias winding output ripple is high, or
Using the TOPSwitch-HX the circuit board layout allows noise from adjacent circuits to
be coupled in the trace connecting the Zener diode to the
The bias winding output tracks the changes in the output V-pin. In such a situation, the solution shown in Figure 21
voltage for the flyback topology. If the feedback loop fails and should be used.
results in an increase in output voltage, the output voltage of
the bias winding will also increase. This can be used to detect The circuit shown in Figure 21 is also useful in situations where
an output overvoltage condition. it is difficult to achieve a latched shutdown due to slow rise in
power supply and bias winding output voltages after the
A suitable Zener diode with a series resistor connected feedback loop opens. Power supplies with large output
between the bias winding output and the V pin can be selected capacitance and/or high output load may have this issue
such that the Zener diode conducts once the bias winding during an open loop fault. If necessary, RBIAS can be added to
voltage rises significantly (typically 20 % to 30 %) above the provide additional filtering of the bias output to prevent false
highest voltage at the output of the bias winding during normal triggering of the OVP threshold.
operation (or under a transient loading condition during normal
operation). A current injected in the V-pin in excess of 112 μA Quick Design Checklist
will result in the switching cycle being terminated
instantaneously. If the injected current remains higher than As with any power supply, all TOPSwitch-HX designs should be
112 μA for over 100 μS, the part will enter hysteretic OV verified with actual hardware to ensure that component
shutdown. In such a situation, switching will resume as soon specifications are not exceeded under worst-case conditions.
as the injected current reduces below the hysteresis point after The following minimum set of tests is strongly recommended:
completing an auto-restart cycle.
1. Maximum drain voltage – Verify that peak VDS does not
If the injected current exceeds 112 uA, the V-pin responds by exceed 675 V at highest input voltage and maximum
dropping the V-pin voltage by 0.5 V. If the drop in V-pin voltage overload output power. Maximum overload output power
causes the V-pin current to jump to a value higher than 336 uA, occurs when the output is overloaded to a level just before
the part enters a state of latched shutdown. In this state the the power supply goes into auto-restart (loss of regulation).
operation will not resume unless input is cycled and the C-pin 2. Maximum drain current – At maximum ambient temperature,
capacitor is allowed to discharge, thereby resetting the part. In maximum input voltage and maximum output load, verify
addition the latched state may be reset by pulling the V-pin drain current waveforms at start-up for any signs of trans-
below 1 V with an external transistor. Care must be taken when former saturation and excessive leading edge current spikes.
designing external circuits connected to the V-pin. The V-pin TOPSwitch-HX has a minimum leading edge blanking time of
operates at very low currents to reduce no-load power 180 ns to prevent premature termination of the ON-cycle.
consumption. This results in the V pin node having a relatively Verify that the leading edge current spike is below the
high impedance, and it is therefore susceptible to noise. See allowed current limit envelope for the drain current waveform
the layout guidline section for more detailed information. at the end of the 180 ns minimum blanking period.
18
3. Thermal check – At maximum output power, minimum input Flyback topology is still usable at this power level due to the
voltage and maximum ambient temperature; verify that high output voltage, keeping the secondary peak currents low
temperature limits are not exceeded for the TOPSwitch-HX, enough to ensure that the output diode and capacitors are
transformer, output diodes and output capacitors. Enough reasonably sized. In this example, the TOP258YN is at the
thermal margin should be allowed for the part-to-part upper limit of its power capability.
variation in the RDS(ON) of TOPSwitch-HX, as specified in the
data sheet. A maximum source pin temperature for the P/G Resistors R3, R6 and R7 provide power limiting, maintaining
and M packages or tab temperature for Y package of 110 °C relatively constant overload power with input voltage. Line
is recommended to allow for these variations. Alternatively, sensing is implemented by connecting a 4 MΩ resistor from the
the design margin can be verified by connecting an external V pin to the DC rail. Resistors R4 and R5 together form the
resistance that is in series with the DRAIN pin and is attached 4 MΩ line sense resistor. If the DC input rail rises above
to the same heat sink. The resistance selected would be 450 VDC, then TOPSwitch-HX will stop switching until the
equal to the difference between the measured RDS(ON) of voltage returns to normal, preventing device damage.
the device under test and the worst case maximum specifi-
cation. Due to the high primary current, a low leakage inductance
transformer is essential. Therefore, a sandwich winding with a
Appendix A copper foil secondary is used. Even with this technique, the
leakage inductance energy is beyond the power capability of a
Application Examples simple Zener clamp. Therefore, R1, R2 and C3 are added in
A High Efficiency, 150 W, 250 – 380 VDC Input Power parallel to VR1 and VR3, two series Zener diodes being used to
Supply reduce dissipation. During normal operation, very little power is
dissipated by VR1 and VR3, the leakage energy instead being
The circuit shown in Figure 22 delivers 150 W (19 V at 7.7 A) at dissipated by R1 and R2. However, VR1 and VR3 are essential
84% efficiency using a TOP258YN from a 250 VDC to 380 VDC to limit the peak drain voltage during start-up and/or overload
input. A DC input is shown, as typically at this power level a conditions to below the 700 V rating of the TOPSwitch-HX
power factor correction stage would precede the power supply. MOSFET. The schematic shows an additional snubber circuit,
Capacitors C1 and C2 provide local decoupling, necessary consisting of R20, R21, R22, D5 and C18. This reduces turn-off
when the supply is remote from the main PFC output capacitor. losses in the TOPSwitch-HX.
2.2 nF R14 C14

