NDT Method Summary

No single NDT method will work for all flaw detection or measurement applications. Each of the
methods has advantages and disadvantages when compared to other methods. The table below
summarizes the scientific principles, common uses and the advantages and disadvantages for
some of the most often used NDT methods.

Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Eddy Current Radiographic

Testing Testing Testing Testing Testing

Scientific
Principles
Penetrant solution is A magnetic field is High frequency sound Alternating electrical X-rays are used to
applied to the surface established in a waves are sent into a current is passed produce images of
of a precleaned component made from material by use of a through a coil objects using film or
component. The liquid ferromagnetic transducer. The sound producing a magnetic other detector that is
is pulled into surface- material. The waves travel through field. When the coil is sensitive to radiation.
breaking defects by magnetic lines of the material and are placed near a The test object is
capillary action. force travel through received by the same conductive material, placed between the
Excess penetrant the material, and exit transducer or a second the changing magnetic radiation source and
material is carefully and reenter the transducer. The field induces current detector. The
cleaned from the material at the poles. amount of energy flow in the material. thickness and the
surface. A developer Defects such as crack transmitted or These currents travel density of the material
is applied to pull the or voids cannot received and the time in closed loops and that X-rays must
trapped penetrant back support as much flux, the energy is received are called eddy penetrate affects the
to the surface where it and force some of the are analyzed to currents. Eddy amount of radiation
is spread out and flux outside of the determine the currents produce their reaching the detector.
forms an indication. part. Magnetic presence of flaws. own magnetic field This variation in
The indication is particles distributed Changes in material that can be measured radiation produces an
much easier to see over the component thickness, and and used to find flaws image on the detector
than the actual defect. will be attracted to changes in material and characterize that often shows
areas of flux leakage properties can also be conductivity, internal features of the
and produce a visible measured. permeability, and test object.
indication. dimensional features.
Main Uses
Used to locate cracks, Used to inspect Used to locate surface Used to detect surface Used to inspect almost
porosity, and other ferromagnetic and subsurface defects and near-surface flaws any material for
defects that break the materials (those that in many materials in conductive surface and subsurface
surface of a material can be magnetized) including metals, materials, such as the defects. X-rays can
and have enough for defects that result plastics, and wood. metals. Eddy current also be used to locates
volume to trap and in a transition in the Ultrasonic inspection inspection is also used and measures internal
hold the penetrant magnetic permeability is also used to to sort materials based features, confirm the
material. Liquid of a material. measure the thickness on electrical location of hidden
penetrant testing is Magnetic particle of materials and conductivity and parts in an assembly,
used to inspect large inspection can detect otherwise characterize magnetic and to measure
areas very efficiently surface and near properties of material permeability, and thickness of materials.
and will work on most surface defects. based on sound measures the
nonporous materials. velocity and thickness of thin
attenuation sheets of metal and
measurements. nonconductive
coatings such as paint.
Main Advantages
Large surface areas or Large surface areas of Depth of penetration Detects surface and Can be used to inspect
large volumes of complex parts can be for flaw detection or near surface defects. virtually all materials.
parts/materials can be inspected rapidly. measurement is
inspected rapidly and superior to other Test probe does not Detects surface and
at low cost. Can detect surface and methods. need to contact the subsurface defects.
subsurface flaws. part.
Parts with complex Only single sided Ability to inspect
geometry are routinely Surface preparation is access is required. Method can be used complex shapes and
inspected. less critical than it is for more than flaw multi-layered
in penetrant Provides distance detection. structures without
Indications are inspection. information. disassembly.
produced directly on Minimum part
surface of the part Magnetic particle Minimum part preparation is Minimum part
providing a visual indications are preparation is required. preparation is
image of the produced directly on required. required.
discontinuity. the surface of the part
and form an image of Method can be used
Equipment investment the discontinuity. for much more than
is minimal. just flaw detection.
Equipment costs are
relatively low.
Disadvantages
Detects only surface Only ferromagnetic Surface must be Only conductive Extensive operator
breaking defects. materials can be accessible to probe materials can be training and skill
inspected. and couplant. inspected. required.
Surface preparation is
critical as Proper alignment of Skill and training Ferromagnetic Access to both sides
contaminants can magnetic field and required is more materials require of the structure is
mask defects. defect is critical. extensive than other special treatment to usually required.
technique. address magnetic
Requires a relatively Large currents are permeability. Orientation of the
smooth and nonporous needed for very large Surface finish and radiation beam to non-
surface. parts. roughness can Depth of penetration volumetric defects is
interfere with is limited. critical.
Post cleaning is Requires relatively inspection.
necessary to remove Flaws that lie parallel Field inspection of
chemicals. smooth surface. Thin parts may be to the inspection thick section can be
difficult to inspect. probe coil winding time consuming.
Requires multiple Paint or other direction can go
operations under nonmagnetic Linear defects undetected. Relatively expensive
controlled conditions. coverings adversely oriented parallel to the equipment investment
affect sensitivity. sound beam can go Skill and training is required.
Chemical handling undetected. required is more
precautions are Demagnetization and extensive than other Possible radiation
necessary (toxicity, post cleaning is Reference standards techniques. hazard for personnel.
fire, waste). usually necessary. are often needed.
Surface finish and
roughness may
interfere.

