Land Pollution

M.SC (PART2) /B.
S (HONS) 8TH SEMESTER
LAND POLLUTION
WHAT IS SOIL?
The top layer of the earth's surface in which plants can grow, consisting of rock and mineral particles
mixed with decayed organic- matter and having the capability of retaining water.
OR
Life-supporting upper surface of earth that is the basis of all agriculture. It contains minerals and gravel
from the chemical and physical weathering of rocks, decaying organic matter (humus), microorganism,
insects, nutrients, water, and air.
In order to understand the formation of soil we must study about the structure and composition of
earth.
STRUCTURE OF EARTH
Geologists have shown that the structure of earth can be divided into three layers;
i. Crust
ii. Mantle
iii. Core
The difference between these three layers exist due to the difference in their chemical composition. The
outermost layer is Earth crust. Below earth crust, their lies mantle. Mantle constitute about 82% of the
total volume of the earth. Then below mantle there is a very hot layer called as core.
The series of concentric layers become progressively denser towards the centre. As the pieces of the
earth are put together, it has been discovered that the outermost layer i.e., crust, on which we live, is in
a state of constant motion. While the inner portion of earth is studied by observing earth-quakes,
meteorites, chains of islands and volcanoes. The major parts of the earth and their description are as
follows:
PROF. NAVEED ASLAM DOGAR, M.SC (CHEMISTRY), M.PHIL (ENV.SCIENCES), M.PHIL (CHEMISTRY)
PH.D(SCHOLAR) DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY,GOVT. COLLEGE OF SCIENCE WAHDAT ROAD, LHR.0322 4976417
Diagram: Different Layers of Earth
i. Crust:
It is the outermost layer of the earth. It is also of two types i.e.;
a. Oceanic crust.
b. Continental crust.
The average thickness of the oceanic crust is 5-9 km and it varies comparatively throughout the world.
While continental crust is much thicker than the oceanic crust. The average thickness of the continental
crust varies between 30-40 km.
The most abundant elements of the earth crust are; Silicon (Si) and Aluminium (Al).
ii. Mantle:
Mantle lies below the crust and extends 2900 km below the crust. It constitutes 82% of the total volume
of the earth. The mantle is further divided into Lithosphere (100 km) deep, Asthenosphere (700 km
deep) and Mesosphere (2900 km deep) depending upon their chemical composition and density.
iii. Core:
It is the inner most layer of the earth. It extends from the base of the mantle to the centre of the earth.
It constitute about 17% of the total volume of the earth. The core comprises of two distinct portions.
The outer core is liquid at a temperature of about 3000C. Outer core is about 5100 km deep while the
inner core is solid and about 6300km deep. The main constituent of the core is iron (Fe) along with
some lighter elements like sulphur (S), Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Hydrogen (H 2) and oxygen (O2).
COMPOSITION OF EARTH
The earth is made up of more than 100 different elements. The following 8 elements constitute the
important ones:
Oxygen 46.5%
Silicon 27.72%
Aluminium 8.13%
Iron 5.01%
Calcium, 3.63%
Sodium 2.85%
Potassium 2.62%
Magnesium 2.09%
Other elements 1.41%
The earth’s crust is formed of mineral material called rocks. The rocks which form the substructure of
our lithosphere are grouped into three broad categories:
(i) Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma from the interior of the earth. About
95 percent of the earth’s crust is made of this type of rock. In fact, all other types of rocks originate from
these rocks and, therefore, they are also called primary rocks. Igneous rocks are of three types:
1. Granite: These rocks are the major continental rocks.
2. Basalt: These rocks are found on ocean beds.
3. Volcanic: These rocks are formed by the solidification of molten lava ejected by the volcanoes.
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks
These rocks are formed from the sediment deposits on the ocean beds. They comprise only about 5
percent of the earth’s crust but cover about 75 percent of the total land surface. These rocks are made
up of the weathered remains of igneous rocks, but they also contain organic matter from the remains of
marine organisms.Sedimentary rocks are formed in horizontal layers, called strata and take millions of
years to harden into rocks. These rocks are also known as stratified rocks because of these layers.
Examples of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Gypsum, chalk and limestone, which are formed by the deposition created by chemical action or
chemical sedimentation.
2. Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite which are formed by deposition of organic matter or
marine remains.
3. Conglomerates like gravel, pebbles and shingle, sandstone and shale like layered clay or
claystone formed by the deposition of sediments in water.
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks
These rocks were originally either igneous or sedimentary in nature. They metamorphic or change due