250 VAC 22 7 47 pF
R1 R2 C4 0.5 W 1 kV
250 - 380 68 k7 68 k7 C5-C8 C15-C16
VDC 2W 2 W 820 MF 820 MF +19 V,
25 V L1 25 V 7.7 A
F1 RT1 O 1 13,14
C3
4A 57t 3.3 MH
R6 R4 4.7 nF
4.7 M7 2.0 M7 1 kV D2
MBR20100CT
11
D1 12
BYV26C D3 RTN
R7 R5 4 MBR20100CT
4.7 M7 2.0 -7
VR1, VR3
P6KE100A 9,10
7
C1 D4
22 MF 1N4148 R18 C17
5 22 7 47 pF
400 V R20 0.5 W 1 kV C20
1.5 k7 T1 R8 R12 1.0 MF
2W EI35 4.7 7 240 7 50 V
0.125 W
C9
D5 10 MF R24
1N4937 VR2 50 V 30 7
R21 1N5258B 0.125 W R16
R19 R23
1.5 k7 4.7 7 36 V 31.6 k7
15 k7 U2
2W 0.125 W 1%
PC817A
TOPSwitch-HX R11 R17
C12
U1 1 k7 4.7 nF 562 7
D V TOP258YN 0.125 W 50 V
R22 1%
CONTROL
1.5 k7 C U2
2W PC817B C13
R13 100 nF
56 k7
S X F R10 0.125 W 50 V
6.8 7 D6
C11 C19 1N4148
100 nF 10 MF
R3 C18 50 V C10
47 MF 50 V U3 R15
8.06 k7 120 pF
1% 10 V TL431 4.75 k7
1 kV 2% 1%
PI-4795-092007
Figure 22. 150 W, 19.5 V Power Supply using TOP258YN.
19
The secondary is rectified and smoothed by D2, D3 and C5, The M-package part has an optimized current limit to enable
C6, C7 and C8. Two windings are used and rectified with design of power supplies capable of delivering high power for
separate diodes D2 and D3 to limit diode dissipation. Four a short duration.
capacitors are used to ensure their individual maximum ripple
current limits are not exceeded. Inductor L1 and capacitors Resistor R12 programs the current limit of the TOPSwitch-HX.
C15 and C16 provide switching noise filtering. Resistors R11 and R14 provide a signal that reduces the current
limit with increasing DC bus voltage, thereby maintaining a
Output voltage is controlled using a TL431 reference IC. constant overload power level with increasing line voltage.
Resistor R15, R16 and R17 form a potential divider to sense the Resistors R1 and R2 implement the line undervoltage and
output voltage. Resistor R12 and R24 together limit the overvoltage function and also provide feed forward
optocoupler LED current and set overall control loop DC gain. compensation for reducing line frequency ripple in output. The
Control loop compensation is achieved using additional overvoltage feature stops TOPSwitch-HX switching during a line
components, C12, C13, C20 and R13. Diode D6 and capacitor surge, extending the high voltage withstand voltage to 700 V
C19 form a soft finish network. This feeds current into the without device damage.
control pin prior to output regulation, preventing output
overshoot and ensuring startup under low line, full load The snubber circuit comprising VR7, R17, R25, C5 and D2 limits
conditions. the maximum drain voltage and dissipates energy stored in the
leakage inductance of transformer T1. This clamp configuration
Sufficient heat sinking is required to keep the TOPSwitch-HX maximizes energy efficiency by preventing C5 from discharging
device below 110 οC when operating under full load, low line below the value of VR7 during the lower frequency operating
and maximum ambient temperature. Airflow may also be modes of TOPSwitch-HX. Resistor R25 damps high frequency
required if a large heat sink area is not acceptable. ringing for reduced EMI.
A High Efficiency, 20 W continuous – 80 W Peak, A combined output overvoltage and over power protection
Universal Input Power Supply circuit is provided via the latching shutdown feature of
TOPSwitch-HX and R20, C9, R22 and VR5. Should the bias
The circuit shown in Figure 23 takes advantage of several of winding output voltage across C13 rise due to output overload
TOPSwitch-HX features to reduce system cost, power supply or an open loop fault (optocoupler failure), then VR5 conducts,
size and improve power supply efficiency while delivering triggering the latching shutdown. To prevent false triggering
significant peak power. This design delivers 20 W continuous due to short duration overload, a delay is provided by R20,
and 80 W peak at 32 V from an 85 VAC to 265 VAC input. A R22 and C9.
nominal efficiency of 82% at full load is achieved using
TOP258MN.
C8 R19 C26
1 nF 68 7 100 pF