Reference standards
are needed for setup.
Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Eddy Current Radiographic
Testing Testing Testing Testing Testing
 
 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
IN THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY

How essential is nondestructive testing (NDT) to

airplanes?

In the aerospace industry, as with other transportation

industries, NDT can make the difference between life
and death. Aircraft components are inspected before
they are assembled into the aircraft and then they are
periodically inspected throughout their useful life.
Aircraft parts are designed to be as light as possible
while still performing their intended function. This
generally means that components carry very high loads
relative to their material strength and small flaws can
cause a component to fail. Since aircraft are cycled
(loaded and unloaded) as they fly, land, taxi, and
pressurize the cabin, many components are prone to
fatigue cracking after some length of time. If you are unfamiliar with the term "fatigue cracking" think
about what happens when you bend a paper clip or piece of wire back and forth ...eventually it will
break. Even parts that are loaded well below the level that causes them to deform can develop fatigue
cracks after being cycled for a long time. This is what happens in aircraft. After they are used for a
while, fatigue cracks start growing in some of their parts. Cracking can also occur due to other things
like a lightning strike. Aircraft have some protection against lightning strikes but occasionally they
occur and can results in cracks forming at the strike location like the one shown in the picture.

Another problem that aircraft have is that they are under the constant attack of corrosion. When an
aircraft lands and the door is opened, the inside of the plane often fills with warm moist air. When the
plane takes flight, and reaches altitude, the skin of the aircraft becomes very cold due to the temperature
of the outside air. This cause the moisture held by the air inside the cabin to condense on the inside of
the aircraft skin. The water will collect at low areas and serve as the electrolyte needed for corrosion to
occur.

The good news is that aircraft are designed to withstand a certain amount of damage from
cracking and corrosion without cause for concern, and NDT inspectors are trained to find the
damage before it becomes a major problem. The rigorous process used to design aircraft either allow
for a certain amount of damage to occur before a part fails, or in many cases, a part can fail completely
and performance of the aircraft will not be affected. The job of the NDT inspector is to find the damage
while it is within acceptable limits.

What kind of NDT techniques are used to ensure the safety of the airplane?

Over 80 percent of the inspections done to an aircraft are visual inspections. At regular intervals
inspectors look at various component of the aircraft for signs of damage. During heavy maintenance
work, much of the interior of the aircraft is stripped out so inspectors can look for damage on the inside
surface of the fuselage. However, not all areas of the aircraft can be accessed for visual inspection and
not all damage can be detected by visual means. This is were NDT plays a critical role in thoroughly
inspecting airplanes.

NDT methods allow inspectors to inspect areas of the plane that would
otherwise be uninspectable without disassembling structure to gain
access to the internal areas. NDT methods also allow inspectors to
detect damage that is too small to be detected by visual means. Eddy
current and ultrasonic inspection methods are used extensively to
locate tiny cracks that would otherwise be undetectable. These
techniques are also used to measure the thickness of the aircraft skin
from the outside and detect metal thinning from corrosion on the
inside surface of the skin. X-ray techniques are used to find defects
buried deep within the structure and to locate areas were water has
penetrated into certain structure. Obviously, this task requires trained
professionals who are capable of performing a variety of different
NDT techniques to get a complete and accurate status of the airplane.

There is no question that the success of the airplane industry is

dependent on NDT. Without NDT, the cost of maintaining and flying
in airplanes would increase dramatically, while the safety of flying
would decrease. When people step into an airplane they trust that it
will get them to their destination with as little turbulence as possible.
NDT plays a vital role in keeping air travel one of the safest modes of transportation.
 BRIDGE INSPECTION

The US has 578,000 highway bridges, which are the lifelines of US commerce. The average life span of
highway bridges is about 70 years and the majority of
bridges currently in use were built after 1945. However,
significant environmental damage requiring repair typically
occurs before the average bridge reaches mid-life.
Corrosion, cracking and other damage can all affect a
bridge's load carrying capacity. Therefore, all of the
elements that directly affect performance of the bridge
including the footing, substructure, deck, and
superstructure must be periodically inspected or monitored.
Visual inspection is the primary NDE method used to
evaluate the condition of the majority of the nation's
highway bridges. Inspectors periodically (about every two
years) pay each bridge a visit to assess its condition. However, it is not uncommon for a fisherman,
canoeist and other passerby to alert officials to major damage that may have occurred between
inspections.

The potential penalties for ineffective inspection of bridges can

be very severe. Instances of major bridge collapse are very rare,
but the results are truly catastrophic. The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in loss of 47 lives. The bridge connected
Point Pleasant, West Virginia and Gallipolis,Ohio over the Ohio
River. The cost of this disaster was 175 million dollars but some
experts estimate the same occurrence today would cost between
2.1 and 5.6 billion dollars. Furthermore, these cost figures do not
take into account factors such as loss of business resulting from
loss of access or detours, the cost resulting from blockage of a
major river shipping channel, and potential environmental
damage due to hazardous materials being transported over the bridge at the time of collapse.

The consequences of ineffective bridge inspection are usually not as severe as those at Silver Bridge.
However, repair and retrofit costs on bridges represent a very significant portion of a state's
transportation budget. In the future, replacement of a bridge will become an increasingly unattractive
alternative. Growing construction costs, increased losses due to traffic disruption during repair or
replacement, and continuing tight budgets will force life extension to be the only viable alternative for
our aging bridges.

Fatigue cracking and corrosion will become

increasingly important considerations as we go
beyond the 75 year life expectancy and current
visual inspection techniques will not suffice. The life
extension approach will require increased use of
NDE in a coordinated effort to obtain reliability
assurance for these structures. NDE techniques such
as magnetic particle inspection and ultrasonic
inspection are being used with greater frequency.
One of the newer NDE technologies being used is
acoustic emission (AE) monitoring. Some bridges are being fitted with AE instruments that listen to the
sounds that a bridge makes. These sophisticated systems can detect the sound energy produced when a
crack grows and alert the inspector to the cracks presence. Sensors can be permanently fixed to the
bridge and the data transmitted back to the lab so that continuous bridge condition monitoring is
possible. The image provided here shows field engineers installing an AE monitoring system on the lift
cables of the Ben Franklin Bridge in Philadelphia, PA
 Pipeline Inspection

In the United States, millions of miles of pipeline carrying everything

from water to crude oil. The pipe is vulnerable to attack by internal
and external corrosion, cracking, third party damage and
manufacturing flaws. If a pipeline carrying water springs a leak
bursts, it can be a problem but it usually doesn't harm the
environment. However, if a petroleum or chemical pipeline leaks, it
can be a environmental disaster. More information on recent US
pipeline accidents can be found at the, National Transportation
Safety Board's Internet site. In an attempt to keep pipelines operating
safely, periodic inspections are performed to find flaws and damage before they become cause for
concern.

When a pipeline is built, inspection personnel may use visual, X-

ray, magnetic particle, ultrasonic and other inspection methods to
evaluate the welds and ensure that they are of high quality. The
image to the left show two NDT technicians setting up equipment
to perform an X-ray inspection of a pipe weld. These inspections
are performed as the pipeline is being constructed so gaining access
the inspection area is not problem. In some areas like Alaska,
sections of pipeline are left above ground like shown above, but in
most areas they get buried. Once the pipe is buried, it is undesirable
to dig it up for any reason.

So, how do you inspect a buried pipeline?

Have you ever felt the ground move under your feet? If you're standing in New
York City, it may be the subway train passing by. However, if you're standing in
the middle of a field in Kansas it may be a pig passing under your feet. Huh???
Engineers have developed devices, called pigs, that are sent through the buried
pipe to perform inspections and clean the pipe. If you're standing near a pipeline,
vibrations can be felt as these pigs move through the pipeline. The pigs are about
the same diameter of the pipe so they range in size from small to huge. The pigs
are carried through the pipe by the flow of the liquid or gas and can travel and
perform inspections over very large distances. They may be put into the pipe line
on one end and taken out at the
other. The pigs carry a small
computer to collect, store and
transmit the data for analysis.
In 1997, a pig set a world record when it completed a
continuous inspection of the Trans Alaska crude oil
pipeline, covering a distance of 1,055 km in one run.
Click here to read more about this record setting
inspection.

Pigs use several nondestructive testing methods to

perform the inspections. Most pigs use a magnetic flux
leakage method but some also use ultrasound to
perform the inspections. The pig shown to the left and below uses magnetic flux leakage. A strong
magnetic field is established in the pipe wall using either magnets or by injecting electrical current into
the steel. Damaged areas of the pipe can not support as much magnetic flux as undamaged areas so
magnetic flux leaks out of the pipe wall at the damaged areas. An array of sensor around the
circumference of the pig detects the magnetic flux leakage and notes the area of damage. Pigs that use
ultrasound, have an array of transducers that emits a high frequency sound pulse perpendicular to the
pipe wall and receives echo signals from the inner surface and the outer surface of the pipe. The tool
measures the time interval between the arrival of a reflected echos from inner surface and outer surface
to calculate the wall thickness.

On some pipelines it is easier to use remote visual inspection equipment to assess the condition of the
pipe. Robotic crawlers of all shapes and sizes have been developed to navigate the pipe. The video
signal is typically fed to a truck where an operator reviews the images and controls the robot.
 Rail Inspection

One of the major problems that railroads have faced

since the earliest days is the prevention of service
failures in track. As is the case with all modes of high-
speed travel, failures of an essential component can have
serious consequences. The North American railroads
have been inspecting their most costly infrastructure
asset, the rail, since the late 1920's. With increased
traffic at higher speed, and with heavier axle loads in the
1990's, rail inspection is more important today than it has
ever been. Although the focus of the inspection seems
like a fairly well-defined piece of steel, the testing
variables present are significant and make the inspection
process challenging.

Rail is manufactured in different weights; there are

different rail conditions (wear, corrosion etc) present;
there are a significant number of potential defects
possible; and the task has to be performed with some
speed to reliably inspect the thousands of miles of track
stretching across the land. Sperry Rail Service, one of the
country's leading inspector of railroad tracks, has been
using specialized test equipment mounted on self-
propelled rail cars for over seventy years to protect the
safety of passengers and freight. This information
provides a brief look at rail inspection.

The history of railroading is rooted in the production of

the first metal rails near the city of Sheffield, England in 1776. The rail improved the transportation of
materials in industries such as mining. In 1803 the first railroad intended for public use was opened for
operation between the London docks and Croyden. This first railway, the Surrey Iron Railway, offered a
smoother ride than a wagon, but offered no real advantage in speed since draft animals were used for
locomotion. However, the first steam locomotive was soon to arrive on the scene. In 1804, a steam
locomotive pulled a train of cars carrying several tons of ore for the iron works at Merthyr Tydfil in
South Wales. The first American locomotive, the Best Friend of Charleston, was placed in operation on
the South Carolina Railroad in 1831.
The rails have evolved from cast iron plates to specially alloyed steels, which are rolled to a standard
shape and specially heat-treated to obtain the desired properties. The figures above show the progression
of rail development. Present day steel rails are vastly superior to their predecessors in both strength and
wear qualities, however defects still develop. The heavy loads and high speed of today's trains can cause
rails to fail in service unless regular inspections are performed.

Rail inspections were initially performed solely by visual means. Of course,

visual inspections will only detect external defects and sometimes the subtle
signs of large internal problems. The need for a better inspection method
became a high priority because of a derailment at Manchester, NY in 1911, in
which 29 people were killed and 60 seriously injured. In the U.S. Bureau of
Safety's (now the National Transportation Safety Board) investigation of the
accident, a broken rail was determined to be the cause of the derailment. The
bureau established that the rail failure was caused by a defect that was entirely
internal and probably could not have been detected by visual means. The
defect was called a transverse fissure (example shown on the left). The railroads began investigating the
prevalence of this defect and found transverse fissures were widespread.

In 1915, the Bureau of Standards began research to determine if magnetic testing could be used to detect
transverse fissures. The inspection technique involved passing a magnetizing solenoid along the rail to
establish a flux in the rail. Flux leakage caused by a defect was detected with search coils. The technique
was successful in the laboratory but was unable to differentiate between defects and non-relevant rail
features in the field.
In 1923, Dr. Elmer Sperry, started to develop and build a
rail inspection car with the capability of detecting
transverse fissures in railroad rails. In 1927 Sperry built an
inspection car (shown on the right) under contract with the
American Railway Association. The small flatbed in front
of the cab contained the inspection equipment. The
operator and recording devices were housed in the cab.

In 1928, a Sperry built inspection car, SRS 102, was testing

rail on the Wabash Railway in Montpelier, Ohio. The
inspection technique Sperry used established a strong
magnetic field in the rail by passing a large amount of low voltage current through it. A pair of search
coils, fixed at a constant distance from the rail, detected any changes in the magnetic field around the
rail. This magnetic induction flux leakage technique became the foundation of early rail inspection.

This drawing on the left shows the basic operation of

rail inspection using the induction method. Brushes are
used to contact the rail and "inject" electrical current.
The current creates a strong magnetic field in the rail.
Where there is a defect in the rail, the steel material
will not support magnetic flux and some of the flux is
forced out of the part. The sensing coil detects a change
in the magnetic field and the defect indication is
recorded on the strip chart. Computers are now being
used to record and evaluate the date.

Unfortunately, transverse fissures are not the only types

of defects found in rail. Other manufacturing and service-related defects that can occur include
inclusions, seams, shelling, and corrosion. Fatigue cracks can initiate from these defects, as well as
normal features of the rail such as bolt-holes. If these defects go undetected, they can lead to rail head
and web separations. Many of these defects are not detectable with the flux leakage method because the
flaws run parallel to the magnet flux lines or the flaws are too far away from the sensing coils to detect.
The induction technique inspects mainly the railhead.

To complement the flux leakage method, and detect additional flaw types, ultrasonic inspection has
become common. High-frequency sound is transmitted into the metal rail and reflections from rail joints
and surface conditions, as well as internal defects, are displayed on a screen or cause movement of a pen
on a recording tape. Both normal- and angle-beam techniques are used, as are both pulse-echo and pitch-
catch techniques. The different transducer arrangements offer different inspection capabilities. Manual
contact testing is done to evaluate small sections of rail but the ultrasonic inspection has been automated
to allow inspection of large amounts of rail, like the electromagnetic technique previously discussed.
The first all-ultrasonic inspection car was introduced in 1959. This car was developed specifically to
meet the needs of the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA).

Fluid filled wheels or sleds are often used to couple the transducers to the rail. Sperry Rail Services has,
over the years, developed and made use of Roller Search Units (RSU's) comprising a combination of
different transducer angles to achieve the best inspection possible. A schematic of an RSU is shown
below.
At Sperry, there are two primary inspection units. The Sperry
Rail Detector Car, referred to as the "big" car, uses both
ultrasonic and electromagnetic technologies to identify defects.
The inspection equipment on a Sperry test car is carried in a
carriage slung between the axles.

The Hi-Rail trucks

currently use only
ultrasonics because
the electromagnet
equipment is too large
for this vehicle. The detector car will test rail between 6.5 and
13 miles per hour. However, higher speed units are in
development.

The data from the inspection

equipment is fed to the operator
inside the car. A picture of the
operator station is shown on the right. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)
rules require that any indication considered suspect by the test equipment on
the test car are hand verified immediately. This leads to a stop-start test mode.
When the operator sees something on the tape indicating a problem, he uses a
buzzer signal system to tell the driver up front to stop. The car then backs up
to the point of examination where the operator gets out to hand test the rail
with an ultrasonic test set mounted on the rear of the car. If a defect is
confirmed, it is marked and a railroad work crew following the Sperry car will change the rail. If they
can't get to it right away, the section of track is assigned a slow order (slower speed) until the crew can
repair it. The amount of rail being tested can be increased by the use of chase cars following the testing
vehicles. The chase cars will receive a radioed signal of the test being done by the lead truck and will
stop to do the necessary hand testing. This elimination of the need to back up to hand test, allows the
testing vehicle to move forward, continuously testing, with the results being sent and recorded for
examination by the chase car.
 Wire Rope (Cable) Inspection

Most skiers and snowboarders rate ski resorts by their average powder base and the
overall quality of the slopes. Few likely give serious consideration to the safety of
chair lifts at their favorite mountains. It is likely, however, that many have looked
up at that relatively small cable that they are dangling from high in the air and
hoped that someone had check to see that it was in good working condition.
Luckily, ski resort operators and governing authorities perform regular inspections
and maintenance of chair lifts to ensure passenger safety. One of the components
that gets close scrutiny is the cable.

Wire rope or cable is made by weaving many

individual wires together to produce a product that is both strong and
flexible. Wire rope is used in many safety critical applications in
addition to chair lift and gondola systems. Some of these applications
include hoisting systems, such as cranes and winches; guy wires used in
tall antennas and towers; and mooring lines of oil drilling platforms at
sea. A cable failure in one of these applications could have very serious
consequences.

All wire rope eventually wears out making periodic inspections necessary
throughout the service life of the rope. Wire rope is prone to damage and wear due
to abrasion, fatigue, corrosion, and improper handling. NDT personnel look for
localized flaws or loss of metallic cross-sectional area using a variety of inspection
methods. The least sophisticated method is visual inspection. Inspector simply look
for broken strands, wear and corrosion on the surface of the cable. However, for a
more thorough evaluation, a number of instruments have been developed that allow
inspectors to assess the internal areas of the cable.

One of the more widely used of

these instruments uses magnetism
to inspect the rope. The inspection
instrument is placed around the
wire rope and moved along the rope or the rope is
pulled through the instrument. Strong permanent
magnets or electromagnets are used to create a strong
magnetic field within the rope. The rope is said to be
magnetically saturated because it is caring all the
magnet flux that it possibly can. In areas where the rope
is damaged, it can not support as much of the magnet
flux and some of it "leaks" out of the rope. Sensors in
the inspection head detect the magnetic flux leakage
caused by the internal or external defects in the rope.
Defects as small as 0.05 % of the rope's cross-sectional area can often be detected.