to pressure, intense temperature or the action of water and chemical activity.
Example of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Slate is formed by compression of sedimentary rocks like shale and mudstone.
2. Quartzite is formed from sedimentary rocks like sandstone.
3. Gneiss is formed by the metamorphosis of igneous rocks like granite.
4. Marble sedimentary rocks like limestone turn into marble under intense heat.
FORMATION OF SOIL
The formation of soil is due to the process of weathering of rocks. The modification of the earth crust as
a result of its interaction with atmosphere and hydrosphere is called weathering. The final products of
weathering are sand, silt, gravel and clay. There are three different types of weathering :
 Physical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Biological weathering
The important processes involved in physical weathering are wetting, drying, heating, freezing,
glacination e.t.c. Differential thermal expansion and contraction due to change in temperature
produces the internal tension in the rock which leads to cracks and splits. Freezing of water in cracks
cause intense pressure within the rock body. This pressure is more than the tensile strength of the rock
and therefore tears the rock fragments.
Chemical weathering involves processes like hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, chelation and Redox
reactions. These changes are brought about by the air , water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other
materials which help in transformation of the rock material into gravel, sand ,silt and clay.
In biological weathering the organisms like bacteria, lichens, algae and some fungi in the presence of
moisture produce metabolites which help in the disintegration of rocks. Roots of plants growing in the
cracks creates pressure and tear the fragments of rocks.
WHAT IS PEDOGENESIS?
The modification of mineral matter through interaction between the climatic , biological and
topographical effects that leads to the formation of soil profile is called pedogenesis.
NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals and organic
matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air,
too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in the soil need air to undergo the
biological processes that release additional nutrients into the soil.
The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical soil consists of
approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
The solid phase of soil, which includes minerals and organic matter, are generally stable in nature. Yet, if
organic matter is not properly managed, it may be depleted from the soil. The liquid and gas phases of
the soil, which are water and air respectively, are the most dynamic properties of the soil. The relative
amounts of water and air in the soil are constantly changing as the soil wets or dries.
(a) Soil Minerals
Soil minerals play a vital role in soil fertility since mineral surfaces serve as potential sites for nutrient
storage. However, different types of soil minerals hold and retain differing amounts of nutrients.
Therefore, it is helpful to know the types of minerals that make up your soil so that you can predict the
degree to which the soil can retain and supply nutrients to plants.
There are numerous types of minerals found in the soil. These minerals vary greatly in size and chemical
composition.
Particle size is an important property that allows us to make distinctions among the different soil
minerals. Soils contain particles that range from very large boulders to minute particles which are
invisible to the naked eye. To further distinguish particles based upon size, particles are separated into
the two categories: the coarse fraction and the fine earth fraction.
FINE SIZE FRACTIONS
The fine earth fraction includes any particle less than 2.0 mm (.078 inches) and is divided into three
classes of size: sand, silt, or clay.
Table . Description of sand, silt, and clay classes.
The Fine Earth Fraction
Size Texture Characteristics
Sand 2.0 mm -0.05 mm gritty Sand is visible to the naked eye, consists of particles with low
surface area, and permits excessive drainage.
Silt 0.05 mm - 0.002 mm buttery Silt is not visible to the naked eye and increases the water
holding capacity of soil.
Clay < 0.002 mm sticky Clay has a high surface area, high water holding capacity, many
small pores, and possesses charged surfaces to attract and
hold nutrients.
COARSE SIZE PRACTIONS
The coarse fraction of soil includes any soil particles greater than 2mm. The coarse fraction includes
boulders, stones, gravels, and coarse sands. These are rocky fragments and are generally a combination
of more than one type of mineral.
(b) Soil Organic Matter
Soil organic matter not only stores nutrients in the soil, but is also a direct source of nutrients. Some of the world’s
most fertile soils tend to contain high amounts of organic matter.
Soil organic matter includes all organic (or carbon-containing) substances within the soil.
Soil organic matter includes:
 Living organisms (soil biomass)