250 VAC 0.5 W 1 kV
C20 C31 32 V
330 MF 22 MF
50 V L2 50 V L3 625 mA, 2.5 APK
1 10
3.3 MH
D6-D7
D8 D9 VR7 2 STPS3150 RTN
R25 9
1N4007 1N4007 BZY97C150
C3 100 7 47 MH
120 MF 150 V 5
400 V C29
o 3 C13
t R11 NC 10 MF 220 nF
R1 C10
RT1 2 M7 3.6 M7 R17 C5 50 V 50 V
D11 D10 1 nF
1N4007 1N4007 10 7 1 k7 10 nF 4 250 VAC
0.5 W 1 kV
T1 D5
EF25 LL4148 R10
56 7 R8
L1 1.5 k7
5.3 mH D2
R2 R14 1N4007GP C28
D13 2 M7 3.6 M7 330 nF
1N4007 50 V
R23 R24 VR3
1N5255B
1 M7 1 M7 28 V
U2A
VR5 R20 PC817D
R3 1N5250B C9
R22 1 MF 130 k7
2 M7 20 V
C1 D V 2 M7 100 V
F1 R21
220 nF 3.15 A CONTROL R9
275 VAC 1 M7 2 k7
R4 0.125 W
2 M7
C
90 - 264 PI-4793-091207
VAC S X
R15
1 k7 R6
R12 TOPSwitch-HX
Q1 U4 C6 6.8 7
7.5 k7 100 nF
C30 2N3904 1% TOP258MN
50 V
100 nF
400 V Q2
Q3 C7
2N3904
2N3904 47 MF
R26 16 V
68 k7 R18
39 k7
Figure 22. 20 W Continuous, 80 W Peak, Universal Input Power Supply.
20
To reset the supply following a latching shutdown, the V pin TOP Switch-HX features to reduce system cost and power
must fall below the reset threshold. To prevent the long reset supply size and to improve efficiency. This design delivers
delay associated with the input capacitor discharging, a fast 35 W total output power from a 90 VAC to 265 VAC input at an
AC reset circuit is used. The AC input is rectified and filtered by ambient of 50º C in an open frame configuration. A nominal
D13 and C30. While the AC supply is present, Q3 is on and efficiency of 84 % at full load is achieved using TOP258PN.
Q1 is off, allowing normal device operation. However when With a DIP-8 package, this design provides 35 W continuous
AC is removed, Q1 pulls down the V pin and resets the latch. output power using only the copper area on the circuit board
The supply will then return to normal operation when AC is underneath the part as heat sink. The different operating
again applied. modes of the TOPSwitch-HX provide significant improvement in
the no-load, standby, and light load performance of the power
Transistor Q2 provides an additional lower UV threshold to the supply as compared to previous generations of TOPSwitch.
level programmed via R1, R2 and the V pin. At low input AC
voltage, Q2 turns off, allowing the X pin to float, and thereby Resistors R1 and R2 provide line sensing, setting UV at 95 VDC
disables switching. and OV at 445 VDC.
A simple feedback circuit automatically regulates the output Diode D5, together with resistors R7, R6, capacitor C6 and
voltage. Zener VR3 sets the output voltage together with the Zener VR1, forms a clamp network that limits the drain voltage
voltage drop across series resistor R5, which sets the DC gain after the MOSFET inside the TOPSwitch turns OFF. Zener VR1
of the circuit. Resistors R10 and C28 provide a phase boost to provides a defined maximum clamp voltage and typically only
improve loop bandwidth. conducts during fault conditions such as overload. This allows
the RCD clamp (R6, R7, C6 and D5) to be sized for normal
Diode D6 is a low loss Schottky rectifier, and capacitor C20 is operation, thereby maximizing efficiency at light load.
the output filter capacitor. Inductor L3 is a common mode
inductor to limit radiated EMI when long output cables are Should the feedback circuit fail, output of the power supply will
used and the output return is connected to safety earth ground. exceed regulation limits. This increased voltage at output will
Examples of this include PC peripherals such as inkjet printers. also result in an increased voltage at the output of the bias
winding. Zener VR2 will break down, and current will flow into
A High Efficiency, 35 W, Dual Output - Universal Input the “M” pin of the TOPSwitch, initiating hysteretic overvoltage
Power Supply protection. Resistor R5 will limit the current into the M pin; if
latching OVP is desired, the value of R5 can be reduced to 20 Ω.
The circuit in Figure 24 takes advantage of several of the
C6 C7 C12
3.9 nF 2.2 nF R11 470 pF
1 kV 250 VAC 33 7 100 V
D7 C13 C14 C15

