Proximity Sensors

1/19/2014
TRANSDUCERS
AND SENSORS
Dr. Ibrahim Al-

Al-Naimi
CHAPTER THREE
Transducers and
Sensors
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Proximity Sensors
• Sensors which detect whether or not an object is
located at a certain position, i.e. discrete sensors
that sense when an object has come near to the
sensor face. These sensors are known as proximity
sensors.
• Sensors of this type provide a "Yes" or "No"
statement depending on whether or not the
position, to be defined, has been taken up by the
object. These sensors, which only signal two status,
are also known as binary sensors or in rare cases as
initiators.
Proximity Sensors
• With many production systems, mechanical
position switches are used to acknowledge
movements which have been executed. Additional
terms used are microswitches, limit switches or
limit valves. Because movements are detected by
means of contact sensing, relevant constructive
requirements must be fulfilled. Also, these
components are subject to wear. In contrast,
proximity sensors operate electronically and
without contact.
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Proximity Sensors
The advantages of contactless proximity sensors are:
• Precise and automatic sensing of geometric positions
• Contactless sensing of objects and processes; no contact
between sensor and workpiece is required with electronic
proximity sensors
• Fast switching characteristics; because the output signals are
generated electronically, the sensors are bounce-free and do
not create error pulses.
• Wear-resistant function; electronic sensors do not include
moving parts which can wear out
• Unlimited number of switching cycles
• Suitable versions are also available for use in hazardous
conditions (e.g. Areas with explosion hazard).
Proximity Sensors
• Today, proximity sensors are used in many areas of
industry for the reasons mentioned above. They
are used for sequence control in technical
installations and as such for monitoring and
safeguarding processes. In this context sensors are
used for early, quick and safe detection of faults in
the production process. The prevention of damage
to man and machine is another important factor to
be considered. A reduction in downtime of
machinery can also be achieved by means of
sensors, because failure is quickly detected and
signalled.
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Fields of Application for

Proximity Sensors
• Typical fields of application for proximity sensors
are in the areas of:
– Automotive industry
– Mechanical engineering
– Packaging industry
– Timber industry
– Printing and paper industry
– Drinks and beverages industry
– Ceramics and brick industry
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Proximity Sensors Applications

• Detecting Objects
• Positioning
• Counting

• Measuring rotational
speed
• Detecting materials
• Defining direction
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• Tools monitoring
• Level monitoring

• Accident protection
• Shape recognition
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Inductive Proximity Sensor

• As with all proximity sensors, inductive proximity
sensors are available in various sizes and shapes
as shown in the following figure. As the name
implies, inductive proximity sensors operate on
the principle that the inductance of a coil and
the power losses in the coil vary as a metallic (or
conductive) object is passed near to it. Because
of this operating principle, inductive proximity
sensors are only used for sensing metal objects.
They will not work with non-metallic materials.
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• To understand how inductive proximity sensors operate,
consider the cutaway block diagram shown in the following
figure. Mounted just inside the face of the sensor (on the left
end) is a coil which is part of the tuned circuit of an oscillator.
When the oscillator operates, there is an alternating
magnetic field (called a sensing field) produced by the coil.
This magnetic field radiates through the face of the sensor
(which is non-metallic). The oscillator circuit is tuned such
that as long as the sensing field senses non-metallic material
(such as air) it will continue to oscillate, it will trigger the
trigger circuit, and the output switching device (which inverts
the output of the trigger circuit) will be off. The sensor will
therefore send an “off” signal through the cable extending
from the right side of the sensor in the figure.
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• When a metallic object (steel, iron, aluminium,
tin, copper, etc.) comes near to the face of the
sensor, as shown in the following figure, the
alternating magnetic field in the target produces
circulating eddy currents inside the material. To
the oscillator, these eddy currents are a power
loss. As the target moves nearer, the eddy current
loss increases which loads the output of oscillator.
This loading effect causes the output amplitude
of the oscillator to decrease.
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• As long as the oscillator amplitude does not drop
below the threshold level of the trigger circuit,
the output of the sensor will remain off. However,
as shown in the following figure, if the target
object moves closer to the face of the sensor, the
eddy current loading will cause the oscillator to
stall (cease to oscillate). When this happens, the
trigger circuit senses the loss of oscillator output
and causes the output switching device to switch
“on”.
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• The sensing range (switching distance) of a proximity
sensor is the maximum distance the target object may be
from the face of the sensor in order for the sensor to
detect it. One parameter affecting the sensing range is the
size (diameter) of the sensing coil in the sensor. Small
diameter sensors (approximately ¼” in diameter) have
typical sensing ranges in the area of 1mm, while large
diameter sensors (approximately 3" in diameter) have
sensing ranges in the order of 50mm or more. Additionally,
since different metals have different values of resistivity
(which limits the eddy currents) and permeability (which
channels the magnetic field through the target), the type of
metal being sensed will affect the sensing range.
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• Inductive proximity sensor manufacturers derate their sensors
based on different metals, with steel being the reference (i.e.,
having a derating factor of 1.0). Some other approximate derating
(reduction) factors are stainless steel: 0.85, aluminium: 0.40,
brass: 0.40, and copper 0.30. As an example of how to apply the
derating (reduction) factors, assume you are constructing a
machine to automatically count copper pennies as they travel
down a chute, and the sensing distance will be 5mm. In order to
detect copper (derating factor 0.30), you would need to purchase
a sensor with a sensing range of 5mm / 0.30 = 16.7mm. Let’s say
you found a sensor in stock that has a sensing range of 10mm. If
you use this to sense the copper pennies, you would need to
mount it near the chute so that the pennies will pass within
(10mm)(0.30) = 3mm of the face of the sensor.