 The remains of microorganisms that once inhabited the soil
 The remains of plants and animals
 Organic compounds that have been decomposed within the soil and, over thousands of years, reduced to
complex and relatively stable substances commonly called humus.
Important Functions of Organic Matter
Although surface soils usually contain only 1-6 % organic matter, soil organic matter performs very important
functions in the soil. Soil organic matter:
 Acts as a binding agent for mineral particles.

 This is responsible for producing friable (easily crumbled) surface soils.
 Increases the amount of water that a soil may hold.
 Provides food for organisms that inhabit the soil.
 Humus is an integral component of organic matter because it is fairly stable and resistant to further
decomposition. Humus is brown or black and gives soils its dark color.
 Like clay particles, humus is an important source of plant nutrients.
(c)Soil Water
In nutrient management, a proper balance between soil water and soil air is critical since both water
and air are required by most processes that release nutrients into the soil. Soil water is particularly
important in nutrient management. In addition to sustaining all life on Earth, soil water provides a pool
of dissolved nutrients that are readily available for plant uptake. Therefore, it is important to maintain
proper levels of soil moisture.
Soil water is important for three special reasons:
 The presence of water is essential for the all life on Earth, including the lives of plants and
organisms in the soil.
 Water is a necessary for the weathering of soil. Areas with high rainfall typically have highly
weathered soils. Since soils vary in their degree of weathering, it is expected that soils have been
affected by different amounts of water.
 Soil water is the medium from which all plant nutrients are assimilated by plants. Soil water,
sometimes referred to as the soil solution, contains dissolved organic and inorganic substances
and transports dissolved nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium, to the
plant roots for absorption.
The amount of water in the soil is dependent upon two factors:

 First, soil water is intimately related to the climate, or the long term precipitation patterns, of an
area.
 Secondly, the amount of water in the soil depends upon how much water a soil may hold.
(d)Soil Air
Soil aeration influences the availability of many nutrients. Particularly, soil air is needed by microorganisms that
release plant nutrients to the soil.
Air can fill soil pores as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption. The network
pores within the soil aerates, or ventilates, the soil. This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil
pores. Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil, but both are often inversely related:
 An increase in soil water content often causes a reduction in soil aeration.

 Likewise, reducing soil water content may mean an increase in soil aeration.
Soil air is very different than the above-ground atmosphere. A significant difference is between the levels of carbon
dioxide. Since the soil contains high amounts of carbon dioxide, oxygen levels may become limited. Since plants mu
have oxygen to live, it is important to allow proper aeration in the soil.
Table . Comparison between soil air and atmospheric composition
SOIL PH
Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH
units. Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale
goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil
increases the soil pH decreases thus becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly
more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic.
Descriptive terms commonly associated with certain ranges in soil pH are:
 Extremely acid: < than 4.5; lemon=2.5; vinegar=3.0; stomach acid=2.0; soda=2–4
 Very strongly acid: 4.5–5.0; beer=4.5–5.0; tomatoes=4.5
 Strongly acid: 5.1–5.5; carrots=5.0; asparagus=5.5; boric acid=5.2; cabbage=5.3
 Moderately acid: 5.6–6.0; potatoes=5.6
 Slightly acid: 6.1–6.5; salmon=6.2; cow's milk=6.5
 Neutral: 6.6–7.3; saliva=6.6–7.3; blood=7.3; shrimp=7.0
 Slightly alkaline: 7.4–7.8; eggs=7.6–7.8
 Moderately alkaline: 7.9–8.4; sea water=8.2; sodium bicarbonate=8.4
 Strongly alkaline: 8.5–9.0; borax=9.0
 Very strongly alkaline: > than 9.1; milk of magnesia=10.5, ammonia=11.1; lime=12
Measuring Soil pH
Soil pH provides various clues about soil properties and is easily determined. The most accurate
method of determining soil pH is by a pH meter. A second method which is simple and easy
but less accurate then using a pH meter, consists of using certain indicators or dyes.
Many dyes change color with an increase or decrease of pH making it