R6 T1 SB560 680 MF 680 MF L2 220 MF
22 k7 2 EER28 7 25 V 25 V 3.3 MH 25 V +12 V,
2W 2A
D1 D2 VR1 C16 C18
P6KE200A 470 pF R12 L3 RTN
1N4937 1N4007 33 7 3.3 MH 220 MF
100 V 10 V
3 11 +5 V,
2.2 A
R7 D8
20 7 SB530
4 9
1/2 W RTN
C10 C17
6 2200 MF
10 MF
D5 R10 50 V C11 10 V
D3 D4 R3 D6
2.0 M7 FR106 FR106 4.7 7 2.2 nF R19
1N4937 1N4007 250 VAC
5 10 7
L1 R4
6.8 mH 2.0 M7 VR3
R14 BZX55B8V2
C4 R13 22 7 8.2 V
R1 R2 100 MF 330 7 C19 2%
1 M7 1 M7 400 V VR2 1.0 MF
R5 1N5250B 50 V
5.1 k7 20 V U2B
C3 PS2501- R15
220 nF 1-H-A 1 k7
F1 275 VAC
3.15 A
U2A
TOPSwitch-HX PS2501-
RT1 O D M U1
L 10 7 t 1-H-A R18 R20
CONTROL TOP258PN 196 k7 12.4 k7
E C 1% 1%
R16 R17
10 k7 10 k7
N S R8 D9
C8 6.8 7 1N4148
90 - 265 100 nF C21
VAC 50 V C9 220 nF
47 MF 50 V
16 V C20
10 MF U3 R21
50 V TL431 10 k7
2% 1%
PI-4747-091407
Figure 24. Universal Input, 35W Power Supply Using TOP258PN.
21
Output voltage is controlled using the amplifier TL431. Diode reasonable to assume that, to the first order, all output currents
D9, capacitor C20 and resistor R16 form the soft finish circuit. have the same shape as for the single output equivalent of
At start, capacitor C20 is discharged. As the output voltage combined circuit.
starts rising, current flows through the optocoupler diode inside
U2A, resistor R13 and diode D9 to charge capacitor C20. This Output RMS Current vs. Average Current
provides feedback to the primary circuit. The current in the The output average current is always equal to the DC load
optocoupler diode U2A gradually decreases as the capacitor current, while the RMS value is determined by current wave
C20 becomes charged and the control amplifier IC U3 shape. Since the current wave shapes are assumed to be the
becomes operational. This ensures that the output voltage same for all outputs, their ratio of RMS to average currents must
increases gradually and settles to the final value without any also be identical. Therefore, with the output average current
overshoot. Diode D9 ensures that the capacitor C23 is known, the RMS current for each output winding can be
maintained charged at all times after startup, which effectively calculated as
isolates C20 from the feedback circuit after start-up. Capacitor I
ISRMS ] n g = IO ] n g # SRMS
C23 discharges via R16 when the power supply shuts down. IO
Resistor R18, R20 and R21 form a voltage divider network.
The output of this divider network is primarily dependent on the where ISRMS(n) and IO(n) are the secondary RMS current and
divider circuit formed using R20 and R21 but modified by output average current of the nth output, and ISRMS and IO are the
changes in voltage at the 15 V output due to the connection of secondary RMS current and output average current for the
resistor R18 to the output of the divider network. lumped single output equivalent design.
Resistor R19 and VR3 improve cross regulation in case only the Customization of Secondary Designs for Each Output
5 V output is loaded, which results in the 12 V output operating The turns for each secondary winding are calculated based on
at the higher end of the specification. the respective output voltage VO(n):
Appendix B VO ] n g + V D ] n g
NS ] n g = NS # V + VD
Multiple Output Flyback Power Supply Design
Output rectifier maximum inverse voltage is
The only difference between a multiple output flyback power
supply and a single output flyback power supply of the same
NS ] n g
total output power is on the secondary side design. PIVS ] n g = VMAX # N + VO ] n g
P
Design with Lumped Output Power With output RMS current ISRMS(n), secondary number of turns
A simple multiple output flyback design is described in detail in NS(n) and output rectifier maximum inverse voltage PIVS(n) known,
AN-22, “Designing Multiple Output Flyback Power Supplies with the secondary side design for each output can now be carried
TOPSwitch.” The design method starts with a single output out exactly the same way as for the single output design.
equivalent by lumping output power of all outputs to one main
output. Secondary peak current ISP and RMS current ISRMS are Secondary Winding Wire Size
derived. Output average current IO, corresponding to the The TOPSwitch-HX design spreadsheet assumes a CMA of 200
lumped power, is also calculated. when calculating secondary winding wire diameters. This gives
the minimum wire sizes required for the RMS currents of each
Assumption for Simplification output using separate windings. Designers may wish to use
The current waveforms in the individual output windings are larger size wire for better thermal performance. Other
determined by the impedance in each circuit, which is a considerations, such as skin effect and bobbin coverage, may
function of leakage inductance, rectifier characteristics, suggest the use of a smaller wire by using multiple strands
capacitor value and output load. Although this current wave- wound in parallel. In addition, practical considerations in
form may not be exactly the same from output to output, it is transformer manufacturing may also dictate the wire size.
22
23
Revision Notes Date
A Initial Release 9/07
B Text changes 9/07
C Style, formatting and renumbering 10/07
For the latest updates, visit our website: www.powerint.com