• Inductive proximity sensors are available in both
DC and AC powered models. Most require 3
electrical connections: ground, power, and
output. However, there are other variations that
require 2 wires and 4 wires. Most sensors are
available with a built-in LED that indicates when
the sensor is on. One of the first steps a designer
should take when using any proximity sensor is to
acquire a manufacturer’s catalogue and
investigate the various types, shapes, and output
configurations to determine the best choice for
the application.
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• Since the parts of machines are generally constructed
of some type of metal, there are an enormous
number of possible applications for inductive
proximity sensors. They are relatively inexpensive
(~$30 and up), extremely reliable (not sensitive to
dust), operate from a wide range of power supply
voltages, are rugged, and since they are totally self
contained, they connect directly to the discrete
inputs on a PLC with no additional external
components. In many cases, inductive proximity
sensors make excellent replacements for
mechanical limit switches.

Applications:
• By placing an inductive proximity next to a gear, the proximity can sense
the passing gear teeth to give rotating speed information. This application is
currently used as a speed feedback device in automotive cruise control
systems where the proximity is mounted in the transmission.
• All helicopters have an inductive proximity mounted in the bottom of the
rotor gearbox. Should the gears in the gearbox shed any metal chips
(indicating an impending catastrophic failure of the gearbox), the inductive
proximity senses these chips and lights a warning light on the cockpit
instrument panel.
• Inductive proximities can be mounted on access doors and panels of
machines. The PLC can be programmed to shut down the machine anytime
any of these doors and access panels are opened.
• Very large inductive proximities can be mounted in roadbeds to sense
passing automobiles. This technique is currently used to operate traffic
lights.
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Example: Technical Characteristics
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Capacitive Proximity Sensor

• Capacitive proximity sensors are available in shapes and sizes
similar to the inductive proximity sensor. However, because of the
principle upon which the capacitive proximity sensor operates,
applications for the capacitive sensor are somewhat different.

• To understand how capacitive proximity sensors operate, consider
the cutaway block diagram shown in the figure. The principle of
operation of the sensor is that an internal oscillator will not oscillate
until a target material is moved close to the sensor face. The target
material varies the capacitance of a capacitor in the face of the
sensor that is part of the oscillator circuit. As is shown in the
waveform diagram in the figure, as the target approaches the face
of the sensor, the oscillator amplitude increases, which causes the
sensor output to switch on.
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If an object (metal, plastic, glass, wood, water) is
introduced into the active switching zone, then the
capacitance of the resonant circuit is altered. This
change in capacitance essentially depends on the
following parameters:
• The distance of the object from the active
surface,
• The dimensions of the object and
• The dielectric constant of the object.
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• There are two types of capacitive sensor, each with a different
way that this sensing capacitor is formed. In the dielectric
type of capacitive sensor, there are two side-by-side capacitor
plates in the sensor face. For this type of sensor, the external
target acts as the dielectric. As the target is moved closer to
the sensor face, the change in dielectric increases the
capacitance of the internal capacitor, making the oscillator
amplitude increase, which in turn causes the sensor to output
an “on” signal. The conductive type of sensor operates
similarly; however, there is only one capacitor plate in the
sensor face. The target becomes the other plate. Therefore,
for this type of sensor, it is best if the target is an electrically
conductive material (usually metal or water-based).