possible to estimate soil pH. In making a pH determination on soil, the sample is saturated with
the dye for a few minutes and the color observed. This method is accurate enough for most
purposes. Kits (pH) containing the necessary chemicals and color charts are available from garden
stores.
There may be considerable variation in the soil pH from one spot in a field or lawn to another. To
determine the average soil pH of a field or lawn it is necessary to collect soil from several locations
and combine into one sample.
pH Affects Nutrients, Minerals and Growth
The effect of soil pH is great on the solubility of minerals or nutrients. Fourteen of the seventeen
essential plant nutrients are obtained from the soil. Before a nutrient can be used by plants it must
be dissolved in the soil solution. Most minerals and nutrients are more soluble or available in acid
soils than in neutral or slightly alkaline soils.
Phosphorus is never readily soluble in the soil but is most available in soil with a pH range
centered around 6.5. Extremely and strongly acid soils (pH 4.0-5.0) can have high concentrations of
soluble aluminum, iron and manganese which may be toxic to the growth of some plants. A pH
range of approximately 6 to 7 promotes the most ready availability of plant nutrients.
But some plants, such as azaleas, rhododendrons, blueberries, white potatoes and conifer trees,
tolerate strong acid soils and grow well. Also, some plants do well only in slightly acid to
moderately alkaline soils. However, a slightly alkaline (pH 7.4-7.8) or higher pH soil can cause a
problem with the availability of iron to pin oak and a few other trees in Central New York causing
chlorosis of the leaves which will put the tree under stress leading to tree decline and eventual
mortality.
The soil pH can also influence plant growth by its effect on activity of beneficial microorganisms
Bacteria that decompose soil organic matter are hindered in strong acid soils. This prevents
organic matter from breaking down, resulting in an accumulation of organic matter and the tie up
of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, that are held in the organic matter.
Changes in Soil pH
Soils tend to become acidic as a result of: (1) rainwater leaching away basic ions (calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium); (2) carbon dioxide from decomposing organic matter and
root respiration dissolving in soil water to form a weak organic acid; (3) formation of strong
organic and inorganic acids, such as nitric and sulfuric acid, from decaying organic matter and
oxidation of ammonium and sulfur fertilizers. Strongly acid soils are usually the result of the action
of these strong organic and inorganic acids.
Lime is usually added to acid soils to increase soil pH. The addition of lime not only replaces
hydrogen ions and raises soil pH, thereby eliminating most major problems associated with acid
soils but it also provides two nutrients, calcium and magnesium to the soil. Lime also makes
phosphorus that is added to the soil more available for plant growth and increases the availability
of nitrogen by hastening the decomposition of organic matter. Liming materials are relatively
inexpensive, comparatively mild to handle and leave no objectionable residues in the soil.
Some common liming materials are: (1) Calcic limestone which is ground limestone; (2) Dolomitic
limestone from ground limestone high in magnesium; and (3) Miscellaneous sources such as wood
ashes. The amount of lime to apply to correct a soil acidity problem is affected by a number of
factors, including soil pH, texture (amount of sand, silt and clay), structure, and amount of organic
matter. In addition to soil variables the crops or plants to be grown influence the amount of lime
needed.
SOIL PROFILE
ROLES OF THE 16 ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS IN
CROP DEVELOPMENT
primary nutrients | secondary nutrients | micronutrients
Sixteen plant food nutrients are essential for proper crop development. Each is equally
important to the plant, yet each is required in vastly different amounts. These differences
have led to the grouping of these essential elements into three categories; primary (macro)
nutrients, secondary nutrients, and micronutrients.
PRIMARY (MACRO) NUTRIENTS
Primary (macro) nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. They are the most
frequently required in a crop fertilization program. Also, they are need in the greatest total
quantity by plants as fertilizer.
NITROGEN
 Necessary for formation of amino acids, the building blocks of protein

 Essential for plant cell division, vital for plant growth
 Directly involved in photosynthesis
 Necessary component of vitamins
 Aids in production and use of carbohydrates
 Affects energy reactions in the plant
PHOSPHORUS
 Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage and transfer, cell division, and
enlargement
 Promotes early root formation and growth
 Improves quality of fruits, vegetables, and grains
 Vital to seed formation
 Helps plants survive harsh winter conditions
 Increases water-use efficiency
 Hastens maturity
POTASSIUM
 Carbohydrate metabolism and the break down and translocation of starches

 Increases photosynthesis
 Increases water-use efficiency
 Essential to protein synthesis
Important in fruit formation
Activates enzymes and controls their reaction rates
Improves quality of seeds and fruit
 Improves winter hardiness
 Increases disease resistance
SECONDARY NUTRIENTS
The secondary nutrients are calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. For most crops, these three
are needed in lesser amounts that the primary nutrients. They are growing in importance in
crop fertilization programs due to more stringent clean air standards and efforts to improve
the environment.
CALCIUM
 Utilized for Continuous cell division and formation