Power Integrations reserves the right to make changes to its products at any time to improve reliability or manufacturability. Power
Integrations does not assume any liability arising from the use of any device or circuit described herein. POWER INTEGRATIONS MAKES
NO WARRANTY HEREIN AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, THE IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, AND NON-INFRINGEMENT OF THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
Patent Information
The products and applications illustrated herein (including transformer construction and circuits external to the products) may be covered by
one or more U.S. and foreign patents, or potentially by pending U.S. and foreign patent applications assigned to Power Integrations. A
complete list of Power Integrations patents may be found at www.powerint.com. Power Integrations grants its customers a license under
certain patent rights as set forth at http://www.powerint.com/ip.htm.
Life Support Policy

POWER INTEGRATIONS PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT DEVICES OR
SYSTEMS WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF THE PRESIDENT OF POWER INTEGRATIONS. As used herein:
1. A Life support device or system is one which, (i) is intended for surgical implant into the body, or (ii) supports or sustains life, and (iii)
whose failure to perform, when properly used in accordance with instructions for use, can be reasonably expected to result in significant
injury or death to the user.
2. A critical component is any component of a life support device or system whose failure to perform can be reasonably expected to cause
the failure of the life support device or system, or to affect its safety or effectiveness.
The PI logo, TOPSwitch, TinySwitch, LinkSwitch, DPA-Switch, PeakSwitch, EcoSmart, Clampless, E-Shield, Filterfuse, StakFET, PI Expert
and PI FACTS are trademarks of Power Integrations, Inc. Other trademarks are property of their respective companies.
©2007, Power Integrations, Inc.
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Chapter 4
Techniques of Circuit
Analysis
4.1 Terminology
4.2-4.4 The Node-Voltage Method (NVM)
4.5-4.7 The Mesh-Current Method (MCM)
4.8 Choosing NVM or MCM
4.9 Source Transformations
4.10-4.11 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
4.12 Maximum Power Transfer
4.13 Superposition
1
Overview
 Circuit analysis by series-parallel reduction and

-Y transformations might be cumbersome or
even impossible when the circuits are
structurally complicated and/or involve with a
lot of elements.
 Systematic methods that can describe circuits
with minimum number of simultaneous
equations are of high interest.
2
Key points
 How to solve a circuit by the Node-Voltage

Method and Mesh-Current Method
systematically?
 What is the meaning of equivalent circuit? Why

is it useful?
 How to get the Thévenin equivalent circuit?
 What is superposition? Why is it useful?
3
Section 4.1
Terminology
4
Definition
5
Planar circuits
 Circuits without crossing branches.
Not in
contact
6
Example of a nonplanar circuit
7
Identifying essential nodes in a circuit
 Number of essential nodes is denoted by ne.

8
Identifying essential branches in a circuit
iab is not!!
 Number of essential branches is denoted by be.

9
Identifying meshes in a circuit
10
Section 4.2-4.4
The Node-Voltage Method
(NVM)
1. Standard procedures
2. Use of supernode
11
Step 1: Select one of the ne essential nodes as
the reference node
Can be either
v1 v2 planar or nonplanar.
Reference v=0
 Selection is arbitrary. Usually, the node
connecting to the most branches is selected
to simplify the formulation.
12
Step 2: List ne-1 equations by KCL, Solve them
v1 v2
Node 1:  v1  10  v1  v1  v2  0,  1.7  0.5  v1  10

 1 5 2        ,
   0.5 0.6  v   2 
 v2  v1 v2    2  
Node 2:    2.
 2  10   v1   9.09 
    V.
v2  10.91 13
NVM in the presence of dependent sources
 v1  20 v1 v1  v2 0.75  0.2  v1  10