• Dielectric type capacitive proximity sensors will sense both
metallic and non-metallic objects. However, in order for the
sensor to work properly, it is best if the material being sensed
has a high density. Low density materials (foam, bubble wrap,
paper, etc.) do not cause a detectable change in the dielectric
and consequently will not trigger the sensor.
• Conductive type capacitive proximity sensors require that the
material being sensed be an electrical conductor. These are
ideally suited for sensing metals and conductive liquids. For
example, since most disposable liquid containers are made of
plastic or cardboard, these sensors have the unique capability
to “look” through the container and sense the liquid inside.
Therefore, they are ideal for liquid level sensors.
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• Capacitive proximity sensors will sense metal objects just as
inductive sensors will. However, capacitive sensors are much
more expensive than the inductive types. Therefore, if the
material to be sensed is metal, the inductive sensor is the
more economical choice.
• As with the inductive proximity sensors, capacitive proximity
sensors are available with a built-in LED indicator to indicate
the output logical state. Also, because capacitive proximity
sensors are used to sense materials with a wide range of
densities, manufacturers usually provide a sensitivity adjusting
screw on the back of the sensor. Then when the sensor is
installed, the sensitivity can be adjusted for best performance
in the particular application.

Some of the potential applications for capacitive proximity
sensors include:
• They can be used as a non-contact liquid level sensor.
They can be place outside a container to sense the liquid
level inside. This is ideal for milk, juice, or soda bottling
operations.
• Capacitive proximity sensors can be used as replacements
for pushbuttons. They will sense the hand and, since they
have no moving parts, they are more reliable than
mechanical switches.
• Since they are hermetically sealed, they can be mounted
inside liquid tanks to sense the tank fill level.
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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

• Sound frequency which is above the limit of human
hearing is described as ultrasound. The lower limit is at
approximately 20 kHz. The particular characteristics of
ultrasound applied to proximity sensors are the result of
the high frequency and the correspondingly short
wavelength.
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• The propagation of sound is the result of propagation of
mechanical long waves, which manifests itself in a
periodic density variation in the carrier medium, leading
to alternating compressions and dilutions. The
propagation of sound waves is dependent on a
transmitting medium, it is not possible in a vacuum.
• The following formula applies for the speed of sound in
dry air at temperature T:

• There are three different methods of generating
ultrasound: mechanical, magnetic and electrical.
• Electrical generation: With electrorestriction (inverse
piezoelectrical effect) an alternating voltage of high
frequency is connected to a crystal plate. This plate then
carries out the mechanical oscillations of the
corresponding frequency, which become particularly
strong with resonance. Frequencies of up to
approximately 10 000 kHz are achieved.
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• Nowadays, instead of crystals, piezoelectrical
materials, which are widely distributed under
the trade name Piezoxide (e.g. by Valvo), are
used to generate ultrasound. These materials
are made of lead-zirconate-titanate.
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• The operational principle of an ultrasonic proximity
sensor is based on the emission and reflection of acoustic
waves between an object and a receiver. Normally, the
carrier of these sound waves is air. The travelling time of
the sound is measured and evaluated (time of flight).
• The ultrasonic transmitter emits sound waves in the non-
audible range at any frequency usually between 30 – 300
kHz then receives an echo if the object is present. Filters
inside the ultrasonic proximity sensor check whether the
sound received is actually the echo of the emitted
ultrasonic waves.
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• An object must not be present in the sound
field of the proximity sensor within the so-
called near field, as this can lead to error
pulses at the proximity sensor output. For an
ultrasonic proximity sensor with a transducer
diameter of 15 mm and an emitting
frequency of 200 kHz, the range of the near
field is approximately 130 mm.
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• an ultrasonic “ping” is sent from the face of the sensor. If
a target is located in front of the sensor and is within
range, the ping will be reflected by the target and
returned to the sensor. When an echo is returned, the
sensor detects that a target is present, and by measuring
the time delay between the transmitted ping and the
returned echo, the sensor can calculate the distance
between the sensor and the target.