 Involved in nitrogen metabolism
Reduces plant respiration
Aids translocation of photosynthesis from leaves to fruiting organs
Increases fruit set
Essential for nut development in peanuts
Stimulates microbial activity
MAGNESIUM
Key element of chlorophyll production

Improves utilization and mobility of phosphorus
Activator and component of many plant enzymes
Directly related to grass tetany
Increases iron utilization in plants
Influences earliness and uniformity of maturity
SULPHUR
Integral part of amino acids

Helps develop enzymes and vitamins
Promotes nodule formation on legumes
Aids in seed production
Necessary in chlorophyll formation (though it isn’t one of the constituents)
MICRONUTRIENTS
The micronutrients are boron, chlorine, cooper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.
These plant food elements are used in very small amounts, but they are just as important to
plant development and profitable crop production as the major nutrients. Especially, they
work "behind the scene" as activators of many plant functions.
BORON
Essential of germination of pollon grains and growth of pollen tubes

Essential for seed and cell wall formation
Promotes maturity
Necessary for sugar translocation
Affects nitrogen and carbohydrate
CHLORINE
Not much information about its functions

Interferes with P uptake
Enhances maturity of small grains on some soils
COPPER
Catalyzes several plant processes

Major function in photosynthesis
Major function in reproductive stages
Indirect role in chlorophyll production
Increases sugar content
Intensifies color
Improves flavor of fruits and vegetables
IRON
Promotes formation of chlorophyll
Acts as an oxygen carrier
Reactions involving cell division and growth
MAGANESE
Functions as a part of certain enzyme systems

Aids in chlorophyll synthesis
Increases the availability of P and CA
MOLYBDENUM
Required to form the enzyme "nitrate reductas" which reduces

nitrates to ammonium in plant
Aids in the formation of legume nodules
Needed to convert inorganic phosphates to organic forms in
the plant
ZINC
Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system

Necessary for chlorophyll production
Necessary for carbohydrate formation
Necessary for starch formation
Aids in seed formation
In addition to the 13 nutrients listed above, plants require carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
which are extracted from air and water to make up the bulk of plant weight.
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M.SC (PART2) /B.

S (HONS) 8TH SEMESTER

It is the outermost layer of the earth. It is also of two types i.e.;

(i) Igneous Rocks

1. Granite: These rocks are the major continental rocks.

2. Basalt: These rocks are found on ocean beds.

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

(iii) Metamorphic Rocks

Example of Metamorphic Rocks

1. Slate is formed by compression of sedimentary rocks like shale and mudstone.

2. Quartzite is formed from sedimentary rocks like sandstone.

3. Gneiss is formed by the metamorphosis of igneous rocks like granite.

(a) Soil Minerals

FINE SIZE FRACTIONS

Table . Description of sand, silt, and clay classes.

The Fine Earth Fraction

COARSE SIZE PRACTIONS

Soil organic matter includes:

 Living organisms (soil biomass)

 The remains of plants and animals

Important Functions of Organic Matter

 Acts as a binding agent for mineral particles.

 Increases the amount of water that a soil may hold.

 Provides food for organisms that inhabit the soil.

 Like clay particles, humus is an important source of plant nutrients.

Soil water is important for three special reasons:

The amount of water in the soil is dependent upon two factors:

 An increase in soil water content often causes a reduction in soil aeration.

Table . Comparison between soil air and atmospheric composition

Descriptive terms commonly associated with certain ranges in soil pH are:

Many dyes change color with an increase or decrease of pH making it

pH Affects Nutrients, Minerals and Growth

PRIMARY (MACRO) NUTRIENTS

 Necessary for formation of amino acids, the building blocks of protein

 Carbohydrate metabolism and the break down and translocation of starches

 Utilized for Continuous cell division and formation

Key element of chlorophyll production

Integral part of amino acids

Essential of germination of pollon grains and growth of pollen tubes

Not much information about its functions

Catalyzes several plant processes

Functions as a part of certain enzyme systems

Required to form the enzyme "nitrate reductas" which reduces

Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system

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