Node 1:  2  20  5    0,        ,

  1 1.6  v2   0 
 v2  v1 v2 v2  8i
Node 2:     0,
 5  10  2  v1  16
      V, i  1.2 A.
Constr  v1  v2 v2  10
i
  . 
aint:  5
14
Case of failing to derive node equation
 When a voltage source (either independent or dependent)
is the only element between two essential nodes, the
essential branch current is undetermined,  fail to apply
KCL to either node!
 E.g. i23 is undetermined, fail to apply KCL to Nodes 2, 3.
v1=50 V 2 v3= v2+10i
i23 = ?
0V
15
Solution 1: Add an unknown current
50 V 2 3
i23
0V
 v2  50 v2
Node 2:    i23  0,
5 50  v2  50 v2 v3
     4  (1)
 v3 5 50  100 
Node 3: 100  23  i  4 .

Source constraint: v3 = v2 + 10(v2  v1)/(5 )…(2).
16
Solution 2: Use supernode
 By applying KCL to a supernode formed by

combination of two essential nodes, one can get
the same equation without the intermediate step.
v2  50 v v
 2  3  4  (1)
5 50  100 
17
Counter example (Example 4.3)
G
20-V source is not the only element between
Nodes 1 and G,  branch current i20V = (v1-20)/(2 )
is still available, KCL can still be applied to Node 1,
no need to use supernode.
18
Example 2.11: Amplifier circuit (1)
 ne=4,  3 unknown
voltages. Since iB
cannot be derived
by node voltages,
 4 unknowns.
 The 2 voltage
sources provide 2
constraints:
va  VCC  (1)

vc  vb  V0  (2)
19
Example 2.11 (2)
 Apply KCL to Node b:

VCC vb vb  VCC
  iB  0  (3)
R2 R1
 Apply KCL to Node c:
icd  (1   )iB ,
vb-V0 vc
 (1   )iB   (4)
RE
(+1)iB  Use Supernode bc
is also OK.
20
Section 4.5-4.7
The Mesh-Current Method
(MCM)
1. Advantage of using mesh currents as

unknowns
2. Use of supermesh
21
Branch currents as unknowns
 Number of essential branches be = 3, number of

essential nodes ne = 2.
 To solve {i1, i2, i3}, use KCL and KVL to get ne-1
= 1 and be-(ne-1) = 2 equations.
22
Advantage of using mesh currents as unknowns
Can only be planar.
i1 i2
i3
 Relation between branch currents and mesh

currents: i1 = ia, i2 = ib, i3 = ia – ib.
 Each mesh current flows into and out of any
node on the way,  automatically satisfy KCL.
23
List be-(ne-1) equations by KVL, Solve them
Mesh a: v1  ia R1  ia  ib R3  (1)


Mesh b: ib R2  v2  ib  ia R3  0  (2)
 R1  R3  R3  ia   v1  ia  1  v1 
       , i   R    v .
  R3 R2  R3  ib   v2   b  2
24
Case of failing to derive mesh equation
 When a current source is between two essential nodes

(no need to be the only element), the voltage drop
across the source is undetermined,  fail to apply KVL
to either mesh!
 E.g. v2G is
undetermined, fail
1 2 3 to apply KVL to
Meshes a and c.
G 25
Solution 1: Add an unknown voltage
1 2 3
Mesh a: (3 )(ia  ib )  v  (6 )ia  100,


Mesh c: (2 )(ic  ib )  50  (4 )ic  v.
 9ia  5ib  6ic  50  (1)
26
Solution 2: Use supermesh
 By applying KVL to a supermesh formed by
combination of two meshes, one can get the
same equation without the intermediate step.
(3 )(ia  ib )  (2 )(ic  ib )  50  (4 )ic  (6 )ia  100,
 9ia  5ib  6ic  50  (1)
27
Section 4.8
The Node-Voltage Method
vs. the Mesh-Current
Method
28
Example 4.6 (1)
 Q: P300 = ?
 5 meshes, no current source (no supermesh). 

MCM needs 5 mesh equations.
 4 essential nodes, the dependent voltage source
is the only element on that branch (1 supernode).
 NVM needs (4-1)-1= 2 node equations.
29
Example 4.6 (2)
 Choose the reference node such that P300 can

be calculated by only solving v2.
 Apply KCL to Supernode 1,3:
v1 v1  v2 v3 v3  256 v3  v2 v3  128  v2
      0 (1)
100  250  200  150  400  500 
30
Example 4.6 (3)
v2 v2  v1 v2  v3 v2  128  v3
Node 2:     0 ( 2)
300  250  450  500 
v2 v2
Source constraint: v1  v3  50   (3)
300  6
31
Example 4.7 (1)
 3 meshes, 2 current sources (2 supermeshes).