• The sensor is only capable of sensing a target that is within the
sensing range (sensor Field of View FOV). The sensing range is a
funnel shaped area directly in front of the sensor as shown in the
figure. Sound waves travel from the face of the sensor in a cone
shaped dispersion pattern bounded by the sensor’s beam angle.
However, because the sending and receiving transducers are both
located in the face of the sensor, the receiving transducer is
“blinded” for a short period of time immediately after the ping is
transmitted, similar to the way our eyes are blinded by a flashbulb.
This means that any echo that occurs during this “blind” time
period will go undetected. These echoes will be from targets that
are very close to the sensor, within what is called the sensor’s
deadband. In addition, because of the finite sensitivity of the
receiving transducer, there is a distance beyond which the returning
echo cannot be detected. This is the maximum range of the sensor.
These constraints define the sensor’s useable sensing area.
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• Ultrasonic proximity sensors that have a discrete output
generally have a switch point adjustment provided on the
sensor that allows the user to set the target distance at
which the sensor output switches on. Note that ultrasonic
sensors are also available with analog outputs that will
provide an analog signal proportional to the target
distance.

• Ultrasonic proximity sensors are useful for sensing targets
that are beyond the very short operating ranges of
inductive and capacitive proximity sensors.
• Off the shelf ultrasonic proximities are available with
sensing ranges of 6 meters or more.
• They sense dense target materials best such as metals
and liquids. They do not work well with soft materials
such as cloth, foam rubber, or any material that is a good
absorber of sound waves, and they operate poorly with
liquids that have surface ripple or waves. Also, for obvious
reasons, these sensors will not operate in a vacuum.
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• Since the sound waves must pass through the air, the accuracy of
these sensors is subject to the sound propagation time of the air.
The most detrimental impact of this is that the sound propagation
time of air decreases by 1.7%/degree Celsius. This means that as
the air temperature increases, a stationary target will appear to
move closer to the sensor. The humidity content of air at a
temperature range below 40 °C effects a maximum change in the
speed of sound by 1.4 % between a relative air humidity of 0 % and
100 %. Natural changes in atmospheric air pressure do not cause
any significant changes in the speed of sound. Only at high altitudes
does the speed of sound decrease slightly.
• They are not affected by ambient audio noise, nor by wind.
However, because of their relatively long useful range, the system
designer must take care when using more than one ultrasonic
sensor in a system because of the potential for crosstalk between
sensors.

• Similarly as with light, ultrasound is deflected on flat
surfaces. In this case, an ultrasonic sensor does not
receive an echo signal. Objects with smooth, even
surfaces, can no longer be detected if the deviation is for
instance more than ±3° – ±5° of the vertical alignment to
the proximity sensor. With objects of a rough or irregular
surface a wider angle is possible, whereby the ultrasonic
wave length, the surface finish and distance are also
relevant.
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Preferred areas of application for ultrasonic proximity
sensors are:
• Storage facilities
• Transport systems
• Food industry
• Metal, glass and plastics processing
• Monitoring of bulk material
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Ultrasonic proximity sensors have the following advantages:
• Relatively large range (up to several meters)
• Object detection irrespective of colour and material
• Safe detection of transparent objects (e.g. glass bottles)
• Relatively dust and dirt insensitive
• Fading out of background possible
• Outdoor application possible

Ultrasonic proximity sensors have the following
disadvantages:
• If ultrasonic proximity sensors are used for slanting object
surfaces, the sound is deflected. It is therefore important
that the object surface to be reflected is at a right angle to
the axis of the sound propagation or to use ultrasonic
barriers instead.
• Ultrasonic proximity sensors react relatively slowly.
Maximum switching frequency is between 1 Hz and 125
Hz.
• Ultrasonic proximity sensors are generally more expensive
than optical proximity sensors (e.g. factor 2).
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• One popular use for the ultrasonic proximity sensor is in
sensing liquid level. The following figure shows such an
application. Note that since ultrasonic sensors do not
perform well with liquids with surface turbulence, a
stilling tube is used to reduce the potential turbulence on
the surface of the liquid.
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Optical Proximity Sensor

