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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies regarding and relating to

social approval, self-esteem, job performance and sales clerk.

Review of Related Literature

Self-esteem is the people’s subjective appraisal of themselves either positive or negative

and it can vary in different situations (Sutton et al., 2013). People who experience positive

outcomes and situations more than negative outcomes and situations tend to have higher self-

esteem (Pelham & Swann, 1989; as cited in Sutton et al., 2013). Social Approval is when an

individual feels that he/she is accepted by the society either in his/her appearance or skills

(Sutton et al., 2013).

Sociometer theory of self-esteem is a psychological gauge that studies the relationship of

an individual to other individuals. Studies show that self-esteem is influenced by events

wherein people are in the state of being valued and accepted by others (Leary, 2005).

Sociometer theory interprets self-esteem as an internal gauge used to monitor individual’s

successes in creating interpersonal relationships, particularly to the degree in which they are

being scanned to be included or excluded (Leary, Baumeister & Zanna, 2000).

According to Sociometer Theory of Self-esteem, being socially approved boosts and

individual’s self-esteem (Leary, Cottrell, & Phillips, 2001). According to Leary et al. they

argued that self-esteem is the instrument for extent of a person being included and excluded

by other people. Self-esteem motivates us to ensure that we are socially included in a way that
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we behave for us to be accepted. Self-esteem is part of a system wherein the individual is the

one who will monitor his/her the signs of being included or rejected in their social environment

(Sutton et al., 2013).

Leary et al. showed that self-esteem was highly correlated with people’s assumption if

they are being accepted or being rejected of other people. Research found out that self-esteem

is the most strongly connected to self-evaluation to help gain social approval (Anthony,

Holmes & Woods, 2007). Research shows that people who have lower self-esteem don’t make

efforts to make them feel better (Heimpel, Wood, Marshall, & Brown, 2002; Wood, Heimpel,

& Michela, 2003). People who have low self-esteem tend to compare themselves to other

people who have high self-esteem (Wood et al, 2003). They also deal with negative life events

(Heimpel et al., 2002). People who have higher self-esteem make them feel better and they

improve or increase their mood, they are also more focused on their positive aspects on the

positive life events (Sutton et al., 2013).

The most widely acknowledged explanation is that people strive for self-esteem because

high self-esteem promotes positive affect by buffering the person against stress and other

negative emotions and by enhancing personal adjustment, whereas low self-esteem is

associated with maladjustments. Research findings show that at least people with low-esteem

experienced virtually every negative emotion more commonly than these with high level of

self-esteem (Leary, Macdonald, 2013). Furthermore, high self-esteem appears to buffer people

against feelings of anxiety, enhance coping and promote physical health (Vohs & Baumeister,

2013). People with high self-esteem often work harder and perform better after an initial failure
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than people with low self-esteem (Cast & Burke 2002).The more support and approval people

receive, the higher their self-esteem tends to be (Leary, 2005).

Sociometer theory proposed that self-esteem has a relation and connection to one’s past,

present and future. People with high self-esteem tend to feel being valued by others while

people who have low self-esteem used to doubt their value and could affect in the future

relationships of the individual. Self-esteem has a great impact to one’s beliefs and social

motivations e.g., people with low self-esteem tends to think that they are worthless than people

with high level of self-esteem. The higher the self-esteem the person has, the greater confidence

they gain (Anthony, Wood, & Holmes, 2007) and the higher the self-esteem is, the greater

acceptance they receive (Anthony, Wood, & Holmes, 2007).

There are some sources of self-esteem, some people base their self-esteem to their

appearance, others on their social approval, others on their success and how good and kind

they are (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). Self-esteem is considered as a necessary construct since the

earliest days of Psychology. Many researchers argued that people tends to seek and maintain

self-esteem because they feel the need to feel good while others proposed that people seek self-

esteem for goal achievements (Kernis, 2006). Barkow (1980) suggests that self-esteem is

where the adaptation of people evolved by maintaining the consistency of their social

relationship (Macdonald, Saltzman, & Leary, 2003)

Relationship with other people serves as one of the most important needs of every

individual. It develops emotion and support to everyone and that it is also the reason of being

satisfied and fulfilled in daily need of life (Denissen, Penke, Schmitt, & Aken, 2008). On the

other hand, self-esteem plays an important role to one’s life; it makes the level of belongingness
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and social interaction either high or low (Leary, & Baumeister, 2000). Moreover, when people

think that they are accepted and been socially included, they could possibly feel better

themselves (Denissen et al., 2008).

Self-esteem is all about a person’s mental health and psychological skills i.e. motivation

or personal identity. People lack self-esteem when they are being denied, deprived or rejected

by others and their actions. Rosenberg (1979) found that adolescent increases their self-esteem

when they think that their appearance is likable and through that, they may feel socially

approved by the society. People think that social approval depends on how other people treat

them (Emler, 2001).

Self-esteem is defined as one’s attitude or global effective orientation towards oneself

(Cast & Burke, 2002). while high level of self-esteem are associated with happiness, low self-

esteem has been linked to increased experiences of negative affect and is considered as

vulnerability factor for a number of mental health problems (Leary & Baumeister, 2000).

Previous research points to a number of ways in which low self-esteem might lead to negative

feeling e.g., individuals with low self-esteem tend to overgeneralize the negative consequences

of failure (Brown & Dutton, 1995; Richter & Ridout, n.d).

Self-esteem provides buffer against role stressors that impede workplace motivation and

performance (Ferris, Lian, Brown, Pang, & Keeping, 2010). The concept of self-esteem refers

to the individual’s evaluation and attitude towards his/herself (Psysczczynski, Solomon,

Greenberg, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004) and that people are motivated to main high levels of self-

esteem (Psysczczynski et al., 2004).

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If people tend to cope and adjust to their surroundings, their self-esteem increases

(Macdonald, Saltzman, & Leary, 2003). Bednar, Wells, and Peterson (1989) suggested that

self-esteem is affected or increases, it means that their coping skills are being effective and

recognized especially with psychological threats (Macdonald et al., 2003). Though social

approval is important, an individual must not depend his/her self-esteem in the social validation

of others (Macdonald et al., 2003). Failure can also enhance self-esteem if it is reacted in

positive manner. The highest self-esteem was reported by peoples who do not only think

positively but also viewed others opinions, reactions or behavior positively and use it as an act

of social approval (Macdonald et al., 2003).

Person with high self-esteem can be used as a defense to cope in the society. And with

high self-esteem, person could perform highly on the field. On the other hand, a person with

low self-esteem can cause an individual to poor and less performances. A person could get

high self-esteem by receiving a positive communications while a person could get low self-

esteem by receiving negative messages. Individual tends to be more sensitive when it comes

to evaluation feedback from other individuals. Moreover, the sensitivity should be done

accordingly to be able to have a social approval (Leary, 2005).

Self-esteem is determined when a person achieve love either conditionally or

unconditionally from his/her parents (Joner, 2009). If a person is taken for granted then that

person could not develop appreciation for his/her worth. A person may be sensitive to other if

he/she receives little appreciation from others. Self-esteem is one of the most important needs

in achieving social approval. A person will perform greater if they are already aware that they

are accepted and liked by other individuals (Elmer, 2001).

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If people are involved in close relationship with others and has close social interaction and

support, they tend to have high level of self-esteem (Denissen et al., 2008). In addition, people

who are satisfied in being involved to social needs develop a high self-esteem (Leary, &

Baumeister, 2008). Being accepted with others could reflect a high amount of self-esteem

(Denissen, et al., 2008).

The fundamental pre-requisite of interpersonal life is the fact that a person can either be

accepted or rejected. With the adaptation advantages and coping skills of people, they increase

the possibility in being approved and possess a strong bond for belongingness Indications that

one person is being rejected leads to negative effect (Leary, Baumeister, & Zanna, 2000).

Job performance is the group of behaviours that are applicable to reach the goals of the

organization in which a person works (Judge, Bono, Thoreson, & Patton, 2001). People with

high self-esteem are motivated to work well on their job to continue their high self-condition.

Researchers believe that to understand more the relationship of Self-esteem with job

performance, they must look for the wider view of one self. (Kernis, 2003).

According to Rogers (1959), self-esteem increases when people agrees with personal

value while according to Bednar, Wells and Peterson (1989) self-esteem arises if people are

creates it with each other effectively (Anthony, 2007). (Barkow, 1978) suggest that self-esteem

is the outcome of being in social groups, as Sociometer theory (Leary, 2005) proposed that

self-esteem depends on rational condition. Psysczczynski, Solomon, Greenberg, Arndt &

Schimel, 2004 argues that self-esteem is the feeling of achieving the standard and being a

worthwhile person.
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Jones (2009) revealed that when a person achieved a goal and the people around him/her

are disapproving to his success, then it may cause a low level of self-esteem. Social acceptance

is an indicator of being accepted and liked with other people (Schwartz, Nakawoto, Gorman,

& Mckay, 2006). The outcome of being socially accepted may result to positive behaviour.

The fundamental importance of interpersonal life is that an individual can either be

accepted by the society or avoid being rejected. Sociometer theory stated that monitoring the

interpersonal environment is one important factor in gaining value (Leary, 2002). It shows that

whenever individual is approved or accepted, the individual’s value increase and it leads to

positive affect while disapproval and rejection decreases one’s value and tends to lead to

negative effect. Studies have shown that rejection and disapproval is related to negative

emotions and reactions; it can also lead to problematic situations (Leary, Koch,

Hechenbleikner, 2001). In most cases, the possibility of having one self’s value to decrease is

partially their own fault. Normally, acceptance and rejection makes people feel good or bad

depending on the person (Judge, Bono, Thoresen, Patton, 2001).