 MCM needs 1 mesh equation.
 4 essential nodes, no voltage source is the only
element on one branch (no supernode).  NVM
needs (4-1)= 3 node equations.
32
Example 4.7 (2)
 Apply KVL to Supermesh a, b, c:

( 4   6 )ia  ( 2.5   7.5 )ib  ( 2   8 )ic
 0.8v  193;
 v  ib (7.5 ),  10ia  4ib  10ic  193 (1)
33
Example 4.7 (3)
 By the two current source constraints:

ib  ia  0.4v  0.4ic  2   0.8ic  ( 2)
ic  ib  0.5 (3)
34
Section 4.9
Source Transformations
35
Source transformations
 A voltage source vs in series with a resistor R

can be replaced by a current source is in
parallel with the same resistor R or vice versa,
where v
is  s
R
36
Proof of source transformation
 For any load resistor RL, the current i and

voltage v between terminals a, b should be
consistent in both configurations.
+ vs RL
i1  , v1  vs .
RL v1 R  RL R  RL
i1 
 R R vs
i2  R  R is  R  R R  i1 ,
+  L L
RL v2 
v  i ( R // R )  vs RRL  v .
i2   2 s L
R R  RL
1
37
Redundant resistors
Why?
Why?
38
Example 4.9 (1)
 Q: (1) vo = ? (2) P250V = ?
39
Example 4.9 (2)
 To find vo, transform the 250-V voltage source
into a 10-A current source.
40
Example 4.9 (3)
 Now vo is simply the voltage of the total load.
vo  (2 A)  (10 )  20 V.
41
Example 4.9 (4)
 P250V has to be calculated by the original circuit:

20 V
i
250 V (250  20) V

i   11.2 A,
125  25 
(Power
P250V  (11.2 A )  (250 V )  2.8 kW.
extraction)
42
Section 4.10, 4.11
Thévenin and Norton
Equivalent
1. Definition of equivalent circuit

2. Methods to get the two Thévenin
equivalent circuit parameters vTh, RTh
3. Methods to get Thévenin resistance
RTh alone
4. Example of applications 43
Thévenin equivalent circuit
A general circuit
 For any load resistor RL, the current i and

voltage v between terminals a, b should be
consistent in both configurations.
44
Method 1 to get VTh and RTh
 Find open circuit voltage  voc=VTh  voc

  RTh 
 Find short circuit current  isc  isc
Note: This method is invalid

when the circuits contain
only dependent sources.
45
Example: Calculating voc
 Let terminals a, b be open,  no current flows

through the 4- resistor,  voc = v1.
Open
 By NVM, the only unknown is the node voltage v1.

Apply KCL to Node c:
v1  25 v1
  3,  v1  32 V  VTh .
5 20  46
Example: Calculating isc
 Let terminals a, b be short,  isc = v2/(4 ).

c
Short
 By NVM, the only unknown is node voltage v2.

Apply KCL to Node c:
v2  25 v2 v2
   3,  v2  16 V,
5 20  4 
isc  v2 ( 4 )  4 A. 47
Example: Calculating RTh and Norton circuit
 The Thévenin resistance is:
RTh = VTh / isc = (32 V)/(4 A) = 8 .
 The Norton equivalent

circuit can be derived by
source transformation:
48
Method 2 to get VTh and RTh
 Use a series of source transformations when the

circuit contains only independent sources.
Same as
by voc, isc.
49
Method 1 to get RTh alone
 For circuits with only independent sources,

 Step 1: “Deactivate” all sources: (1) Voltage source 
Short, (2) Current source  Open.
 Step 2: RTh is the resistance seen by an observer looking

into the network at the designated terminal pair.
E.g. RTh =Rab = [(5 )//(20 )]+(4 ) = 8 .
50
Method 2 to get RTh alone
 For circuits with or without dependent sources:
 Step 1: Deactivate all independent sources;

 Step 2: Apply a test voltage vT or test current iT
source to the designated terminals;
 Step 3: Calculate the terminal current iT if a test
voltage vT source is used and vice versa;
vT
 Step 4: Get the Thévenin resistance by RTh  .
iT
51
Example 4.11: Find RTh of a circuit (1)
 Step 1: Deactivate all independent sources:
Short
52
Example 4.11 (2)
 Step 2: Assume a test voltage source vT:
 Step 3: Calculate terminal current iT ( vT):

vT   3vT  vT
iT   20  .
25   2 k  100 
 Step 4: RTh = vT / iT = 100 .
53
Amplifier circuit solved by equivalent circuit (1)
 To find the
equivalent circuit
that “drives”
terminals b and d
(the input of a BJT
transistor), we can
redraw the circuit
as if it were
iB = ?
composed of two
stages.
54
 For terminals b, d,
the left part has an
open-circuit voltage:
R2
vTh  vCC ,
R1  R2
 The resistance with