• Optical proximity sensors are devices which
convert signals generated by light emission into
electrical signals. The response of optical receivers
varies according to different ranges of wavelength.
The following figure indicates the spectral ranges
of electromagnetic emission.
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• Optical proximity sensors employ optical and electronic
means for the detection of objects. Red or infrared light is
used for this purpose. Semiconductor light emitting
diodes (LEDs) are a particularly reliable source of red and
infrared light. They are small and robust, have a long
service life and can be easily modulated. Photodiodes or
phototransistors are used as receiver elements. When
adjusting optical proximity sensors, red light has the
advantage that it is visible in contrast to infrared light.
Besides, polymer optic cables can easily be used in the
red wavelength range because of their reduced light
attenuation.
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• Infrared (non visible) light is used in instances, where
increased light performance is required in order to span
greater distances for example. Furthermore, infrared light is
less susceptible to interference (ambient light).
• With both types of optical proximity sensor, additional
suppression of external light influences is achieved by
means of modulating the optical signal. I.e. the light output
is pulsed at a high frequency, and a receiver is tuned to the
frequency of the source. So, these types have a high degree
of immunity to other potentially interfering light sources.
Therefore, red LED and IR LED sensor types function better
in areas where there is a high level of ambient light (such as
sunlight), or light noise (such as welding).
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• Optical proximity sensors basically consist of two main
units: the emitter and the receiver. Depending on type
and application, reflectors and fibre-optic cables are
required in addition.
• Emitter and receiver are either installed in a common
housing (diffuse sensors and retro-reflective sensors), or
housed separately (through-beam sensors).
• The emitter houses the source of red or infrared light
emission, which according to the laws of optics extends in
a straight line and can be diverted, focussed, interrupted,
reflected and directed. It is accepted by the receiver,
separated from external light and electronically evaluated.

• Optical sensors are an extremely popular method of
providing discrete-output sensing of objects. Since the
sensing method uses light, it is capable of sensing any
objects that are opaque, regardless of the colour or
reflectivity of the surface. They operate over long
distances (as opposed to inductive or capacitive proximity
sensors), will sense in a vacuum (as opposed to ultrasonic
sensors), and can sense any type of material no matter
whether it is metallic, conductive, or porous. Since the
optical transmitters and receivers use focused beams
(using lenses), they can be operated in close proximity of
other optical sensors without crosstalk or interference.
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Through-beam sensors
• Through-beam sensors consist of separately assembled
emitter and receiver components whereby wide sensing
ranges can be achieved. For the interruption of the light
beam to be evaluated, the cross-section of the active
beam must be covered. The object should permit only
minimum penetration of light, but may reflect any
amount of light. Failure of the emitter is evaluated as
"object present".
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Advantages
• Enhanced reliability because of permanent light during
non-operation.
• Wide range.
• Small objects can be detected even at large distances.
• Suitable for aggressive environment.
• Objects can be diffuse reflecting, mirroring or low
transparent.
• Good positioning accuracy.

Disadvantages
• Two separate proximity sensor modules (emitter and
receiver) and separate electrical connections are required.
• Cannot be used for completely transparent objects.
Applications
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Diffuse sensors
• The emitter and receiver are fitted in the same housing.
The object diffusely reflects a percentage of the emitted
light thereby activating the receiver. Depending on the
design of the receiver, the output is then switched
through (normally open function) or switched off
(normally closed function).

Diffuse sensors
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Diffuse sensors
• The switching distance largely depends on the reflectivity
of the object. The size, surface, shape, density and colour
of the object as well as the angle of impact determine the
intensity of the diffused light so that as a rule only small
distances within a range of a few decimetres can be
scanned.
• The background must absorb or deflect the light emission,
i.e. when an object is not present, the reflected light
beam must be clearly below the response threshold of
the receiving circuit.

Diffuse sensors
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Diffuse sensors
Advantages
• Because the reflection on the object activates the
receiver, an additional reflector is not required.
• Whereas with through-beam sensors objects can only be
detected laterally to the light beam, diffuse sensors allow
frontal detection, i.e. in the direction of the light beam.
• This type is more convenient than through-beam type
because the emitter and receiver are located in the same
housing, which simplifies wiring.

