Transformers Theory

Electrical Machines (Transformer)
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Draw electrical equivalent of Magnetic Circuit.

 Differentiate different types of Magnetic Material.
 Understand basic operation of Single Phase Transformer.
 Understand different construction of Transformer.
 Derive the equivalent circuit of Practical Transformer.
 Derive the circuit parameters using different tests on Transformer.
 Determine performance indices of Transformer.
 Understand the operation of different three phase transformers.
 Understand the operation of Auto Transformer and Parallel operation of
Transformers.
Introduction
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without the change of
frequency. The electrical circuit that receives energy from the source is called as primary
winding and the other circuit that delivers electrical energy to the load is called as Secondary
winding.
The primary and secondary windings of a transformer are coupled magnetically that is the
electrical energy input to the transformer is first converted to magnetic energy and then this
energy is again converted to electrical energy by the secondary winding to be delivered to
load.
Transformer does not have any moving parts so out of all electrical machines it has the
highest efficiency and requires least amount of maintenance. Usually the transformer steps
up the voltage output of alternator before transmission so that at high voltage transmission
the losses are less.
In electronic and control circuits. Transformers are used for impedance matching for
maximum power transfer from source to the load. Pulse Transformers find wide application
in radar, television and digital computers.
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Magnetic Circuits
Maxwell’s equations for magnetic fields are
 H.dl   I.da
C S
 B.da  0
S
To find general solution for H& B is difficult so we tend to reduce a complex three
dimensional problem to an equivalent circuit.
An example of simple magnetic circuit is
 of material is much higher than 0 , so flux is almost entirely confined to the core.
 The source of magnetic field is ampere-turn product Ni, in magnetic circuit terminology
Ni is magneto-motive force (MMF)
 Flux,    B.da
S
SI unit of flux is weber

Assuming magnetic flux density is uniform in core
C  BC AC
C  Flux in core
BC  Flux density in core
AC  Cross sectional area of core
 F=Ni=  H.dl  HClC
Also BC  CHC

C Ni
 C 
AC lC
 l 
Ni  C  C 
 A C 
F  R
lc
 R  Reluctance of transformer core
A c
  Flux in core
F=MMF
 Sometimes, energy conversion device like generators or motors may have air gap
between stator & rotor, when air gap is much smaller than the dimensions of adjacent core
faces, magnetic flux will follow the path defined by air gap & core.

Bc 
Ac

Bg 
Ag
F  Hclc  Hgg
Where g is air gap length
Bc Bg  l g 
F lc  g   c  
c 0  c A c 0 A g 
lc g
Rc  Rg 
c A c 0 A g


F   Rc  Rg 
F   R tot 
So, introduction of air gap increases the reluctance in the path of flux. So, to maintain same
flux machines draw more amount of magnetizing current.
Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are those materials which get magnetized in the presence of magnetic
field. Even Non Magnetic materials get magnetized in presence of magnetic field but they
exhibit weak magnetization.
Classification of Magnetic Materials

On the basis of magnetic behaviour, material may be classified as
1) Diamagnetic
2) Paramagnetic
3) Ferromagnetic
Diamagnetic materials
 It is a weak form of magnetism that is non-persistent and persists only when an external
field is applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motor of electrons due to an applied
magnetic field.
 The magnitude of induced magnetic moment is extremely small and in a direction
opposite to that of applied field.
 Diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic field
 Some of the materials that exhibit diamagnetism are Cu, Au, Ge, Si, Diamond, Al2O3 ,NaCl
etc.

Paramagnetic Materials
 Such materials which when placed in a magnetic field acquire a weak magnetization in the
same direction as applied field.
 In some materials, permanent magnetic dipole moments of the atoms or ions are acted
upon individually, with no mutual interaction upon them, (randomly distributed), this effect is
called Paramagnetism.
 The total dipole moment in this material & hence magnetization is zero, in absence of
external field.
 In the presence of magnetic field, dipoles align in the direction of field.
 But in absence of field due to thermal agitation dipoles are randomly oriented.
 Paramagnetic materials are attracted by external field so it moves from low intensity to
high intensity of the field.
Ferromagnetic Materials
 Ferromagnetism is characterized by presence of parallel alignment of permanent

magnetic dipole moments in a single direction
 Examples: Fe, Cu, Ni, Gd & Dy
 Ferromagnetic materials are spontaneously magnetized even in absence of external
magnetic field.
 All ferromagnetic materials behave as paramagnetic materials above Curie temperature.
 The ferromagnetic properties of transition elements Fe, Co, Ni are due to spin of unpaired
electrons. In Fe, Co & Ni, the unpaired 3d shell e are responsible for ferromagnetism.
 When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to an external field, it follows path OA of the
magnetization curve
 When magnetic field is removed, some magnetization is still in the material called as
residual magnetization having remnant flux density Br  .

 To reduce residual magnetization to zero, external field needs to be applied in reverse

direction called as Corecive Force HC  .
Construction details of Transformer
In a Transformer the primary and secondary windings are wound around the core of a
transformer. Core is a magnetic material which allows the flow of magnetic flux lines to link
both primary and secondary windings.
There are certain properties that the core material must satisfy:
1. Core should have low reluctance and high permeability to the flow of magnetic flux.
2. Core is generally made of Silicon steel
Features of Silicon Steel:
 Ferrous Magnetic Material
 Low reluctance and high permeability
 Low hysteresis coefficient (x= 1.6)
P  k B1.6 f
 h n m
 Hence, low hysteresis loss.

 Generally, this steel is cold rolled grain oriented CRGO steel, to increase permeability
along the direction of magnetization and reduce core losses.
Laminations
The magnetic core is a stack of thin Silicon Steel laminations about 0.35mm thick for 50 Hz
Transformers. To reduce eddy current losses, laminations are electrically isolated from each
other.
The materials used for electrical isolation are:
1. China clay
2. Japan Varnish

3. Impregnated paper
4. Oxide paints
For a laminated core we define the Stacking Factor as:
Net CS Area
Stacking Factor = Iron factor = <1
Gross CS Area
Where,
Gross cross section area (Ag): Cross Sectional Area of Magnetic material and Insulation
Net cross section area (An): Cross Sectional Area of Magnetic material
Laminations must be tightly riveted because if there is a thin air gap between laminations
then it increases reluctance of magnetic path and hence increases magnetizing current for
same flux.
NI   (cons tant)  R
Magneto-striction
Tendency of any magnetic material due to which changes in dimensions of magnetic
materials take place whenever flux is flowing through it.
If laminations are not properly riveted then there may be vibrations due to this phenomenon
and if frequency of vibrations fails in audible range. We can hear this and it will then produce
a humming sound called as Magnetic Hum.
Types of Core Structure
Core is generally made of Ferromagnetic Material like Silicon Steel but for high frequency
Transformers core is made of Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites because at high frequencies
eddy current losses are high and to reduce losses we need material with high resistivity
called as Ferrites.
Core Type Transformer
Here the two windings are wound on opposite limbs of the core. Hence, the core is
surrounded on both sides by the winding.
The magnetic circuit of the Transformer has reluctances
connected in series as shown below:

Core Type Transformer has the following features:

o Less amount of insulation required
o Mechanically bad
o More amount of Cu required
o Used for high voltage application
o Inter leaving windings preferred
o Equal Cross Section Area of both the limbs
o Low current rating
o Small KVA rating
Shell Type Transformer
Here the two windings are wound on same limb i.e. middle limb of the core. Hence, the
windings are surrounded on both sides by the core.
The magnetic circuit of the Transformer has reluctances connected in parallel as shown
below:
Shell Type Transformer has the following features:

o Outer limbs have cross section area of 50% of cross section area of central limb.
o It is used for low voltage and high current rating applications.
o High KVA Rating
o More amount of Insulation is required
o Less Amount of Cu is required.
Placement of Windings
There are two types of windings generally employed for Transformers. The concentric coils
are used for core type of Transformers. Interleaved or Sandwiched windings are used for
Shell Type Transformers.
Interleaved windings are preferred to reduce magnetic leakage flux thereby increasing
coefficient of coupling between the windings. In Interleaved windings the Low Voltage
winding is usually placed near to the core and High Voltage winding outside the Low
Voltage winding. Insulation is provided between two windings and between core and
winding.

Advantages of placing LV winding nearer to the core:
 The amount of insulation required for transformer between core and winding is reduced.
 It also reduces the amount of Cu required for windings
 If HV winding is outer to low voltage, then HV is accessible to provide tapings for voltage
control purpose.
The directions of flux in HV and LV are of Opposing as per Lenz Law because induced emf
must oppose the cause of Induction.
 If HV and LV winding are placed on same limb

then they should carry ‘I’ in opposite
directions to satisfy Lenz’s law.
 If HV and LV are placed on separate limbs, then they should carry ‘I’ in same direction to
satisfy Lenz’s law

Ideal Transformer
An Ideal Transformer is a Transformer with the following assumptions:
 Permeability of Transformer is infinity.

 Iron loss in the Transformer core are zero
 Resistance of transformer winding is zero
 No magnetic leakage flux, so coefficient of coupling is 1.
 Magnetization curve of transformer is linear.
A Practical Transformer is one which does not make the following assumptions. So, in the
next section we remove these assumptions one by one.
Transformer with finite permeability
The current responsible for setting up the working flux in a transformer is called as
Magnetizing Current. This current is drawn by primary winding from the source and it also
exists even under no-load conditions.
iµ = Magnetizing current
iµ= Iµ sin ωt
Primary MMF = N1 i = N1 Im sin t

MMF

R
N1Im
  m sin t , m 
R
According to Lenz Law

N d  
e1   1  N1m sin  t  
dt  2
Emf induced in primary winding is lagging behind flux by exactly by 90
At t  
E1max  N1m
E1max N1m
E1  
2 2
N1m 2f
 4.44N1mf
2
E1  4.44N1BmAnf

Where, E1 = RMS Value of emf induced in primary winding

N1 = Number of Turns in Primary Winding
Bm = Maximum Value of Magnetic Flux Density inside the core
An = Area of Cross Section of core perpendicular to direction of Magnetic Field
f = frequency
Similarly,
 
e2  N2 m sin  t  
 2
So, emf induced in secondary winding also lags flux by 90
and is in phase with primary induced emf.
E2  4.44N2BmAnf
Where, E2 = RMS Value of emf induced in secondary winding
N2 = Number of Turns in Secondary Winding
From vector diagram, in accordance with Lenz Law

V1   e1
This implies that induced emf opposes the applied voltage.
Observations
E1 E2
  4.44Bm Anf
N1 N2
E2 N2
  K  Transformation Ratio
E1 N1
Turns ratio  N1 :N2 or E1 : E2
V1
To keep Bmax as constant, keep  Cons tant
f
 By keeping V as constant and if the frequency of operation is reduced, then the maximum
value of the flux density is increased which drives transformers into saturation magnetizing
component of current drawn by primary winding is increased sharply.
 If the frequency of operation of a transformer is reduced then KVA rating of transformer

reduces proportionately.

 Bm depends on nature of material core

o For CRGO – 1.2 T to 1.6 T
o For Si steel – 1.0T to 1.2T
 For a given KVA rating and for given maximum value of B of core, more the designed
frequency lesser is size and weight of transformers.
 For a given KVA rating and for a given design frequency superior the magnetic material of
core, lesser will be size and weight of core.
Solved Examples
Problem: A magnetic circuit with a cross sectional area of 20cm2 is to be operated at 50Hz
from a 120 V (rms) supply the no of turn required to achieve the peak magnetic flux density
(B) 1.8T in the core is?
Solution: The induced emf in a transformer is given by,
E  4.44Nfm ;B  1.8 T
E
N
4.44Nfm
120
N  150

4.44  50  1.8  20  107 
Transformer with Iron Losses
Iron Losses in a Transformer consist of Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current Loss. The losses
consume active power which must be supplied by the source in terms of active component
of current which has same phase as Voltage so that reactive power for loss component is
zero.
Hence, at no-load there are two components of Primary Current:

 I  to create flux in the transformer core reactive component of current.
 Iw  to supply iron losses in the transformer core (iron loss component of current).
I  Iw

No load component of current is 5% to 8% of full load current.

Io  I  Iw
Magnetizing component of No-Load Current is around 4-6% of Full Load Current and lags
applied voltage by 900.
Core Loss Component is 1-2% of Full Load Current and is in phase with the applied voltage.
 0  No load phase angle

 cos 0  No load power factor
 o  70 to 75
 cos 0  0.2lag
 Transformer has poor No load PF because I  Iw
 By keeping applied voltage constant, if the

frequency of operation of Transformer is reduced then
I increases and No- load Power Factor of Transformer
reduces.
 I  Io sin o and Iw  Io cos o

 No  Load power  V1 Io cos o  V1 Iw  iron losses
 Power consumed by a transformer at No-load is used to supply iron losses [if primary
winding resistance is considered, small amount of NL primary Cu loss also takes place].
No- load equivalent circuit of the Transformer looks like as shown below:
Semi- Ideal Transformer on Load

Semi-ideal Transformer is one in which we consider the No-Load Component of current. If it
is loaded then a current is induced in secondary winding which creates a secondary flux in

opposition to primary flux (in accordance to Lenz Law). This causes an addition current to
induce in Primary Winding to cancel the secondary MMF so that flux can be kept constant.
Primary MMF = N1I

Primary flux =  (main field flux)
Secondary flux = 2
Secondary MMF = N2I2
I1 ' = Load component of primary current

I1  I1 ' I0 = Primary Current
V2 : Secondary Terminal Voltage
I2 : Secondary current
N1I1 ' = Load component of primary MMF

1 ' = Load component of primary flux
Flux on the transformer core is always equal to NL flux irrespective of load across secondary
terminals. So the Transformer can be treated as constant flux device
1 '  2
N1I1 '  N2I2
Load component of primary MMF = Secondary MMF
N2 I1 ' E
  K  2 = Transformation ratio
N1 I2 E1
I1
I1 '  KI2 ; K
I2
E1I1 '  E2I2
Load component of primary VA = secondary VA (so transformer can be treated as constant

power device)
If I0 is neglected
I1  I1 '
N1I1  N2I2
E1I1  E2I2
I1
K 
I2

Phasor Diagram under load condition

For lagging pf load
I2 lags V2 by 2
2 = secondary phase angle = load phase angle
cos 2 = secondary pf = load pf
Transformer with winding resistance
Due to winding resistance there is voltage drop between primary applied voltage and
induced EMF and also secondary induced EMF and Load Voltage.
Also, due to winding resistance there is power loss in both primary as well as secondary
windings called as Copper Loss as the windings are made of Copper.
Assuming R1 is the Primary Winding Resistance and R 2 is the Secondary Winding Resistance.
V1   E1  I1 R1 ; E2  V2  I2 R2
Total Cu loss = I12R1  I22 R 2
Cu loss before transfer must be equal to Cu loss after transferring resistance from one
winding to another winding that is copper loss must be unaffected by referring the entire
resistance in one winding or the other.
R 2 ' = equivalent of secondary resistance with respect to primary winding

I22R 2  I12R 2 '

2
I  R
R  R 2  2   22
'
2
 I1  k
If we refer Primary resistance to secondary winding then copper loss must be same on both
sides,
I12 R1  I22R1 '
R1 '  R1k 2
I1 R1
pu primary resistance drop = ; E1  Base voltage on primary side
E1
I2R 2
pu secondary resistance drop =
E2
R 01 = total transformer resistance to primary side
R2
= R1  R2 '  R1 
k2
R 02  total transformer resistance referred to secondary side
 R 2  R1 '  R 2  k 2R1
I1R 01
pu resistance drop in primary =
E1
I2R 02
pu resistance drop in secondary =
E2
pu resistance in primary = pu resistance in secondary
Total Cu loss = I12R1  I22R2 I12 R01 I22 R02
Transformer with Magnetic Leakage Flux
 Leakage flux is a flux which links either primary or secondary but not both. It does not
help in transferring power from primary to secondary so it’s is undesirable.
 Leakage flux depends on respective load currents.
 The leakage flux at primary and secondary winding are in phase with load currents.
 The EMF due to magnetic leakage flux can be taken in to account by assuming additional
voltage components in the resistance voltage sources. Such that additional voltage
components is used to compensate EMF due to magnetic leakage flux.
 The additional voltage components should lead the resistive load by 90 , it can be taken
into account by assuming imaginary reactance in series with primary and secondary
windings.

V1   E1  j I1 X1  To compensate Ex1
E2  V2  j I2 X2  To compensate E x2
 If resistances are considered
V1  E1  I1 R1  j I1 X1
 E1  I1 (R1  jX1)  E1  I1Z1
E2  V2  jI2 Z 2
 pu reactance drop should remain same while transferring from primary to secondary.
I2 X 2 I1X 2 '

E2 E1
X2
X2 ' 
k2
E1 1 I2
 
E2 k I1
X 2,s
X 2,p 
k2
X1,s  X1,p k 2
X2
Equivalent Reactance on Primary Side = X01  X1  X2 '  X1 
k2
Equivalent Reactance on Secondary Side = X 02  X1 ' X 2  X1k 2  X 2
Phasor Diagram
l1 , l2 are leakage flux produced by Primary and

Secondary Currents respectively.
El1 ,El2 are the emf induced due to Primary and
Secondary Leakage Flux respectively.
The leakage emf is compensated by means of

Leakage reactance in the equivalent circuit.

Equivalent Circuits of Transformer
Exact Equivalent Circuit
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
 No- load branch is shifted from E1 to V1 location

 No- load primary impedance drop Io Z1 is neglected.
 No- load primary cu loss. I20 R1 is also neglected
 As V1  E1 , so I0 is higher in this case. So Iw and I higher. Hence iron losses are over
estimated.
Solved Examples
Problem: A 5KV/400V 75kVA 1   Transformer has a series reactance of 0.12pu the reactor
in ohm referred to low voltage and high voltage side are?
 V   5  10 
2 2
3
base,p
Solution: Zbase,p   333.33
Sbase 75  103
Z  Zpu  Zbase  0.12  333.33   40 
V   400 
2 2
base,S
Zbase,s    2.133
Sbase 75  103
Z  Zpu  Zbase  0.12  2.133   0.256 

Problem: A Single Phase Transformer takes a no load current of 1.3A when HV side is kept
open if the iron loss component of no load current is 0.5A. Find magnetizing component of
no load current.
Solution: No-Load Current in a Transformer is given by,
I0  I2  I2w
1.3  0.52  I2
I  1.2 A
Problem: A 460/240V Transformer has series leakage reactance of 37.2Ω as referred to HV

25kW power at unity power factor if the voltage on low voltage side is measured to be 450V
then voltage and power factor at high voltage side will be?
Solution: The real power is given by,
P  VIcos 
25  103
I  55.56A
450
Assuming Source Voltage as reference phasor,
Vs  45000 V
Due to unity power factor phase angle of current will be same as phase angle of voltage
Is  55.5600 A
I1 N2 V2
 
I2 N1 V1
I1 460

I2 2400
460
I1  55.56   10.6500 A
2400
E1 N1 2400
 
E2 N2 460
2400
E1   450  2347.8 V
460

V  E1  jX I1   2347.8  j37.2 10.6500 
V  2380.99.57 V
Power factor cos   cos 9.57 = 0.986
Problem: A 2300/230V Transformer rated at 500kVA given following values of equivalent

resistance side are R e2  2m Xc2  6m when the secondary side is delivering rated current
to a unity p.f load what is induced emf in the high voltage side?

Solution: V2rated  230V

S rated  500kVA
Srated 500  103
Irated  
Vrated 230
Irated  2.174kA
V2  23000 V
I2  2.17400 kA
E2  V2  I2 Z 2  230  2.174  103   2  j6   103  234.73.10 V
E1 N1
  10  E1  10E2  2347.13.10 V
E2 N2
Losses in a Transformer
Different types of losses that occur in a Transformer are:

1. Copper Loss
2. Core Loss or Iron Loss
3. Stray Load Loss
4. Dielectric Loss
Copper Loss
The losses that occur in primary and secondary windings of Transformer due to winding
resistances are called as Copper Losses.
Total copper losses = I12R1  I22R 2 = I12R01  I22 R02
Full load Cu losses = I1,FL
2
R01  I2,FL
2
R02
Cu losses at x% FL = (xI1,FL )2R01  x2Pcu,FL

I12R01 I2R IR  I
pu FL Cu loss   1 01   1 01   1  pu resistance drop
VArating (E11I )  E1  I1
In Pu system % FL Cu loss = % resistance drop
Core Loss or Iron Loss
The losses that occur in Transformer core due to alternating flux set up by primary winding is
called as Iron Loss. It has two components:

 Hysteresis loss
 Eddy Current Loss
Hysteresis Loss
In the Ferromagnetic material, magnetic dipoles retain their magnetization even after the
removal of Magnetic Field. But the flux or Magnetic Field developed in Transformer core is
alternating in nature so the magnetization of dipoles reverses periodically. This requires
energy being supplied to the material resulting in Hysteresis Loss.
The Hysteresis curve for a magnetic material looks like as shown below:
The value of magnetic flux density can have two different values for same value of magnetic
field intensity depending upon whether magnetic field intensity is increasing or decreasing.
The area under hysteresis loop gives hysteresis loss per cycle.
Total hysteresis loss for frequency f = Area of hysteresis loop per cycle  f
Steinmetz formula
Hysteresis Loss is given by Steinmetz formula:
Wh  Bmax
x
fV
x= Steinmetz exponent
 = Steinmetz constant
f= frequency of magnetic reversal
V= volume of core material
x=1.6 for Si steel or CRGO steel

V
Bmax 
f

V
Case 1: = constant then Bmax = constant; then Wh  f
f
V
Case 2: 1  constant  Bmax  constant
f
x
V1 V 
Bmax   Wh   1  f
f  f 
Wh  V1xf1x
For x= 1.6
V11.6
Wh  0.6
f
By keeping applied voltage constant and by increasing frequency, Hysteresis Loss will
decrease.
Eddy current losses
The alternating flux set up in the core by Primary Winding causes emf to be induced in the
core which causes swirling currents in the core. These currents since they flow in circular
loops like eddy in sea are called as Eddy Currents. The losses due to these currents are called
as Eddy Current Losses.
Eddy current losses in Transformer core  conductivity of Transformer core
Since, eddy currents induced Ie  
1
Resistance of Core R ce 

1
Hence, Eddy Current Loss, We  I2eR ce  2  We  

Silica content in Transformer core reduces conductivity of steel, hence eddy current losses
reduce. But we cannot add Silica beyond 4% else it would make the Transformer core brittle.
To further reduce We , we use laminations

k.Bmax
2
f 2t2
We 

f= frequency of eddy current (Ie )
t= thickness of lamination
 = Resistivity of the core
High frequency Transformer should have thinner laminations to reduce We

V
Case 1:  const  Bm  const
f
Pe  f 2
So, eddy current losses are proportional to square of frequency.
V
Case 2:  const, Bm  const
f
2
V
Pe    f 2  V2
f
If voltage is kept constant but frequency of operation of Transformer is reduced then No
change in eddy current loss but Hysteresis Loss increases.
Consequences of frequency reduction at constant voltage
1. Magnetizing Current drawn by the primary winding from the source increases.
2. No-load Power Factor of transformer reduces
3. Iron loss in Transformer core increases.
Stray Load Losses
These losses are dependent on load current and are like Eddy Current Losses but occur in
different parts of Transformer instead of core. The Stray Load Loss has two components:
1. Cu stray load losses
2. Iron stray load losses
Cu Stray Load Losses occur in conductors of primary and secondary windings of the
transformer and can be reduced by using Stranded Conductors instead of Solid Conductors.
Magnetic leakage flux produces some additional iron losses in Transformer which are
counted against iron stray load losses. More or less eddy current losses but due to leakage
flux, depend on load.
Since, Stray Load Losses depend on Load Current they are considered as Variable Losses.
Practically, 0.5 % of output can be considered as stray load losses.

These losses occur in all metallic parts of Transformer and at no definite place. Hence called
as ‘Stray’.
Dielectric Losses
These loss normally takes place in insulating materials of Transformer such as inter winding
insulation and also Transformer oil. As dielectric loss is independent of load current, it is a
constant loss. It depends on impressed voltage.

These losses occur due to finite resistivity of the insulating material so it allows a leakage
current through it. Practically, 0.25% of total output can be taken as dielectric losses.
Tests conducted on a Transformer
Open circuit test

The main objectives are
o To measure constant losses in Transformer
o To find out parameters of NL branch ( R o & Xo of equivalent circuit )
This test is conducted on LV side keeping HV side open circuited because this test is
conducted at rated voltage and more convenient to apply rated voltage at LV side
NL current is more on LV side. Hence can be accurately measured
The equivalent circuit under OC Test looks like:
E1 E1 V1 V1
Ro  , Xo  or R o  , Xo 
Iw I Iw I
Wo  VI1 o cos  Iw  Io cos o

Wo
cos o  I  Io sin o
VI1 o
V1 V1
Ro  , Xo 
Iw I

Wo  Losses in Transformer under Open Circuit conditions

= Iron losses + dielectric losses+ NL primary Cu loss ( I2oR1 )
Constant losses = Wo  I2oR1
Under the assumption that NL primary Cu loss is small and dielectric losses are neglected.
Wattmeter Reading = Iron losses
Separation of iron losses

To separate iron losses into Hysteresis and eddy current loss, Open Circuit test is conducted
V
at variable f and voltage such that 1  constant
f
V1
 Constant  Bmax  Constant
f
Wi  Af  Bf 2
Wi
 A  Bf
f
The constants A and B can thus be determined by the slope and intercept of the curve whose
equation is given above.
Frequency can be changed by Cyclo-converters.
 Consequences of OC test if it is conducted at rated voltage but at less than required

frequency
o Due to increase in flux, the magnetizing current increases.
o With decrease in frequency, hysteresis loss increases and thus core loss increase.
o Hence, core loss component of current also increases.
o Due to increase in magnetizing and core loss current the no-load current also
increases.
o Due to increase in No-Load Current the No-Load Cu Loss increases.
o Due to increase in core loss, wattmeter reading will increase.
o The no-load power factor reduces as magnetizing current dominates core loss
component of current.

Short circuit Test

The main objectives of this test are:
i. To find variable losses in Transformer
ii. To find out total resistance and reactance of Transformer referred to winding in which
measuring instruments are placed.
During this test, short circuit is done on LV terminals and applied voltage on other terminal is
increased until rated current flows in both windings. As this test is conducted at rated current
condition, it is convenient to conduct on HV by short circuiting LV as rated current is lesser
on HV side.
As LV winding is shorted, 8- 10 % of rated voltage is enough to produce rated short circuit
current in both windings.
Wsc =Losses in Transformer under SC condition
= Full Load Cu losses in both windings + stray load losses +small amount of iron losses
corresponding to Vsc
Variable loss= Wsc - iron losses ( Vsc )

To determine iron losses corresponding to Vsc , we use Open Circuit Test results.
At rated voltage, wattmeter reading, Wo  Wi
Since, frequency is kept constant, we can assume Wi  V12
2
 V 
Hence under Short Circuit Test, Wi  sc 
 Vrated 
Usually, Short Circuit Voltage is much less than Rated Voltage so, we can neglect Iron losses
under Short Circuit Test. Also, Stray Load Losses are small so wattmeter reading under Short
Circuit Test give Full Load Copper Losses.
The equivalent circuit for the Short Circuit Test is shown below. Here we have ignored the
shunt branch as No-Load Current is 5-8% of Full Load Current

The circuit can be redrawn as shown below:
Wsc  FL Cu losses  Isc

2
R 01
Wsc
Where R 01 
Isc
Vsc  IscR 01  jIsc X 01  Isc Z 01
Short-Circuit Impedance:
V
Z 01  sc
Isc
Then the reactance can be calculated as:
X01  Z01
2
 R01
2
Short Circuit Power Factor:

R
cos sc  01
Z 01
Deviations if SC test is conducted at rated voltage but less than rated frequency,
o Since, reactance is proportional to frequency so X 01 decreases but R 01 remains same.
o Short-circuit Impedance decreases so Short Circuit Current increases.
o So, Full Load Copper Loss increases.

R 01
o Short Circuit Power Factor, c os sc  increases as Short Circuit Impedance
Z 01
decreases.
Performance indices of Transformer
Efficiency
Efficiency if any system indicates that how much input is being converted to the output. In
case of Transformer it will indicate how much primary input is being converted to the
secondary output.
outputpower
Efficiency =    100
Inputpower
By Power conservation, Pout  Pin  Ploss
Therefore, we can also express efficiency as
Pout
  100
Pout  Ploss
Pin  Ploss
  100
Pin
In case of Transformer, we express the output power or Load as a percentage of Rated KVA
or Full Load.
Assuming load is ‘x’ times the full load power.
Load KVA = x KVA 
rated
If load power factor = cos 

Pout  x KVA rated cos 
 We usually neglect dielectric and Stray Load Losses while calculating efficiency, then the
only losses that remain are core losses and copper losses.
 Core Losses do not depend on the Transformer loading that is load current supplied by
Transformer and hence can be treated as Constant Losses.
 Copper Losses depend on the load current supplied by Transformer. If we are calculating
Copper Losses on the secondary side it will be given by, PCu  I2R 02
Assuming that the terminal voltage equals rated voltage under all conditions. Then,
Load KVA   V rated I  x  Vrated  Irated 
Hence, I  x Irated
Rated current is also referred to as Full Load Current. Therefore, I  x IFL
  
Hence, copper losses are given by PCu  I2R 02   xIFL  R 02  x 2 IFL 2R 02  x 2 PCu FL 
2

So, efficiency can be expressed as,

x (KVA)cos 
  100%
x (KVA)cos   Pi  x 2PCuFL
Where KVA = KVA rating of Transformer

Pi  Iron Losses or Core Losses
PCu FL  Copper Losses under FL condition ; x = Loading of Transformer as a function of FL
Maximum Efficiency
With any system, the desirable condition is to have minimum losses so that maximum part of
Input energy is transformed to output. Hence, we need to determine the conditions under
which efficiency is maximum.
 If Power Factor of load is variable and we need to determine the power factor at which we
have maximum efficiency then
d
0
d
x(KVA)sin  x KVA  cos   Pi  x2PCuFL   0
  0 and cos   1
i.e. Maximum efficiency in a transformer for fixed load is obtained for unity power factor
load.
 If Load on Transformer is varied to obtain maximum efficiency then,

d
0
dx
KVA  cos  x KVA  cos   Pi  x2PCuFL   x KVA  cos  KVA  cos   2PCuFL   0
Pi
x
PCuFL
Pi
That is the load on Transformer as a fraction of Full Load must be
PCuFL
2
 P 
So, at maximum efficiency PCu  x PCuFL  
2 i
 P  Pi
 PCuFL  CuFL
 
That is Copper Loss at maximum efficiency is equal to Iron Loss or Core Loss.
Hence, maximum efficiency is given by,

x KVA  cos  Pi
  100% where, x 
x KVA  cos   2Pi PCuFL

 Efficiency depends on the load connected to Transformer but Load is variable and in case
of Distribution Transformer the load varies throughout the day. Hence, efficiency definition
needs to be modified to have physical significance for variable load.
Hence, we define All Day Efficiency,
Energy Consumed in 24 hrs (KWhr)

 (all  day)   100%
Energy Produced in 24 hrs (KWhr)
Voltage Regulation
 The second performance index upon which Transformer performance is judged is called as
Voltage Regulation.
 It basically defines the fluctuation in Transformer output voltage as the load connected to
Transformer is varied from No-Load conditions to Rated Value that is Full Load Condition.
 The desirable condition is that fluctuation should be minimum and hence Voltage
Regulation should also be minimum and ideally it should be zero.
There are two types of Voltage Regulation defined,

V  VFL
Regulation Down  NL  100%
VNL
VNL  VFL
Regulation Up   100%
VFL
Here, all voltages are just magnitudes and not phasors.
Under No-Load I2  0
Hence, the voltage at secondary terminals = E2
The Voltage under Full Load conditions = V2  E2  IFL Z02
E2  V2
Voltage Regulation is given by, VR   100%
V2

Approximate Voltage Regulation

The Phasor Diagram for secondary side of Transformer in case of lagging load is shown
below,
We are only interested in magnitude of voltage to calculate Voltage Regulation and hence
we have rotated the vector E2 to lie along the horizontal axis.
E2  AE  AB  BC  CD  DE
As an approximation neglecting DE
E2  AE  AB  BC  CD  V2  I2R02 cos   I2X02 cos 90  
E2  V2  I2R02 cos   I2 X02 cos 90  
E2  V2  I2R02 cos   I2X02 sin 
E2  V2  I2R02 cos   I2X02 sin 
I2R02 cos   I2 X02 sin 

Voltage Regulation =  100% (for a lagging pf load)
V2
For a leading pf load with pf = cos 
I2R02 cos   I2 X02 sin 
Voltage Regulation =  100%
V2
If V2 and I2 are chosen as base values, then base impedance is given by
V2
Zbase 
I2
R 02 X
Then,  R 02 pu and 02  X02 pu
Zbase Zbase
So, Voltage Regulation can be expressed as,
    
Lagging pf load, VR = R02 pu cos   X02 pu sin   100% 
    
Leading pf load, VR = R02 pu cos   X02 pu sin   100% 
Condition for Maximum Voltage Regulation
In case of lagging pf load, both terms are summed and in leading pf load both terms are
subtracted so maximum voltage regulation can be achieved for lagging pf load.
d(VR)
0
d
d
 
R pu cos   X 02 pu sin   R 02 pu sin   X 02 pu cos   0
d 02
X02 pu X02
tan   
R 02 pu R 02
X 
Hence, load pf angle is   tan1  02  lagging
 R 02 
Condition for Zero Voltage Regulation
In case of leading load since both terms are subtracted, it can give zero voltage regulation
but not lagging pf load.
    
Hence, VR  R02 pu cos   X02 pu sin   0 
R 02 pu R 02
tan   
X02 pu X02
R 
Hence, load pf angle is   tan1  02  leading
 X02 
Voltage Regulation vs power factor

Solved Examples
Problem: The % resistance of a 10kVA 900/200V, 3-phase transformer is 2% if the constant
losses in machine are 1% then maximum possible efficiency of the transformer will be?
Solution: % res=2%
R pu  0.02
Pcu,FL  IFL
2
R
Pcu,FL pu  12  0.02  0.02pu
I
Ipu 
IFL
IFL
IFL pu   1pu
IFL
S
S pu 
Srated
Srated  1pu
Pi 0.01
x   0.707
PCuFL 0.02
x(KVA)cos  0.707  1 1
  100%   100%
x(KVA)cos   2Pi 0.707  1 1  2  0.01
  97.2%
Problem: A 1   Transformer has maximum  of 90% at full load at unity power factor
calculate the  at half load and unity power factor.
Solution: Maximum Efficiency is given by,
x KVA  cos 

x KVA  cos   Pi  x2PCu,FL
KVA
max     (i)
KVA  2Pi
Pi
Loading for Maximum Efficiency, x   0.9
PCu,FL
Pi
PCu,FL 
0.81
KVA
0.9 
KVA  2Pi

0.9KVA  1.8Pi  KVA
1.8Pi  0.1 KVA
18Pi  KVA
0.5KVA

0.5KVA  Pi  0.25 PCu,FL
0.5  18Pi 0.5  18Pi
 
0.5  18Pi  Pi  0.25  PCu,FL Pi
0.5  18Pi  Pi  0.25 
0.81
  87.3%
Problem: A 10 kVA 400/200 V 1   Transformer with % resistance of 3% and % reactance

6% is supplying a current of 50A to a resistive load the value of voltage is?
Solution: %R=3% and %X=6%
V2 2002
Z base  base  4
Sbase 10  103
R  0.03  4  0.12; X  0.06  4  0.24

E  V  I R cos   X sin  
0
E  V  I R cos   50  0.12  1
200  V  6
V  194V
Problem: A 23kVA, 50Hz, 2300/230V Transformer has primary and secondary turns of
200/20 when rated voltage is applied calculate mutual core flux neglecting winding voltage
drop at full load the leakage flux linking each winding is 1% of mutual flux calculate primary
and secondary leakage reactance and total reactance refer to each side.
Solution: 230kVA, 2300/230V
Assumption  Assume no-load
Vrated  2300V
Np  200
2300  4.44  50  200  m
m  0.052 Wb
At full load

l  1% of m  0.00052wb
N  LI
200  0.0052  L  1.0
L  0.0104H
23  103
IFL ,P   10A
2300
XL  L  2    50  0.0104
Xl  3.26 
23  103
IFL,sec   100A
230
0.00052  20  L  100
L  0.000104H
Xl  L  2  50  0.000104
Xl  0.03 
Ratings of Transformer
The rating of any electrical machine is limited by temperature of a machine during its
operation. The temperature rise in any machine is due to losses in that machines that means
rating of any machine is indirectly determined by losses in that machine.
In case of transformers, iron loss depends on voltage rating and Cu loss depends on current
rated.
Voltage Rating
E  4.44NfBmAn
Where, A n =Normal area
Bm  Cons tant to avoid saturation
Hence, E  Area
S, if all Dimension become 2 times then Area become 2 times
Voltage rating is doubled.

Current Rating
Cross sec tion area of Cu
Window space factor 
Window area
N1a1  N2a2
kw 
A
I1 I2
a1  a2 
 
Here, a1 is the cross sectional area of primary winding

a2 is cross sectional area of secondary winding
N1I1 NI
 22
kw   
A
By MMF Balancing,
N1I1  N2I2
2N1I1
kw 
A 
I1  A 
If all dimension of Transformer become 2 times, then window area doubles and hence
current rating also doubles.
KVA Rating
A k 
S  VI  4.44N1fBm Ai 
2N1
4.44fBmk 
S
2
 Ai A  
So, if all the dimensions of the transformer become 2 times, both the areas would double
and KVA rating would become 4 times.
Core loss and No-Load Current

Pcore  Phys
As, Hysteresis Loss is proportional to Core Volume so Core Loss is proportional to Core
Volume.
Pcore  Volume   dimension
3
Pcore  VI
So, core loss component of no-load current is,

Pcore Volume
I    length
Voltage Area
I  length
Magnetizing Inductance can be expressed as,
 NN A
Lm  0 1 2
L
Area
Lm   width
length
Xm  width
Magnetizing Current is given by,
V Area
I    length
Xm width
I  length
The no-load current is,

I0  I2  I2  length
Solved Examples
Problem: A 550KVA 60Hz Transformer with a 6.6KV primary winding draws a current of 5A at
no-load rated voltage and frequency. A second transformer has a core with all the dimension
2 times that of first transformer the primary winding of both transformers has same
number
of turns the second transformer is applied with 13.2kV, 60Hz at primary it will draw a no load
current of?
Solution: Initially, No-Load current is 5A. When dimension is made 2 times, the current will
be scaled by the same factor.
I'nl  Inl  2
I'nl  5  2  7.07 A
Problem: The parameter measure for 50Hz 1    are:-

Self-inductance of primary 45mH
Self-inductance of secondary 30mH
Mutual inductance between primary and secondary 20mH
Calculate inductance and magnetizing inductance of both Winding referred to primary.
Solution: Llp  45  2  M  45  40  5mH

Magnetizing inductance Lm  = 2  20 = 40mH

2
 220 
Lls  30    2  20
 110 
Lls  80mH
Problem: When a 400Hz Transformer is operated at 50Hz what happen to KVA rating?
Solution: KVA rating  f
f
KVA rating 2  2 KVA rating
f1
50
KVA rating 2  KVA rating
400
1
KVA rating 2  KVA rating
8
Problem: If the secondary winding of the ideal

transformer shown in the figure has 40 turn
then for maximum power transfer to the 2
resistor number of turns in the primary winding
should be?
Solution: RL  R Th
2
N 
2 1   8
 40 
N1  80 turns
Problem: Circuit diagram shows a two winding lossless transformer with no leakage flux
excited form current source i(t) winding wave form is shown the transformer has magnetizing
400
inductance of mH .


The peak voltage across A and B with switch S open?
Solution: The circuit diagram with magnetizing inductance is shown below,
di  t 
E  Lm
dt
400  10 
  10 3     10
3
  5 
800
E V

Problem: If the wave form of i  t   10sin 100t  then the peak voltage across A and B with
switch ‘S’ closed is?
Solution: The circuit with switch S closed and the entire circuit referred to primary side is
also shown,
400
X  L  100   40 

I  j40  10  40 j
I2    836.870 A
30  j40 30  j40
V2  I2R  24036.870 V
Problem: A 220/115V 25Hz 1  Transformer as eddy current loss of 100W which is half of
the no load loss at rated applied voltage if the Transformer is connected to 440V, 50Hz
mains then the total no load loss will be?
P
Solution: Peddy  100W  0
2
P0  200W  Ph  Pe
Ph  100W

220  25Hz  440V 50Hz
V V
 8.8  8.8
f f
Ph  f Pe  f 2
Ph2 f2 50
  1
Ph1 f1 25
Ph2  200W
2
Pe2  f2 
 
Pe1  f1 
Pe2  100  4  400W
PT  200  400  600W
Problem: A S.C test when perform on the H.V side of 10KVA 2000/400V single phase
transformer give the following data 60V, 4A 100W. If the L.V side is delivering rated current
at 0.8pf (lag) and 400V find voltage applied to H.V side.
Solution: 60V, 4A, 100W
2000/400V
P
R 01  2  100  6.25
I 16
60
Z 01   15
4
X 01  X 01
2
 R 01
2
 152  6.252
X 01  13.63 
2
 400  13.63
R02  6.25    0.25; X02   0.54
 2000  25

10  103
Irated LV    25A
400
VL  4000V
cos   0.8    36.870

I  25  36.87
E  VL  IL R  jX 
E  4000  25  36.87  0.25  j0.54 
E  413.150.970 V
E1 N1 2000
  5
E2 N2 400
E1  5  413.15  2066.17 V
VNL  VFL 413.15  400

VR    100
VFL 400
V.R  3.28%
Operation of Transformer with Non-linear Core

 In order to produce pure sinusoidal emf in both primary and secondary windings of
transformer the core flux in Transformer should be sinusoidal.
 In order to produce sinusoidal flux in transformer core, the corresponding magnetizing
component of I should not be sinusoidal but rather a non-sinusoidal wave which can satisfy
saturation and hysteresis non linearity of core.
In the figure shown above in first case the magnetization curve of the transformer is shown
and based on that assuming a sinusoidal flux distribution, magnetizing current has been
plotted.

From, the figure it can be observed that for establishing a sinusoidal flux in the core of the
transformer a peaky magnetizing current is required. The peak of magnetizing current aligns
with the peak of the flux. Due to non-sinusoidal nature of the magnetizing current, it consists
of harmonics in which third harmonic is most pre-dominant.
I  I1 sin t  I3 sin3t  I5 sin5t  .........
Fundamental
 If we consider the effect of hysteresis then there will be some residual flux density in the
core of the transformer and due to that flux will be non-zero for zero magnetizing current.
This causes a phase shift between the flux and magnetizing current waveforms as zero of
both cannot align with each other.
This effect has been illustrated in the figure shown below,
The phase lead of magnetizing current with respect to flux is termed as Hysteresis Angle.
 If magnetizing current is assumed to be sinusoidal then we can determine the waveform

for flux using the magnetizing characteristics for a transformer.
 From the adjoining figure it can be observed that for

a sinusoidal magnetizing current the flux waveform is
flat topped.
Due to non-sinusoidal nature of flux there are harmonics
In the flux and third harmonic is most pre-dominant.

 From the figure it can be observed that due to third harmonic the flux becomes flat-
topped. The flux can be expressed as,
  1 sin  t  3 sin3 t  3 sin5 t  .............
 To determine the induced emf from the flux distribution shown above,
d
e
dt
e    1 cos t  33 cos3t  55 cos5t 
The waveform for emf using fundamental and
third harmonic has been shown in
adjoining figure,
So, it can be observed that for a flat topped wave,

the emf waveform is peaky.
Effect of Harmonics
 Due to harmonics RMS value of current increases due to which copper loss also increases.
I  I1 sin t  I3 sin3t  .............
1
Irms  I12  I32  I52
2
Pcu  Irms
2
R
 The third harmonic behaves as zero sequence and hence causes interference with the
nearby communication lines.
 When emf is peaky and flux is flat topped hysteresis loss and eddy current losses reduce
due to reduction if flux and hence core loss reduces.
Summary of Harmonics
 If applied voltage is sinusoidal then flux is also sinusoidal but magnetizing current is
peaky wave due to 3rd harmonic.
 For sinusoidal magnetizing current, flux is flap topped and emf is peaky wave containing a
strong 3rd harmonic.
Switching Transients in Transformer
 Fast variations in V, I and  in a short period due to distractions.

 The severity of switching transients always depends on the instant at which the switch is
closed on applies voltage wave.

 Switching Transients are more severe when switch is closed at the instant. When applied
voltage crosses zero value, switching transients are less severe of switch ‘S’ is closed at when
the applied voltage wave crosses peak value.
Flux cannot be changed instantaneously in a Transformer. It is termed as Magnetic Inertia in
a Transformer.
 If switch is closed when the applied voltage wave crossing 0 points, flux demanded by
core is m as induced emf lags the flux demanded by 900 . But no Transformer can produce
this much flux instantaneously due to magnetic inertia. In this case  produced in
transformer core doesn’t trace the normal  path but it traces the transient flux path and
attains twice the max value of normal flux. This effect is called doubling effect.
 Double the flux produces double the emf in primary and secondary windings within a
short period of time. Hence these are called as impulse emf.
As time period is very less most of the impulse voltage about 80%, 5% end turns on both
side of Transformer windings causing a lot dielectric stress at these turns. So these turns
should be provided with some extra thickness of insulation to protect them against impulse
emf.
 Double the flux demands very high current from the source due to deep saturation of
magnetic core. This high I is known as magnetic inertia current. Approximately 50 times
normal current. This current is called as Magnetic Inrush Current. It has both even and odd
harmonics present due to unsymmetrical nature. Most dominant is 2nd harmonic current.
 No load current only in primary but is only 5% of full load current. Load current
transferred from one winding to another winding. So forces are balanced. But under
transients current is only concentrated on primary so forces are not balanced.
Remedy: Proper brassing of coils so avoiding dislocation of coils.

 To avoid dislocation, windings should be properly brassed and should be given good
support. If the ‘S’ is closed, when the applied voltage crosses peak value, the flux demanded
by core at the instant of switching is zero only. Flux traces normal path and transients are
absent.
 If some residual flux is present in core with polarity opposite to normal flux.
p  2m  r
Severity of Switching Transients is increased.
If residual flux is having same polarity
p  2m  r
Severity of Switching Transients is reduced.
Power and Distribution Transformer

 Power Transformer is connected in Transmission network after the generator to step up
the voltage for transmission whereas distribution transformer is connected in distribution
network and loads are supplied.
 Power Transformer is not directly connected to consumers but Distribution Transformer is
directly connected to consumers so Distribution Transformer experiences more load
fluctuations as compared to Power Transformer. Power Transformer is usually fully loaded for
entire 24 hrs.
 So, maximum efficiency of Power Transformer must occur at Full Load whereas for a
Distribution Transformer it occurs for almost 75% of Full Load.
 In a Power Transformer both Iron Loss and Full Load Copper Loss occur for 24hrs so Full
Load Copper Loss is critical to improve efficiency of Transformer. In Distribution Transformer
Iron Loss occurs for 24 hrs but Copper Loss depends on Load connected to Transformer so
Iron Loss must be minimized to improve efficiency.
 Since, Load is variable for a distribution Transformer we define All Day Efficiency for
Distribution Transformer whereas Power Transformer is fully loaded for entire day and hence
we define efficiency.
 Power Transformer has higher voltage and KVA rating as compared to Distribution
Transformer.
 Since, we need to reduce Core Losses in Distribution Transformer we reduce the magnetic
flux density which results in more specific weight of Distribution Transformer as compared to
Power Transformer.

Harmonics in 3-phase system
 We broadly categorize harmonics in three categories i.e. (3m-1) order harmonics, 3m

order harmonics or Triplen Harmonics and (3m+1) order harmonics.
 Due to half wave symmetry in flux and magnetizing current waveforms, even harmonics
do not exist.
 Harmonics of the order (3m-1), where m = even are always displaced by 0, 240,120
having phase sequence opposite to fundamental or we can call negative phase sequence but
they are balanced.
 Harmonics of the order (3m+1), where m = even are displaced by 0,120,240 , having
phase sequence same as fundamental or we can call it as positive phase sequence and they
are also balanced.
 Harmonics of order of 3m, m=odd are displaced by 0 and are co-phasal in nature i.e. they
all have same phase and it can be called as Zero Sequence.
 By, the property of Zero Sequence Currents that they require either a closed loop or a
neutral connection to exist, it can be said that third harmonic currents can only exist in either
Delta Connection or Star with a grounded neutral. But in case of Star with isolated neutral
triplen harmonic currents cannot exist.
 When third harmonic magnetizing currents can exist the flux and hence induced emf will
be sinusoidal.
 In case of star with isolated neutral the induced emf will have third harmonics but in case
of line voltages the third harmonic emf or zero sequence emf cancels out so line voltage will
be sinusoidal.
Three Phase Transformers

 Three Phase Transformers can be constructed using a bank of three single transformers or
a single unit of three phase transformer.
 In case three single phase transformers are used the reliability of the system increases as
if one unit develops a fault then it can be replaced. But if one phase develops a fault in a
single unit of three phase transformer then whole unit is rendered useless.
There are two constructions for single unit of three phase transformers:
 3-limbed Core Type Transformer
 5-limbed Shell Type Transformer
3-limbed Core Type Transformer

 Here the core is surrounded by winding on all sides.
 All limbs have equal cross sectional area.
 It has less mechanical support.
 Copper requirement is less.
 Insulation requirement is less.
 It is used for HV rating and low current rating.

 Since, there is no closed path for flow of flux so third harmonic flux is absent. Since, third
harmonic is absent in flux and hence emf is sinusoidal.
5-limbed Shell Type Transformer

 Winding surrounded by Core on both sides.
 Outer limbs have half the cross sectional area
as compared to outer limbs.
 Copper requirement is more.
 Insulation requirement is more.
 It is used for Low Voltage rating and
High Current rating.
 There is closed path present for the flow of third harmonic flux and hence flux is not
sinusoidal and hence emf is also not sinusoidal.
 But in case of delta connection third harmonic magnetizing currents can flow so flux and
emf will be sinusoidal.
Polarity Test
Polarity Test is usually performed to check the polarity of connections of primary and
secondary windings before putting the transformer into operation.
The set up for the polarity test is shown below,
 If Voltmeter reads the sum of primary and secondary

Emf then secondary terminals have opposite polarity as
Compared to primary terminals. It is called as Series
Additive Polarity.
 If Voltmeter reads difference of primary and secondary
Emf then secondary terminals have same polarity as those of primary.
It is called as Series Subtractive Polarity.
Three Phase Transformer Connections

Rules for drawing Phasors
 The secondary phasors are always drawn parallel to primary phasors. The primary phasor
of A-phase is always drawn vertical to name the transformer.
 The delta phasors are drawn in form of delta and Star Phasors are always drawn in form of
Star.
 To determine phase shift a reference phasor must be drawn inside delta in form of Star.
Delta-Delta Connection
The connections of Delta-Delta Connection are shown below,

Now first we draw primary phasor such that A2 terminal must lie vertically upwards and
parallel to primary phasors secondary phasors will be drawn.
If we observe that primary phasor is drawn from A1 to A2 and parallel to that secondary
phasor is drawn from a1 to a2.
The dotted reference phasors have been drawn inside the delta in form of Star.
If we plot both the ‘A’ phases on primary and secondary on a clock it looks like as shown
below,
Here, both A and a phase are lying on top of each other and if we read
The time then it looks like as if 12’o clock is the time.
So, the name of this connection is Dd12.
The primary is always represented in upper-case letters and secondary
In lower-case letters.
If we change the delta connections to as shown in figure,
Now the output at secondary terminals is taken at a1, b1 and c1. So, reference phasors will be
drawn with respect to a1, b1 and c1.

The phasor diagram for this connection is shown below,
c1 on secondary side is connected to a2 . So, if we observe a1 to a2 phasor is parallel to A1 to

A2 phasor on the primary. The reference phasors have been drawn on a clock as shown
below.
Hence, there is a 1800 phase shift between primary and secondary
Phases. This looks like as if time on clock is 6’o clock. Hence the
name of the transformer is Dd6.
So, Delta-Delta Connection can produce a phase shift of 00 and

1800.
Features
 In this Transformer connection if phase turns ratio is x:1 then line to line voltage ratio is
x:1.
 As phase voltage = line voltage in Delta-Delta, it requires more number of turns/phase
and also more amount of insulation when compared to Star-Star Transformer of same
voltage rating.
Line Voltage
 Phase Current = Phase Voltage  , this Delta-Delta Connection requires
3
57.7% of cross section area of conductors when compared to Star-Star Connection of same
I
rating. In Star Connection, IL  Iph . But in delta connection Iph  L  0.577 IL  57.7 % of IL .
3
Since, area of cross section is proportional to Current Rating so Area of Cross Section in case
of delta connection is lesser as compared to Star Connection.
 Because of above reasons this connection is not economical for HV applications but it is
economical for LV and High Current applications.
 This connection is mechanically weak when compared to Star-Star for same current rating
as conductors are thinner.
 Both sides of Transformers offers closed path for 3rd harmonic component current, so
shape of induced emf is always sinusoidal.

Star-Star Connection
The connections for Star-Star Connection is shown below,
First we will draw the primary phasors such that Phase A is vertically upwards and then
secondary phasors will be drawn in parallel to primary phasors.
If we draw both primary and secondary phasors on a clock, then the both ‘A’ and ‘a’ phase
overlap. Hence, there is 00 phase shift between primary and secondary voltages.
On, the clock it looks like as if 12’o clock is the time and hence this
connection can be named as Yy12.
We can change the secondary connection in Star-Star Transformer as shown

Below,
The primary phasors will remain same and secondary phasors will be as shown in the figure
below,

If the primary and secondary phasors with terminals A2 on primary and terminal a1 on the
secondary then it can be observed that there is 1800 phase shift between primary and
secondary phasors.
If these phasors are plotted on a clock then it will be as shown below,
Then it seems like the time on the clock is 6’o clock. So, the connection
can be named as Yy6.
Hence, the Star-Star Transformer can provide the phase shifts of 00 and 1800.
Features
 Line to line voltage ratio equal to phase turn ratio.
V 
L p

 3Vph    V   N 
p ph p ph p
V 
L s  3Vph   V  N 
s
ph s ph s
 Star-star connection requires only 57.7% of insulation as compare to delta- delta

connection. If Line to Line Voltage Rating is considered same for both Star-Star and Delta-
Delta connection then,
VL Vph ,
Vph ,Y    0.577Vph , 
3 3
Vph ,Y  57.7% of Vph ,
 In star-star connection cross-sectional area of conductor is more as compare to delta-

delta connection.
 It is useful for High Voltage Low Current application.
 Due to thicker winding it is more robust as compared to    connection.
 This connection does not provide any closed path for the flow of third harmonic
magnetizing currents and hence magnetizing currents will be sinusoidal and hence flux will
be non-sinusoidal and will contain third harmonics and hence emf will be non-sinusoidal.

Effect of 3rd harmonics

As fundamental emf are displaced by 1200 and 3rd harmonic emfs are co-phasal i.e. all have
same emf. So, neutral point is shifted from fundamental neutral causing an unbalanced
system voltage.
The neutral is not only shifted but also rotates at a speed of 2ω rad/sec i.e. relative speed
between fundamental and 3rd harmonic vectors causing fluctuation in different phase
voltages.
This connection is thus not suitable for any load between any line and neutral i.e. single
phase load. This problem is called as oscillating neutral or fluctuating neutral. This effect is
called undesirable. But still it can supply 3-Φ load as line-to-line voltages are same.
Removal of 3rd harmonics

 By grounding neutral
By grounding neutral on both primary and secondary sides along the source and load
neutrals. A closed path for the flow of 3rd harmonic currents can be provided, thereby all
above problems can be reduced.
 Three Winding Transformer

By using delta connected tertiary winding on Transformer core all the above problems can
be eliminated because delta connected transformer winding and provides very low 3rd
harmonic impedance path to the flow of 3rd harmonic component of currents.
Functions of Delta Connected Tertiary Winding

 To stabilize the N-point.
 Improves emf wave shape in Transformer windings.
 It makes the Star-Star Transformer to supply 1-Φ loads.
 It enables the connection of capacitor banks and synchronous condensors which are used
to inject reactive power into the system to get required voltage profile.
Delta-Star Transformer
The first possible connection for Delta-Star Transformer is shown below,

The phasor diagram for the above connection is shown below,
If we observe the A phase on both primary and secondary

then the secondary phase is 300 leading. If both the
phasors are plotted on a clock then time looks like as
if it is 11’o clock.
Hence, this connection is called as Dy11 connection.
If the connections of the transformer as shown in the figure below,
The phase shift between primary and secondary is 1500 lagging.

If we plot both these phasors on a clock then the diagram will be
as shown in the adjoining figure.
It looks like as if there is 5’o clock time on the clock. Hence, the time
is Dy5.

The other possible connection for the delta-star transformer is shown below,
The phase shift between primary and secondary is 1500 leading.

is Dy7.
The other possible connection for the delta-star transformer is shown below,

The phase shift between primary and secondary is 300 lagging.

is Dy1 .
Features
 Delta-Star Transformer has 73% more secondary voltage as compare to Y-Y or   

connection. Hence it is used as step up transformer.
Vph,S Ns

Vph,P Np
VL,S 3Vph,S N  N 
  3  s   1.73  s 
VL,P Vph,P  Np   Np 
   
 For the same voltage rating number of turns required are lesser as compared to other
connection.
 Since primary side is Delta, it allows the flow of 3rd harmonic magnetizing current so emf
is sinusoidal and it can be used to supply both 1   and 3   load.
Star Delta Transformer

The first possible connection for Star Delta Transformer is shown below,


then the secondary phase is 300 lagging. If both the
Hence, this connection is called as Yd 1 connection.
If the connections of the transformer are changed as shown below,
The phasor diagram for the above connection can be d rawn as shown below,

Hence, this connection is called as Yd7 connection.
The other possible connection for Star-Delta Transformer is shown below,


then the secondary phase is 1500 lagging. If both the
The other possible connection for Star-Delta Transformer is shown below,


Open Delta Connection

If one phase of delta connection develops a fault and it is removed it is called as Open Delta
Connection.
The delta delta connection looks like as shown below,
KVA Rating of the transformer = 3VLIL  3VphIph

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) =
Power Output 3VphIph
 100%   100%  100%
Maximum Possible Output 3  VphIph
This means each transformer operates at maximum possible output.
Now if one unit is removed,
KVA = Vph  
3 Iph  3 VphIph
3 VphIph
TUF =  100%  86.6%
2VphIph
Hence, each unit operates at 86.6% of the capacity.
KVA  V

3 VphIph
 0.577 or 57.7%
KVA  
3 VphIph
So, if one unit of delta is removed the entire unit is

not un-operational but rather it can operate at
57.7% of rated capacity.
Suppose, if both Delta-Delta Transformer and Open Delta Transformer both supply the same
load. Then,
3 VphI'ph  3VphIph
I'ph  3 Iph  1.732Iph

So, each unit operates at 73.2% overload.
Parallel Operation of Transformer

Advantages
1. If any fault occurred on single unit, the entire unit will be disturbed, so parallel operation
is more reliable.
2. It increases capacity of entire system.
3. Power Transformer gives maximum efficiency at full load, it load in single unit is
decreased. In parallel operation if load is decreased ,we can switch off one and rest will be
operating at maximum efficiency
4. Parallel operation can reduce the capacity and cost of stand by Transformer.
Necessary Conditions
1. Voltage ratings on name plate of Transformer must be same.
2. Phase sequence of both Transformer should be same.
3. Phase displacement angle between secondary of both Transformer must be 0. This will
eliminate circulating currents.
4. Transformers must be connected with same polarity to avoid circulating currents.
If both have equal voltage ratings

E1A  E1B
By applying KVL, resultant voltage between 2 Transformer is 0
If opposite polarity
Resultant voltage is 2E2A or 2E2B which can damage the Transformer.

The Three Phase Transformers that can be connected in parallel should have same phase
shift.
Star-Star and Delta-Delta Transformers can be connected in parallel as they provide 00 and
1800 phase shift.
Star-Delta and Delta-Star Transformers can be connected in parallel as they provide
300 or  1500 .
Desirable Conditions for Parallel Operation

 The two Transformer should share load proportional to their KVA rating. The value of
impedance of Transformer to be connected in parallel should be inversely proportional to
KVA rating.
1 1
Z A ( )  ; ZB ( ) 
SA rating SB rating
Z A ( ) SB rated

ZB (  ) S A rated
Z A ( ) V2IB rated

ZB (  ) V2IA rated
IA rated Z A ZB IB rated

V2 V2
Z A (pu)  ZB (pu)
 The X/R ratios of Transformer to be connected in parallel should be equal to avoid
operation of Transformer at different pf.
X A XB

R A RB
X  1 XB
 
tan1  A   tan  
 RA   RB 
A  B
cos A  cos B
Equivalent Circuit of Transformers in Parallel
V2  E2A  IA Z A .......(i)
V2  E2B  IB ZB ...............(ii)
Assuming equal voltage ratios

E2A  IA Z A  E2B  IB ZB
IA Z A  IB ZB

The impedance drop of both Transformer are same if voltage ratios are same
ZB
IA  I L 
Z A  ZB
ZA
IB  I L 
Z A  ZB
KVA shared by Transformer A
* *
 ZB   ZB 
S A  VL IA   VL IL 
* *
   SL  
 Z A  ZB   Z A  ZB 
KVA shared by Transformer B

* *
 ZA   ZA 
SB  VL IB   VL IL  
* *
  SL  
 Z A  ZB   Z A  ZB 
Z A and ZB can be in ohmic values or pu values but pu value must be in same base.
Auto-Transformer
 It is used for Step-up and Step-down applications and here the primary and secondary
windings are not isolated but rather some part of winding is common between the two.
The schematic arrangement of windings of an auto-transformer is shown in the figure below,
The transformation ratio in an Auto Transformer is given by,

Low Voltage
k
High Voltage
In the schematic shown primary has N1 turns and

Secondary has N2 turns and secondary turns are
Common between primary and secondary windings.
Advantages of Auto Transformer over Two Winding Transformer

 Auto Transformer requires less volume of core material.
 No insulation is required between windings as the windings have common part.
 Size, weight and cost of Transformer are less due to common region in primary and
secondary.
 Requires less volume of core and Cu-materials, so that iron and Cu loss are less, so
efficiency is more.
 Auto Transformer has less leakage flux and leakage reactance as both windings are
wound on same leg of transformer.

Note:
 If K<0.333, this is low percentage tapping and so advantages are very less. So auto
transformer is not feasible.
 In Auto Transformer power is not only transferred by induction process but also by
conduction process. Common part of winding transfers the power from Primary to secondary
by means of conduction.
Comparison of Auto Transformer with Two Winding Transformer

The power in the uncommon part of the winding will be the power transferred through
induction.
(KVA)induction  (V1  V2 )I1
InputKVA  VI1 1
(KVA)induction V1  V2 V  LV 
  1  2  1   1  k
(KVA)input V1 V1  HV 
1. (KVA)induction  (1  k)  inputKVA
2. (KVA)conduction  k  inputKVA
3.  weight of copper  Auto
= (1-k)  (weight of copper)2wdg
4. % full load losses in Auto Transformer = (1-k)  (% losses in 2 winding Transformer)
5. % voltage drop in Auto Transformer = (1-k)  (%voltage drop in 2winding Transformer)
1
6. (KVA)AutoTransformer  (KVA)2 winding
(1  k)
Equivalent Circuit of Auto-Transformer

Auto-Transformer can be analyzed in terms of
a two winding transformer with primary turns
(N1-N2) and secondary turns N2.
VAB  E1  I1 r1  jx1 
E1 N1  N2

E2 N2
N1  N2
E1  E2
N2
N1  N2
VAB  E2  I1 r1  jx1 
N2
E2  V2  I2 r2  jx 2 
 N  N2   N1  N2 
VAB   1  V2  I1 r1  jx1     I2 r2  jx2 
 N2   N2 

N 1
 N2  I1  N2I2
N1  N2
I2  I
N2 1
2
 N  N2   N1  N2 
VAB   1  V2  I1 r1  jx1   I1   r2  jx 2 
 N2   N2 
2
 N  N2 
req  r1   1  r2
 N2 
2
 N  N2 
X eq  X1   1  X 2
 N2 
Realization of Auto Transformer from Two Winding Transformer

Suppose a two winding Transformer of 20kVA,
2000/200 V is used to realize an Auto Transformer.
The rated current on the primary winding is
20000
IP   100A
200
20000
Rated Secondary Winding, Is   10A
2000
Series Additive Polarity

Voltage rating of Auto-Transformer is 2000/2200 V
10
k
11
20  10 3
I1,rated   10A
2000
20  103
200
Capacity = V2I2  2200  100  220KVA
Current in Common part can be determined as,

Apply KCL at node A
I1  IAtoB  I2
IA B  10A
(KVA)induction  200  100  20KVA
(KVA)conduction  220  20  200KVA

If efficiency of two-winding Transformer is given as 98% at Full Load upf, the we need to
determine the efficiency of Auto-Transformer at Full Load upf.
20  103  1
2 wdg   0.98
20  103  1  Total losses
Total losses=408W
220  103  1
AT   99.8%
220  103  1  408
Series Subtractive Polarity

Voltage rating of Auto-Transformer 2000/1800 V
20  103
2000
20  103
200
(KVA)AT  V2I2  1800  100  180KVA
1800  103
Primary current I1   90 A
200
Current in common part = 10A from B to A
(KVA)induction  200  100  20KVA
(KVA)conduction  180  20  160KVA
If efficiency of two-winding Transformer is given as 98% at Full Load upf, the we need to
determine the efficiency of Auto-Transformer at Full Load upf.
20  103  1
2 wdg   0.98
20  103  1  Total losses
Total losses=408W
180  103  1
AT   99.77%
180  103  1  408
Drawback
 Not feasible if k<0.333
 No isolation between primary and secondary, so if any fault occurs in secondary, it is
carried to primary.

Sumpner’s Test
 During OC and SC test, iron and copper loss do not occur simultaneously so temperature
rise cannot be estimated so we conduct Sumpner’s test.
 Heat run test: We conduct this for a certain period of time as instantaneous heat rise
cannot be obtained
 Difficulty in Sumpner’s Test: Two identical 1-  Transformer are needed
 Primary should be connected in parallel and executed from a main source at rated voltage
and frequency (OC Test)
 Secondary should be connected in series with subtractive polarity and this combination
should be supplied by auxiliary source.
Step 1: Short auxiliary supply voltage and excite the Transformer by main supply at rated
voltage and frequency
Step 2: Short windings on supply side and excite auxiliary source only (SC test)
Step 3: Conduct with both sources.
Observations
Step 1: Ammeter reading = 2Io

Wattmeter reading = 2Wi
Step 2: Ammeter reading = I2
Wattmeter reading= 2Wcu
Step 3: Conduct up to some period till temperature doesn’t increase further in RTD
(W)step1 (W)step2
Wi  ; Wcu 
2 2
xE2I2 cos 
x 
xE2I2 cos   Wi  x2 Wcu

Solved Examples
Problem: A   Y Transformer with  connection on primary side is operating in a parallel
with a Y   Transformer with Y connection primary side the ratio primary turn per phase and
secondary turn per phase of the former is x times of the latter the x is?
VLP V 1  NP 
Solution:  Ph,P   
VLS 3VPh,S 3  NS 1
VLP' 3VPh N 
  3  P 
V '
LS
VPh  NS 2
1  NP   NP 
   3  
3  NS 1  NS 2
 NP 
 
 NS 1
x 3
 NP 
 
 NS 2
Problem: A 3-    Y Transformer is supplied 6000V on the  connected side the terminal

voltage on the secondary side when supplying full load at 0.8 pf lag is 415V the equivalent
resistance and reactance drop for transformer are 1% and 5% respectively. What is turn ratio
of transformer?
Solution: Full load, 0.8 pf lag
IFL  1pu
415
Vbase,L  415V, Vbase,ph  V
3
Vload  100 pu
Iload  1  36.870 pu
%R  1%
R pu  0.01; Xpu  0.05
Esec  10  1  36.8  0.01  j0.05   1.0381.87 0 pu
415
Esec  1.038  1.870 Volt
3
Eph,S  248.831.870 V
Eph,P NP 6000
   24.11  24
Eph,S NS 248.83

Problem: Two 1  transformers with equal turn have impedance of 0.5  j0.3 and
0.6  j1 with respect to secondary if they operates in parallel how will they share a load of
100KW at 0.8 pf lag.
*
 ZB 
Solution: S A  SL  
 Z A  ZB 
*
 0.6  j1 
S A  12536.87  
 1.1  1.3 j 
S A  12536.87  0.1323.41
PL  100KW at 0.8 p.f
S A  75.86  39.63  85.5927.590 KVA
PL 100
SL    125 KVA
pf 0.8
SL  125KVA
SB  SL  S A
SB  100  75i  75.86  39.56i
SB  24.14  35.35i  42.855.66 0 KVA
S A  85.59 KVA,SB  42.8 KVA
Problem: A 1   50KVA 250/500V 2-winding Transformer has an  of 95% at full load U.P.F
it is reconfigured as auto transformer of rating 500V its at new rated load and U.P.F is?
500
Solution: k 
750
1
Snew   50
500
1
750
Snew  150KVA
x KVA  cos 
  100%
x KVA  cos   Ploss
50
.95  Ploss  2.63KW
50  Ploss
150
  100%
150  2.63
  98.27%

Transformers Theory

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Electrical Machines (Transformer)

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Draw electrical equivalent of Magnetic Circuit.

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An example of simple magnetic circuit is

SI unit of flux is weber

 F=Ni=  H.dl  HClC

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Classification of Magnetic Materials

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 Ferromagnetism is characterized by presence of parallel alignment of permanent

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 To reduce residual magnetization to zero, external field needs to be applied in reverse

Construction details of Transformer

 Hence, low hysteresis loss.

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Types of Core Structure

Core Type Transformer

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Core Type Transformer has the following features:

Shell Type Transformer

Shell Type Transformer has the following features:

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Advantages of placing LV winding nearer to the core:

 If HV and LV winding are placed on same limb

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An Ideal Transformer is a Transformer with the following assumptions:

 Permeability of Transformer is infinity.

Transformer with finite permeability

Primary MMF = N1 i = N1 Im sin t

According to Lenz Law

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Where, E1 = RMS Value of emf induced in primary winding

From vector diagram, in accordance with Lenz Law

 If the frequency of operation of a transformer is reduced then KVA rating of transformer

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 Bm depends on nature of material core

Hence, at no-load there are two components of Primary Current:

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No load component of current is 5% to 8% of full load current.

 0  No load phase angle

 By keeping applied voltage constant, if the

 I  Io sin o and Iw  Io cos o

Semi- Ideal Transformer on Load

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Primary MMF = N1I

I1 ' = Load component of primary current

N1I1 ' = Load component of primary MMF

Load component of primary VA = secondary VA (so transformer can be treated as constant

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Phasor Diagram under load condition

Transformer with winding resistance

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I22R 2  I12R 2 '

Total Cu loss = I12R1  I22R2 I12 R01 I22 R02

Transformer with Magnetic Leakage Flux

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l1 , l2 are leakage flux produced by Primary and

The leakage emf is compensated by means of

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Equivalent Circuits of Transformer

Exact Equivalent Circuit