A sales clerk’s smile should result in more good impression on his/her sales pitch. It also

influences the customers’ purchasing behavior. Employees on services like front liners are

considered to have social relationship with the customers because they are able to communicate

with them. Smile stands as the universal and accepted display of emotion and skills in initiating

socialization regardless of their sincerity or true feelings (Abel & Abel, 2007; Matila, Bradley,

& Fisk, 2003). An employee who always smiles is associated with more positive attributes like

sociability, sincerity and competence (Abel & Able, 2007). A smiling sales clerk might also

convey a more helpful perception to the customers which will lead the customers to be more
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positive towards the sales (Abel & Abel, 2007; De Carlo, 2005). Brown & Sutur-Azaroff

(1994), Pugh (2001) and Tan (2004) found that employees who display positive emotions share

a good relation with the customers and results to customers’ satisfaction and positive

evaluations regarding the sales and products. Several researches have also been conducted and

did not only focus on the smiling of the sales clerk but also other factors like eye contact,

greeting and thanking customers (Abel, & Abel, 2007).

A company’s success can be dependent on their employees’ performance. Managements

have realized that implementing trainings and programs for their employees is very important

for the sake of their development in becoming better employees. Trainings can also help

employees enhance their work performance but should not only focus on enhancing

performances but also motivations and commitments toward their work (Elnaga, & Imran,

2013). According to Hawthorne studies, employees who are motivated by their management

gets satisfied with their job (Kinicki, & Knether, 2007; Elnaga et al., 2013) and improve more

their credential, skills and knowledge (Mckinsey, 2006; Elnaga et al., 2013).

Job performance plays a very important role to an organization because this is one way of

helping the administrators determine how motivated their employees on working are and also

the success of their organization can also depend on their performance (Salleh, Dzulkifli,

Amaliha, Abadullah, Haizal, & Yaakob, 2011). Open-mindedness and emotional stability

greatly affects employees’ job performance (Imran, Fatima, Zaheer, Yousaf, & Batool, 2012).

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory focuses on the psychosocial development of a child

or individual wherein he states that people aging from 20 years old to 40 years which are also

referred as young adults are in the basic conflict of Intimacy vs. Isolation wherein they are in
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stage of engaging themselves to social interactions and relationships outside their family.

When they are socially approved, it leads to intimacy but when not, isolation and loneliness

becomes present (McLeod, 2013; Cherry, 2005).

Review of Related Studies

In a study, Chinese Working in Groups: Effort Dispensability versus Normative Influence

conducted by Hong, Wyer, & Forg (2008), the results showed that the default of effects of

dispensability on how to evaluate is a little confusing. If the Chinese participants have

concluded that the target person was motivated to do perform things whenever he/she is

socially approved, their expectation for the target to be similar with others should have been

higher whenever target person’s performance is identified that when not. But, this was not

found in the study because participants took the role of observers and determine the targets’

behavior although they were in public. Moreover, the second study showed that Chinese

participants would be similar to the co-workers performance level whenever they anticipate

that their performance would be made in public places. When their performance is still

unidentified, the similarity of co-workers’ performance will not be used for social approval. In

this context, the participants may be affected by whether or not their efforts is not necessary or

required i.e., work less hard when the other groups are working hard and the others are not.

In a study, Social Approval and Trait Self-esteem conducted by Macdonald, Saltzman &

Leary (2003), results showed that high self-esteem involves more than simply believing that

one possesses positive characteristics. Participants who believed that they were competent,

physically attractive or wealthy had higher self-esteem if they believe these attributes lead to

approval than if not. In the present work, participants rate stable traits such as competence and
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rejection over long periods of time. Indeed, virtually all participants indicated that competence,

attractiveness and sociability were at least somewhat important for approval. The median score

for the approval – value of competence was 9 on a 12-point scale with 95% of participants

agreeing that competence lead to approval to some extent. The median for the approval – value

of attractiveness was 10 with 98% of participants agreeing that attractiveness leads to approval

to some extent. The median score for disapproval – value of social desirability was also 10

with 98% of participants agreeing that lacking sociable characteristics leads to disapproval to

some extent.

In conducted researches, it was concluded that companies tend to hire more female

employees than male employees because they act warmer and friendlier towards agents, clients

and customers. They also tend to hire more contractual employees than permanent employees

with the thought that hiring contractual employees would cost less for their company plus it

can expand the number of staffs and employees that work inside their companies (Wandera,

2011).

Synthesis

The study aims to determine the relation of the three variables; social approval, self-

esteem and job performance through regression analysis wherein self-esteem is the mediating

variable because it is the variable that connects social approval and job performance. Job

performance is known to improve whenever a social approval is gain from either customers,

colleagues or superiors.