Diffuse sensors
Disadvantages
• This type of sensor does not work well with transparent
targets or targets that have a low reflectivity (dull finish,
black surface, etc.). Care must also be taken with glossy
target objects that have multifaceted surfaces (e.g.,
automobile wheel covers, corrugated roofing material), or
objects that have gaps through which light can pass (e.g.
toy cars with windows, compact disks). These types of
target objects can cause optical sensors to output
multiple pulses for each object.
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Diffuse sensors
Applications

Retro-reflective sensors
• Light emitter and light receiver are installed in one single
housing. An additional reflector is required. The retro-
reflective optical sensors is the most sophisticated of all of
the sensors. The sensor works similarly to the through beam
sensor in that a target object passing in front of the sensor
blocks the light being received. However, in this case, the
light being blocked is light that is returning from a reflector.
Therefore, this sensor does not require the additional wiring
for the remotely located receiver unit. Compared to a
diffuse sensor, the retro-reflective sensor has a greater
range.
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Advantages
• Enhanced reliability because of permanent light during
non-operation.
• Simple installation and adjustment.
• Object can be diffuse reflecting, mirroring or transparent
as long as a sufficiently high percentage of the light is
definitely absorbed.
• In most cases, a greater range in comparison with diffuse
sensors.

Disadvantages
• Transparent, very bright or shiny objects may remain
undetected.
Applications
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• Generally, this type of sensor would not work well with
glossy target objects because they would reflect light back
to the receiver just as the remote reflector would.
However, this problem is avoided using polarizing filters.
This polarizing filter scheme is illustrated in the following
figure. Notice in the illustration that there is an added
polarizing filter that polarizes the exiting light beam. In
the illustration, this is a horizontal polarization. In the
upper figure, notice that with no target object present,
the specially designed reflector twists the polarization
angle by 90 degrees, sending the light back in vertical
polarization.

• At the receiver, there is another polarizing filter; however,
this filter is installed with a vertical polarization to allow
the light returning from the reflector to pass through and
be detected by the receiver. In the lower illustration of the
figure, notice that when a target object passes between
the sensor and the reflector, not only is the light beam
disrupted, but if the object has a glossy surface and
reflects the light beam, the reflected beam returns with
the same horizontal polarization as the emitted beam.
Since the receiver filter has a vertical polarization, the
receiver does not receive the light, so it activates its
output.
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Optical proximity sensors with fibre-optic cables
• Optical proximity sensors with fibre-optic cable adaptors
are used if conventional devices take up too much room.
Another application, where the use of fibre-optic cable
adaptors is of advantage, is in areas with explosion
hazard. With the use of fibre-optic cables the position of
small objects can be detected with high accuracy. By using
two separate fibre-optic cables it is possible to construct a
through-beam sensor. Because of their handling flexibility,
these can be used universally.
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Advantages
• Detection of objects in areas of restricted access, e.g.
through holes.
• Possibility of remote installation of proximity sensor
housing (e.g. Hazardous environment: heat, water,
radiation, explosion risk).
• Accurate detection of small objects.
• Sensing elements can be moved.
• Glass fibre optics is suitable for higher temperatures
Magnetic Proximity Sensor

Hall Effect Sensor:
• The Hall effect was discovered in the last century by E.
Hall. He discovered that a voltage difference is created
on the opposite sides of a small thin gold plate,
through which a current passes, if a magnetic field
operates vertically to this. Subsequently, it was
discovered that this effect also occurs with many
semiconductors. Certain physical characteristics are
required for this. The thickness of the small plate
must be less than the dimensions of length and width.
Voltages of up to 1.5 V can be created.
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Hall Effect Sensor:

Hall Effect Sensor:
The formula for Hall voltage is:
• Hall sensor elements are used for the measurement of

current and magnetic field or in combination with moving
magnets for angle and position.
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Selection Criteria for Proximity Sensors

• In the first instance, proximity sensors can be
selected according to the material which they are
to detect. Metals of any kind can be detected
easily and economically with inductive proximity
sensors if short switching distances only are
required (e.g. 0.4 – 10 mm). For greater distances,
optical proximity sensors of varying designs are
available. The greatest distances can be spanned
by means of through-beam sensors.