VCC gets shorted is:
R1R2
RTh  R1 // R2 
R1  R2
55
 The left part can be

replaced by a
Thévenin circuit.
With this, we can
apply KVL to loop
bcdb:
vTh  RThiB  V0
 (1   )iB RE ,
VTh  V0
iB  .
RTh  (1   ) RE
56
Section 4.12
Maximum Power Transfer
57
Formulation (1)
 Consider a circuit
(represented by a Thévenin
equivalent) loaded with a
resistance RL. The power
dissipation at RL is: 2
 VTh 
p  i RL  
2
 RL ,
 RTh  RL 
 To find the value of RL that leads to maximum
power transfer, perform derivative:
dp  ( R  R ) 2
 2 RL ( RTh  RL ) 
 VTh 
2 Th L
.
dRL  ( RTh  RL ) 4

58
Formulation (2)
 When the derivative equals zero, p is maximized:

2  ( RTh  RL )  2 RL ( RTh  RL ) 
2
dp
 VTh    0,
dRL  ( RTh  RL ) 4

 ( RTh  RL ) 2  2 RL ( RTh  RL )  0,
 RTh  RL  2 RL ,
 RL  RTh
 The maximum transfer power is:
2
 VTh  VTh2
pmax    RTh  .
 RTh  RTh  4 RTh
59
Section 4.13
Superposition
60
What is superposition?
 In a circuit consisting of linear elements only,

superposition allows us to activate one
independent source at a time and sum the
individual voltages and currents to determine the
actual voltages and currents when all
independent sources are active.
 Superposition is useful in designing a large
system, where the impact of each independent
source is critical for system optimization.
61
Example (1)
 Q: i1,2,3,4 = ?
Deactivated
 i1  15 A, i2  10 A, i3  i4  5 A.

62
Example (2)
Deactivated
 i1  2 A, i2  4 A, i3  6 A, i4  6 A.

63
Example (3)
i1  i1  i1  15  2  17 A,

i  i  i  10  4  6 A, 
2 2 2 
 .
i3  i3  i3  5  6  11 A, 
i4  i4  i4  5  6  1 A, 
 The 12-A (120-V) source is more important in
determining i1, i2, (i3, i4).
64
Key points
 How to solve a circuit by the Node-Voltage

Method and Mesh-Current Method
systematically?
 What is the meaning of equivalent circuit? Why

is it useful?
 How to get the Thévenin equivalent circuit?
 What is superposition? Why is it useful?
65

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MCC

Micro Commercial Components

An Introduction to zener diodes

zeners above 5 watts have increasingly been replaced by D001 series.

load to be regulated. In special compensated multiple PN significantly higher.

Micro Commercial Components

current-voltage relation as shown in Figure1. The initial IZ=[(VS -V Z)/R] - IL

zener diode. Zeners will experience some operating current

What is the impedance of a Zener diode?

Back to FAQs of Diodes ≫

After studying this section, you should be able to:

Zener Diode Construction

Figure 2.4.1. Zener Diode Construction

Figure 2.4.2. Alternative

1. The Zener Effect

Figure 2.4.3. Zener & Avalanche Effects

Practical Zener Diodes

Elliott Sound Products AN-008

App. Notes Index

Impact ionisation (also called avalanche breakdown) - positive temperature coefficient

Using Zener Diodes

Figure 1 - Zener Diode Conduction

V = R × I = 10Ω * 10mA = 0.1V (or 100mV)

I = 2 / 27 = 0.074A = 74mA (at 25°C)

Figure 2 - Zener Diode AC Clamp

Zener Diode Data

For example, you might measure the following ...

Zener voltage = 11.97 V at 20 mA

Knee Peak Cont.

1. IZt = zener test current

Putting Zeners To Use

Figure 4 - Typical Zener Regulator Circuit

Rs = Vs / I = 23 / 40m = 575 ohms

Is = 23V / 560 ohms = 41mA P = Is² × R = 41mA² * 560 ohms = 941mW

V = R × I = 14 × 3.57m = 50mV peak-peak (less than 20mV RMS)

Maximising Stability (Voltage Reference)

Figure 5 - 'Conventional' Vs. Precision Zener Regulator Circuit

Bâtiments industriels & agricoles

App. Notes Index

Uses Buried zener structure

The value of R must satisfy two conditions:

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zener_diode&oldid=873529683"

This page was last edited on 13 December 2018, at 17:32 (UTC).

The Zener Diode

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diode Regulator

a). The maximum current owing through the zener diode.

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

d). The zener current IZ at full load.

Zener Diode Voltages

Zener Diodes Connected in Series

Zener Diode Standard Zener Voltages

BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating 500mW

2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V

5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V

24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V

BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W

3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6 6.2V

6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V

15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V

33V 36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V

Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Square Wave Signal