• Capacitive proximity sensors are suitable for the
detection of a wide range of materials, but again
only for relatively small distances, similar to
inductive proximity sensors. Objects to be detected
by a capacitive proximity sensor must be of a
certain minimum volume. Ultrasonic and optical
diffuse reflective proximity sensors are able to
detect a wide range of different materials over
greater distances. However, the detection of
reflecting objects with tilted surfaces may create
problems.
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• Further criteria for the selection of proximity
sensors are the conditions under which the object
is to be detected, what the installation
requirements for the proximity sensor are and the
environmental factors to be taken into account.
Once all these requirements have been
established, a suitable proximity sensor can be
selected from the various alternative products on
offer. A systematic listing of the above mentioned
criteria is set out overleaf.

Object material
• Electrically conductive material
– Steel
– Stainless steel
– Brass
– Copper
– Aluminium
– Nickel
– Chromium
– Metal-coated, electrically non-conductive materials,
depending on specific coating thickness (mention one
example)
– Graphite
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Object material
• Electrically non-conductive material
– Plastics
– Cardboard, paper
– Wood
– Textiles
– Glass
• Size and shape
– Dimension of structure to be detected and possibly
classification to standard shapes, e.g. block, cylinder,
sphere, cone inter alia.

Object material
• Nature of non-conductive materials
– Optically transparent or non-transparent
– Optical reflex ability of surface (absorbent to reflecting)
– Homogenous, non-homogenous (e.g. composite
material)
– Porous, fibrous
– Solid, liquid, loose material
– Dielectric constant
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Conditions for the detection of objects
• Contacting or non-contacting
• Required distance between proximity sensor and
object, possibly taking into account any tolerances
which may occur in respect of distance, e.g. in the case
of moving objects.
• Speed of a moving object or time during which the
object is present or down time.
• Constant or changing sensing requirements, e.g.
different position of object.
• Distance to adjacent objects, required resolution of
interrogation.
• Type of background or area below

Installation conditions
• Free space available (distance/volume) around
sensing area. The need to use miniature designs or
remotely positioned proximity sensors when using
fibre optic attachments or pneumatic sensor
heads. The necessity for detecting "around the
corner", in crevasses or through holes.
• Necessity of flush mounted installation.
• Required minimum distance between several
adjacent proximity sensors.
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Environmental considerations
• Ambient temperature
• Effect of dust, dirt, particles, humidity, splashing water, water
jets inter alia.
• Influence of magnetic or electric fields, e.g. in a welding
environment.
• Influence of external light emissions (peculiarities of ambient
lighting).
• Area with explosion hazard
• Clean room environment
• Requirements for hygiene or sterilisation for use with food
packaging or in a medical environment.
• Application in high pressure or vacuum conditions.

Safety applications
• Application in areas with explosion hazard.
• Application for the purpose of accident prevention.
• Application where increased safety measures are
required against breakdown.
Options/features of proximity sensors
• Design/type with specification of dimensions
• Voltage supply (direct current, alternative current)
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• Type of switch output and type of protective circuits:
– Positive switching (PNP output)
– Negative switching (NPN output)
– Short circuit protection
– Reverse polarity protection
• Connection: Cable or plug
• Protection class to IEC 529, DIN 40050
• Permissible ambient temperature during operation
• Available special designs e.g. to DIN 19234 (NAMUR)
or intrinsically safe design ("explosion protection"), or
accident protection design

• Extent of switching distance or range, fixed value or
adjustable value
• Nominal switching distance or nominal range
• Switching hysteresis
• Maximum operating frequency (switching frequency)
• Maximum load current
• Flush mounted or non-flush mounted option
• Minimum required distance between adjacent
proximity sensors of the same type
• Operating reserve factor for optical proximity sensors
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• Fibre optic design available for optical proximity
sensors. The following technical data apply in respect
of fibre optic designs, e.g.:
– Range
– Dimensions of fibre optic head
– Fibre optic cable length
– Detection angle, response ranges
– Permissible ambient temperature
• Available accessories for retro-reflective sensors
(reflectors, dimensions)
• Prices or price categories of proximity sensors

• Example: Metal Objects are to be detected on
processing equipment in a highly inaccessible place
where ambient temperature may increase up to
100 oC. Which type of sensor is particularly suitable
in this case?
59

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Dr. Ibrahim Al-

Fields of Application for

Proximity Sensors Applications

Proximity Sensors Applications

Proximity Sensors Applications

Proximity Sensors Applications

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Example: Technical Characteristics

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Example: Technical Characteristics

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Example: Technical Characteristics

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor