CH4-Trans Resp PDF

KMEC 522: Transient Response Analysis
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
The manner in which a dynamic system responds to an input, expressed as a

function of time, is called the time response. The theoretical evaluation of this
response is said to be taken in time domain, and is referred to as time domain
analysis. It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the following is
known:
• The nature of the input(s), expressed as a function of time

• The mathematical model of the system
The time response of any system has two components:
a. Transient response: This component of the response will (for a stable

system) decay, usually exponentially, to zeros as time increases. It is a
function only of the system dynamics, and is independent of the input
quantity.
b. Steady-state response: This is the response of the system after the
transient component has decayed and is a function of both the system
dynamics and input quantity.
Figure 1: Transient and steady state periods of time response
The total response of the system is always the sum of the transient and steady
state components. Figure 1 shows the transient and steady state periods of the
response. Differences between the input function xi(t) and systems response x0(t)
are called transient errors during transients period, and steady-state errors during
the steady state period. One of the major objectives of control design is to
minimize these errors.
The ability to adjust the transient and steady state response performance is a
distinct advantage of feedback control systems. To analyse and design a control
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system, we must measure it performance. Then based on the desired performance,

the system parameters may be adjusted to provide the desired response.
The most important characteristic of the dynamic behaviour of a control system is

the absolute stability i.e. whether the system is stable or unstable. A control
system is stable if the output eventually comes to its equilibrium state when the
system is subjected to an initial condition. If the system at steady state does not
exactly agree with the input, the system is said to have steady state error. This
error is indicative of the accuracy of the system.
First order system
Physically, this system may represent the RC circuit, thermal system, etc. The
block diagram is as shown below. The input-output relationship is given by
C ( s) 1
=
R( s ) Ts + 1
The system responses are analysed using inputs such as unit step, unit-ramp and
impulse and assuming the initial conditions are zero.
R(s) C(s)
1
+- Ts
Figure 2: First Order system
Unit-step response of first order system
1 1
Laplace transform of unit step function is , and substituting R ( s ) = , then
s s
2
1 1
C (s) =
Ts + 1 s
expanding
1 T 1 1
C ( s) = − = −
s Ts + 1 s s + 1 T
inverse Laplace
c(t ) = 1 − e − t / T , for t ≥ 0
Figure 3 : Response of a first order system
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Unit-ramp input
1 1
Laplace transform of unit ramp function is 2
, and substituting R ( s ) = 2 , then
s s
1 1
C (s) =
Ts + 1 s 2
expanding
1 T T2
C ( s) = − +
s 2 s Ts + 1
inverse Laplace
c(t ) = t − T − Te − t / T , for t ≥ 0
The error signal e(t ) is then
e(t ) = r (t ) − c(t )
= T (1 − e − T )
t
4
t
−
as t approaches infinity, e T
approaches zero, thus the error signal e(t ) approaches
T or
e(∞) = T .
Unit impulse
Laplace transform of unit impulse function is 1 , and substituting R ( s ) = 1 , then

1
C (s) =
Ts + 1
inverse Laplace
1 −t / T
c(t ) = e , for t ≥ 0
T
The response curve is as shown
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Second Order System
An example of a second order system is the servo system.
The system responses are analysed using inputs such as unit step, unit-ramp and
impulse and assuming the initial conditions are zero.
Servo system:
The simplified equation is:
Jc&& + Bc& = T
Laplace transform and assuming initial conditions are zeros
Js 2 C ( s ) + BsC ( s ) = T ( s )
or
C (s) 1
=
T ( s ) s ( Js + B)
or
C ( s) K K/J
= 2 = 2
R( s ) Js + Bs + K s + ( B / J ) s + ( K / J )
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(a) servo system

(b) block diagram
(c) simplified block diagram
The equation can be rewritten as:
K
C ( s) J
=
R( s) ⎡ 2 ⎤
K ⎡
2
K⎤
⎢s +
B ⎛ B ⎞ ⎥ ⎢
B ⎛ B ⎞ ⎥
+ ⎜ ⎟ − s + − ⎜ ⎟ −
⎢ 2J ⎝ 2J ⎠ J ⎥⎢ 2J ⎝ 2J ⎠ J ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
In transient response it more convenient to write:
K B
= ω n2 , = 2ζω n = 2σ
J J
where σ is called the attenuation, ω n , the undamped natural frequency and ζ , the
damping ratio. The damping ratio is the ratio of the actual damping B to the critical
damping Bc = 2 JK or
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B B
ζ = =
Bc 2 JK
R(s) C(s)
ω2
+- n
s ( s + 2ζω n )
Let us consider a second order system and determine its response to a unit step
input. A closed loop feedback system is shown below and the out put is
G (s) ω 2n
C(s) = R (s) = 2 R (s)
1 + G (s) s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
The dynamic behaviour of the second order system can be described in terms of
two parameters i.e. ς and ω n .
If 0 < ς < 1 , the closed loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left-half s
plane. The system is then called underdamped and the transient is oscillatory.
We will consider the response of the system to a unit-step input for three
different cases: underdamped ( 0 < ζ < 1 ), critically damped ( ζ = 1 ) and overdamped
(ζ > 1) cases.
(a) Underdamped case 0 < ζ < 1
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C (s) ωn 2
=
R( s ) (s + ζω n + jω d )((s + ζω n − jω d ))
where ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2
for step input
ω n2
C ( s) =
(s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2 )s
1 s + 2ζω n
= − 2
s s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
1 s + ζω n ζω n
= − 2 −
s s + 2ζωs n + ω n2 s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2
inverse Laplace transform
⎛ ζ ⎞
c(t ) = 1 − e −ζωnt ⎜ cos ωd t + sin ωd t ⎟
⎜ 1− ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
the error signal therefore
e(t ) = r (t ) − c(t )
⎛ ζ ⎞ for t ≥ 0
= e −ζω nt ⎜ cos ω d t + sin ω d t ⎟
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(b) Critically damped case ζ = 1
When the two poles are equal, then the system is said to be critically damped.
for step input

ω n2
C ( s) =
(s + ω n )2 s
Inversen Laplace transform
c(t ) = 1 − e −ωnt (1 + ω n t ) for t ≥ 0
(c) Overdamped case ζ > 1
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C ( s) ωn 2
=
( )(
R( s ) s + ζω n + ω n ζ 2 − 1 s + ζω n − ω n ζ 2 − 1 )
ω2
C ( s) =
(s + ζω )( )
n
n + ω n ζ − 1 s + ζω n − ω n ζ 2 − 1 s
2
Inverse Laplace
1 − ⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ω n t
c(t ) = 1 +
( )
⎝ ⎠
e
2 ζ 2 −1 ζ + ζ 2 −1
1 −⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ω n t
−
( )
⎝ ⎠
e
2 ζ 2 −1 ζ − ζ 2 −1
ω2
⎛ e − s1t e − s2t ⎞
= 1+ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 ζ 2 − 1 ⎝ s1 s2 ⎠
( ) (
where s1 = ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ω n and s 2 = ζ − ζ 2 − 1 ω n )
Figure: Unit-step response curves of the system
Definitions of transient-response specifications.
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The desired performance characteristics of control systems are specified in term

of time domain quantities. The quantities are as follows:
1. Delay time td. The delay time is the time required for the response to reach
half the final value the very first time.
2. Rise time, tr. The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from
10% to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value. For undamped
second-order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is normally used
3. Peak time, tp. The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the
first peak of the overshoot.
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp. The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of
the response curve measured from unity. If the final steady state value of the
response differs from unity, then it common to use the maximum percent
overshoot. It is define by
c(t p ) − c(∞)
Maximum percent overshoot x100 %
c (∞ )
The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates the relative
stability of the system
5. Settling time, ts. The settling time is the time required for the response curve
to reach and stay within a range about the final value specified by the absolute
percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%).
Second order systems and transient-response specifications
The rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, and settling time can be obtained in
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terms of ζ and ω n .
(a) rise time, tr is obtained by c(t ) = 1
⎛ ζ ⎞
c(t r ) = 1 = 1 − e −ζω ntr ⎜ cos ω d t r + sin ω d t r ⎟
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
−ζω n t r
since e ≠0
ζ
cos ω d t r + sin ω d t r = 0
1−ζ 2
or
1−ζ 2 ωd
tan ω d t r = − =−
ζ σ
thus
1 ⎛ω ⎞ π −β
tr = tan −1 ⎜ d ⎟ =
ωd ⎝ −σ ⎠ ωd
(b) peak time, t p
The peak time can be obtained by differentiating c(t ) with respect to time
⎛ ζ ⎞ ⎛ ζ ⎞
= ζω n e −ζω nt ⎜ cos ω d t + sin ω d t ⎟ + e −ζω nt ⎜ ω d sin ω d t − cos ω d t ⎟
dc
dt ⎜ 1− ζ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 1− ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
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Evaluated at t = t p
ωn
= (sin ω d t p )
dc −ζω n t p
e =0
dt t =t p 1−ζ 2
sin ω d t p = 0 or ω d t p = 0, π ,2π ,.....
for the first peak ω d t p = π , hence
π
tp =
ωd
(c) Maximum overshoot, Mp
The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time t = t p = π

ωd
M p = c(t p ) − 1
⎛ ⎞
−ζω n ⎛⎜ π
⎜ cos π + ζ
⎞
sin π ⎟
⎟
⎝ ωd ⎠
= −e
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
−⎜ ζ ⎟π
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
=e ⎝ ⎠
(d) Settling time, ts
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Figure: Pair of envelope curves for the unit step response curve of the
system.
4 4
t s = 4T = = (2% criterion)
σ ζω n
3 3
t s = 3T = = (5% criterion)
σ ζω n
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Example
1. Consider the system shown in figure where ζ = 0.6 and ω n = 5 rad/s .Obtain the
rise time, t, peak time tp, maximum overshoot Mp and settling time ts when the
system is subjected to a unit step input.
2. For the system shown in Figure (a), determine the values of gain K and velocity
feedback constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in the unit-step response is
0.2 and the peak time is 1 sec. With these values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time
and settling time. Assume that. J= 1 kg-m2 and B = 1 N-m/rad/sec.
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Impulse response of second-order systems
For unit impulse input r(t), the corresponding Laplace transform is unity, R ( s ) = 1 .
The unit response C ( s ) is
ω n2
C ( s) = 2
s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
The inverse Laplace of the equation as follows
For 0 ≤ ζ < 1 ,
ωn
c(t ) = e −ζω nt sin ω n 1 − ζ 2 t , for t ≥ 0
1−ζ 2
For ζ = 1
c(t ) = ω n2 te −ωnt for t ≥ 0

For ζ > 1
ωn −⎛⎜ ζ − 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t ωn −⎛⎜ ζ + 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t

c(t ) = e ⎝ ⎠
− e ⎝ ⎠
for t ≥ 0
2 1−ζ 2 2 1− ζ 2
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Figure : Unit impulse response curves
Tutorial
1. Determine the values, of K and k of the closed-loop system shown in Figure Q1 so

that the maximum overshoot in unit-step response is 25 % and the peak time is 2
sec. Assume that J = 1 kg-m2.
Figure Q1
2. Consider the system shown in Figure . The damping ratio of this system is 0.158
and the undamped natural frequency is 3.16 rad/sec. To improve the relative
stability, we employ tachometer feedback. Figure shows such a tachometer-
feedback system.
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Determine the value of Kh, so that the damping ratio of the system is 0.5. Then
obtain the rise time t r , peak time t p , maximum overshoot M p , . and settling
time t s in the unit-step response
Figure Q2
3. Figure 3 is a block diagram of a space-vehicle attitude-control system. Assuming

the time constant T of the controller to be 3 sec and the ratio K / J to be 92
rad2/sec2,
Figure Q3
4. Consider the system shown in Figure Q4. Determine the value of k such that the
damping ratio ζ is O.5. Then obtain the rise time t r , peak time t p , maximum
overshoot M p , . and settling time t s in the unit-step response.
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Figure Q4
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Higher Order Systems
The sum of response of higher order systems in general can be considered as the
summation of the responses first order and second order systems.
Consider the general system shown
C(s)
+
-
G(s)
H(s)
C ( s) G ( s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
in general, G(s) and H(s) are given as;
p( s) n( s )
G ( s) = and H ( s ) =
q( s) d ( s)
or
C (s) p ( s )d ( s )
=
R ( s ) q ( s ) d ( s ) + p ( s ) n( s )
b s m + b s m −1 + ...... + bm −1 s + bm s
= 0 n 1 n −1
a0 s + a1 s + ...... + a n −1 s + a n
In general, for step input
r b (s + ζ ω ) + c ω
k k 1−ζ k
2
a q aj
C ( s) = + ∑ +∑ where ( q + 2r = n)
k k k
s j =1 s + pj k =1 s 2 + 2ζ k ω k s + ω k2
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Assuming all closed loop poles is distinct. The higher order terms is composed of a
number of terms involving simple functions found in the responses of the first and
second order terms.
Inverse Laplace
q r r
c(t ) = a + ∑ a j e + ∑ bk e −ζ k ωk t cos ω k 1 − ζ k2 t + ∑ c k e −ζ k ωk t sin ω k 1 − ζ k2 t
− p jt
for t>0.
j =1 k =1 k =1
Dominant closed-loop poles
The closed-loop poles that have dominant effects on the transient response
behaviour are called the dominant closed loop poles.
Figure 5-17 Region in the complex plane satisfying the conditions ζ > 0.4 and ts <
4/ σ .
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Stability Analysis in the complex plane
If any of the pole lie in the right half of the s-plane, with increasing time they give
rise to the dominant mode, the transient response increases with increasing
amplitude. This represents an unstable system.
Stability Analysis
The stability of a linear closed-loop system can be determined from the location of
the closed-loop poles in the s-plane. If any of these poles lie in the right-half s-
plane, then with the increasing time they give rise to the dominant mode, and the
transient response increases monotonically or oscillate with increasing amplitude.
Routh’s stability criterion
Routh’s stability criterion tells us whether or not there are unstable roots in the
polynomial equation without actually solving them.
C ( s ) b0 s m + b1 s m −1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + bm −1 s + bm B( s )
= =
R( s ) a 0 s n + a1 s n −1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a n −1 s + a n A( s )
Where the a’s and b’s are constants and m ≤ n . The locations of the roots of the
characteristic equation (the denominator) determine the stability of the close loop.
Procedure of the Routh’s stability criterion
1. Write the polynomial in in s in the following form:
a 0 s n + a1 s n −1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a n −1 s + a n = 0
where coefficient are real quantities. a n ≠ 0 , any zero root has been removed.
2. If any of the coefficient are zero or negative in the presence of at least one
positive coefficient there is a root or roots that are imaginary or that have
positive real parts.
3. Arrange the coefficients of the rows and columns in the following pattern
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s n a0 a 2 a 4 a6 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s n −1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s n − 2 b1 b2 b3 b4 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s n −3 c1 c 2 c3 c 4 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s 2
e1 e2 ⋅
1
s f1
0
s g1
4. The coefficients b1 , b2, b3 ,.... are evaluated as follows
a1 a 2 − a 0 a3
b1 =
a1
a a − a 0 a5
b2 = 1 4
a1
a a − a 0 a5
b3 = 1 6
a1
…..
coefficients c1 , c 2, c3 ,....
Special cases
a. If the first term in any row is zero, but remaining terms are not zero or
there is no remaining term, then the zero is replaced with a very small
positive number ε and the rest of the array is evaluated.
b. If the coefficients in any derived row are zero, it indicates that there are
roots of equal magnitude laying radially opposite in the s plane, that is , two
real roots with equal magnitude and opposite signs and/or two conjugate
imaginary roots. The evaluation of the rest of the array can be continued by
forming an auxiliary polynomial with the last row and by using the
coefficients of the derivative of this polynomial in the next row.
Application of Routh’s Stability Criterion.
The limitation of this criterion is that it does not suggest how to improve the
relative stability or how to improve the relative stability. However, it is possible to
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determine the effects of changing one or two parameters of a system by examining

the values that cause that instability.
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Tutorial
1. Determine the range of K for stability of a unity feedback control system whose
open-loop transfer function is
K
G ( s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
2. Consider the unity-feedback control system with following open-loop transfer

function:
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G(s) =
s(s − 1)(2s + 3)
Is this, system stable?
3. Consider the following characteristic equation:
s 4 + 2 s 3 + (4 + K )s 2 + 9s + 25 = 0
Using Routh stability criterion, determine the range of K for stability.
4. Consider the closed-loop system shown in Figure Determine the range of K for
stability. Assume that K > 0.
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Effects of Integral and Derivative Control Actions on System Performance
In this section, we shall investigate the effects of integral and derivative control
actions on the system performance. Here we shall consider only simple systems so
that the effects of integral and derivative control actions on system performance
can be clearly seen.
Integral Control Action.
In the proportional control of a plant whose transfer function does not possess an
integrator 1/s, there is a steady-state error, or offset, in the response to a step
input. Such an offset can be eliminated if the integral control action is included in
the controller.
In the integral control of a plant, the control signal, the output signal from the
controller, at any instant is the area under the actuating error signal curve up to
that instant. The control signal u(t) can have a nonzero value when the actuating
error signal e(t) is zero, as shown in Figure (a). This is impossible in the case of the
proportional controller since a nonzero control signal requires a nonzero actuating
error signal. (A nonzero actuating error signal at steady state means that there is
an offset.) Figure (b) shows the curve e(t) versus t and the corresponding curve
u(t) versus t when the controller is of the proportional type.
Note that integral control action, while removing offset or steady-state error. may
lead to oscillatory response of slowly decreasing amplitude or even increasing
amplitude, both of which are usually undesirable
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Proportional Control of Systems.
We shall show that the proportional control of a system without an integrator will
result in a steady-state error with a step input. We shall then show that such an
error can be eliminated if integral control action is included in the controller.
Figure
Consider the system shown in Figure . Let us obtain the steady-state error in the
unit-step response of the system. Define
K
G(s) =
Ts + 1
Since
E ( s) R( s) − C ( s) C ( s) 1
= = 1− =
R( s) R( s) R( s) 1 + G ( s)
the eiror E(s) is given by
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1 1
E (s) = R( s) = R( s)
1 + G(s) K
1+
Ts + 1
For the unit-step input R ( s ) = 1 / s , we have
Ts + 1 1
E ( s) =
Ts + 1 + K s
The steady-state error is
Ts + 1 1
e ss = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim =
t →∞ s →∞ s →∞ Ts + 1 + K K +1
Such a system without an integrator in the feed forward path always has a steady-
state error in the step response. Such a steady-state error is called an offset.
Figure shows the unit-step response and the offset.
Integral Control of Systems.
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The controller is an integral controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the

system is
C (s) K
=
R( s ) s (Ts + 1) + K
Hence
E ( s) R( s) − C ( s) s (Ts + 1)
= =
R( s) R( s) s (Ts + 1) + K
Since the system is stable, the steady-state error for the unit-step response can
be obtained by applying the final-value theorem, as follows:
s 2 (Ts + 1) 1
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = 2 =0
s →0 Ts + s + K s
Integral control of the system thus eliminates the steady-state error in the
response to the step input. This is an important improvement over the proportional
control alone, which gives offset.
Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional Control).
The proportional controller delivers torque T to position the load element, which
consists of moment of inertia and viscous friction. Torque disturbance is denoted
by D.
Assuming that the reference input is zero or R(s) = 0, the transfer function
between C(s) and D(s) is given by
C (s) 1
= 2
D( s) Js + bs + K p
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E (s) C ( s) 1
=− =− 2
D( s) D( s) Js + bs + K p
The steady-state error due to a step disturbance torque of magnitude Td is given

by
−s Td T
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = lim =− d
s →0 s →0 Js + bs + K p s
2
Kp
At steady state, the proportional controller provides the torque -Td, which is equal
in magnitude but opposite in sign to the disturbance torque Td. The steady-state
output due to the step disturbance torque is
Td
css = −ess =
Kp
The steady-state error can be reduced by increasing the value of the gain Kp.
Increasing this value; however, will cause the system response to be more
oscillatory.
Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional-Plus-Integral Control).
To eliminate offset due to torque disturbance, the proportional controller may be

replaced by a proportional-plus-integral controller.
If integral control action is added to the controller, then, as long as there is an

error signal, a torque is developed by the controller to reduce this error, provided
the control system is a stable one.
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Figure shows the proportional-plus-integral control of the load element, consisting

of moment of inertia and viscous friction.
The closed-loop transfer function between C(s) and D(s) is
C ( s) s
=
R( s) Kp
Js 3 + bs 2 + K p s +
Ti
In the absence of the reference input, or r(t) = 0, the error signal is obtained from
s
E ( s) = − D( s)
Kp
Js + bs + K p s +
3 2
Ti
If this control system is stable, that is, if the roots of the characteristic equation
Kp
Js 3 + bs 2 + K p s + =0
Ti
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Ti has negative real parts, and then the steady-state error in the response to a
unit-step disturbance torque can be obtained by applying the final-value theorem as
follows:
−s 1
ess = lim = sE ( s) = lim =0
s →0 s →0 Kp s
Js + bs + K p s +
3 2
Ti
Thus steady-state error to the step disturbance torque can be eliminated if the
controller is of the proportional-plus-integral type.
Note that the integral control action added to the proportional controller has
converted the originally second-order system to a third-order one. Hence the
control system may become unstable for a large value of Kp since the roots of the
characteristic equation may have positive real parts. (The second-order system is
always stable if the coefficients in the system differential equation are all
positive.)
It is important to point out that if the controller were an integral controller, as in

Figure, then the system always becomes unstable because the characteristic
equation
Js 3 + bs 2 + K = 0
will have roots with positive real parts. Such an unstable system cannot be used in
practice.
Note that in the system of Figure the proportional control action tends to stabilize
the system, while the integral control action tends to eliminate or reduce steady
state error in response to various inputs.
Derivative Control Action.
Derivative control action, when added to a proportional controller, provides a means

of obtaining a controller with high sensitivity. An advantage of using derivative
control action is that it responds to the rate of change of the actuating error and
can produce a significant correction before the magnitude of the actuating error
becomes too large. Derivative control thus anticipates the actuating error, initiates
an early corrective action, and tends to increase the stability of the system.
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Although derivative control does not affect the steady-state error directly, it adds
damping to the system and thus permits the use of a larger value of the gain K,
which will result in an improvement in the steady-state accuracy.
Because derivative control operates on the rate of change of the actuating error
and not the actuating error itself, this mode is never used alone. It is always used
in combination with proportional or proportional-plus-integral control action.
Proportional Control of Systems with Inertia Load.
Before we discuss the effect of derivative control action on system performance,

we shall consider the proportional control of an inertia load.
Consider the system shown in Figure. The closed-loop transfer function is obtained
as
C ( s) Kp
= 2
R( s ) Js + K p
Since the roots of the characteristic equation
Js 2 + K p = 0
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are imaginary, the response to a unit-step input continues to oscillate indefinitely,

as shown in Figure (b).
Control systems exhibiting such response characteristics are not desirable. We

shall see that the addition of derivative control will stabilize the system.
Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control of a System with Inertia Load.
Let us modify the proportional controller to a proportional-plus-derivative

controller whose transfer function is K p (1 + Td s ) .The torque developed by the
controller is proportional to T p (e + Td e& ) . Derivative control is essentially
anticipatory, measures the instantaneous error velocity, and predicts the large
overshoot ahead of time and produces an appropriate counteraction before too
large an overshoot occurs.
Consider the system shown in Figure (a). The closed-loop transfer function is given
by
C ( s) K p (1 + Td s )
= 2
R ( s ) Js + K p Td s + K p
The characteristic equation is
Js 2 + K p Td s + K p = 0
now has two roots with negative real parts for positive values of .J, Kp, and Td. Thus
derivative control introduces a damping effect. A typical response curve c(t) to a
unit step input is shown in Figure (b). Clearly, the response curve shows a marked
improvement over the original response curve shown in Figure 5(b).
Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control of Second-Order Systems.
35
A compromise between acceptable transient-response behavior and acceptable

steady-state behavior may be achieved by use of proportional-plus-derivative
control action.
Consider the system shown in Figure. The closed-loop transfer function is
C (s) K p + Kd s
= 2
R( s) Js + ( B + K d ) s + K p
The steady-state error for a unit-ramp input is
B
e ss =
Kp
The characteristic equation is is,
Js 2 + ( B + K d ) s + K p = 0
The effective damping coefficient of this system is thus B + Kd rather than B.

Since the damping ratio ζ of this system is
B + Kd
ζ =
2 KpJ
it is possible to make both the steady state error ess for a ramp input and the
maximum overshoot for a step input small by making B small Kp large and Kd large
enough so that ζ is between 0.4 and 0.7.
36
37
STEADY STATE ERRORS AND ERROR CONSTANTS IN UNITY FEEDBACK

CONTROL SYSTEMS
Classification of control systems
Control systems may be classified by the ability to follow step inputs, ramp inputs,
parabolic input and so on.
xt
te
+
-
Consider the unity feedback with the following open loop transfer function
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (Tm s + 1)

G ( s) = lim
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (T p s + 1)
A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ……, if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2,…., respectively.

This classification is different from that of the order of the system. As the type
number is increased, accuracy is improved by aggravates the stability problem.
Steady state errors
C (s) G ( s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s)
Error signal transfer function
38
E ( s) R( s) − C ( s) C ( s) 1
= = 1− =
R( s) R( s) R( s) 1 + G ( s)
Using final value theorem
1
E ( s) = R( s)
1 + G ( s)
the steady state error is
sR( s )
e ss = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim
t →∞ s →0 s →0 1 + G(s)
Static Position Error Constant Kp.
Steady state error of the system for unit step input
s 1
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = lim
s →0 s →0 1 + G ( s ) s
1
ess =
1 + G (0)
The static position error constant Kp is defined
K p = lim G ( s ) = G (0)
s →0
Thus, steady state error is given as
1
e ss =
K p +1
For a type 0 system,

K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K p = lim =K
s →0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For a type 1 or higher system,
39
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K p = lim = ∞ , for N ≥ 1
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For unit step input, the steady state error e ss are as follows
1
e ss = for type 0 systems
1+ K
ess = 0 for type 1 or higher systems
Static Velocity Error Constant Kv
The steady state error of the system with a ramp input is given as
s 1
e ss = lim sE ( s) = lim
s →0 s →0 1 + G ( s ) s 2
1
ess = lim
s →0 sG ( s )
The velocity error constant K v is defined
K v = lim sG ( s )
s →0
Thus, the velocity error constant K v in terms of the static velocity error is given
1
e ss =
Kv
The term velocity error is used to express the steady state error for ramp input.
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K v = lim =0
s →0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For type 1,
40
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K v = lim =K
s →0 s (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For type 2 or higher,
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K v = lim =∞ for N ≥ 2
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
The steady state error for unit ramp input are as follows
1
e ss = =∞ for type 0 systems
Kv
1 1
ess = = for type 1 systems
Kv K
1
e ss = =0 for type 2 or higher
Kv
Static Acceleration Error Constant Ka.
The steady state error of the system with a unit parabolic input (acceleration
input), which is defined by
t2
r (t ) = , for t ≥ 0
2
=0 for t < 0
is given by
s 1 1
e ss = lim =
s →0 1 + G ( s ) s 3
lim s 2 G ( s )
s →0
The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined by the equation
K a = lim s 2 G ( s )
s →0
41
The steady state error is then
1
e ss =
Kv
The values of Ka are obtained as follows
For a type 0 system
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =0
s →0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =0
s →0 s(T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For type 2 system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim 2 =K
s →0 s (T s + 1)(T s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
1 2
For type 3 or higher system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =∞ for N ≥ 3
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
Thus, the steady state error for the unit parabolic input is
ess = ∞ for type 0 and type 1 systems
1
e ss = , for type 2 systems
K
ess = 0 for type 3 or higher systems
42
Summary
Type of input Steady state error

Type-0 system Type-1 system Type 2 system ∞
Unit-step 1 0 0
1+ K p
Unit-ramp ∞ 1 0
Kv
Unit-parabolic ∞ ∞ 1
Ka
K p = lim G ( s ) K v = lim sG ( s ) K a = lim s 2 G ( s )
s →0 s →0 s →0
Example : Derivative Error Compensation
K
s (τs + 1)
The figure shown above, the type of compensation has been introduced by using a
PD controller. The plant transfer function is
K
G ( s) =
s (τs + 1)
The controller transfer function is
D( s ) = K c (1 + TD s ) = K c + K c K D s = K c + K D s
The control signal is
43
de(t )
u (t ) = K c e(t ) + K D
dt
The open-loop transfer function of the overall system
K (K c + K D s )
D( s )G ( s ) =
s (τs + 1)
For the system under consideration, velocity error constant
K v = lim sG ( s ) = KK c
s →0
Therefore, the steady error to velocity input
1 1
e ss = =
K v KK c
The characteristic equation of the system is
τs 2 + (1 + KK D s ) + KK c = 0 or
⎛ 1 + KK D ⎞ KK c
s2 + ⎜ ⎟s + =0
⎝ τ ⎠ τ
where
KK c 1 ⎡1 + KK D ⎤
ωn = and ζ = ⎢ ⎥
τ 2 ⎣⎢ KK cτ ⎦⎥
example 2.
Reconsider the design problem. The position control system of has open-loop
transfer
4500 K A
D( s )G ( s ) =
s (s + 361.2 )
44
Let us consider an application wherein static accuracy requirement is very high:

steady state error to unit-ramp is required to be less than 0.025 deg (0.000436
rad)
Solution
1
Required K V = = 2293.6
0.000436
The design is satisfied if
2293.6 × 361.2
KA = = 184.1
4500
For this value of K A , the characteristic equation of the system becomes
s 2 + 361.2 s + 828450 = 0
therefore
ω n = 828450 = 910.2
361.2
ζ = = 0.198
2 × 910.2
M p = e −πζ / 1−ζ 2
× 100 = 53%
Relative stability is obviously very poor. To improve damping and peak overshoot
while maintaining K v at 2293.6, we propose the replacement of amplifier with gain
K A by a PD controller
D( s ) = K c + K D s
With the PD controller, the open loop transfer function becomes
4500( K c + K D s )
D( s )G ( s ) =
s ( s + 361.2)
The closed-loop transfer function
45
θ L (s) 4500( K c + K D s )
= 2
θ R ( s ) s + (361.2 + 4500 K D )s + 4500 K c
Velocity error constant
4500 K c
Kv = = 2293.6 when K c = 184.1
361.2
For this value of K c , the characteristic equation of the system becomes
s 2 + (361.2 + 4500 K D )s + 828450 = 0
therefore
ω n = 828450 = 910.2
361.2 + 4500 K D
ζ = = 0.198 + 2.472 K D
2 × 910.2
this clearly shows the positive effect of K D on damping. For critical damping
1 − 0.198
K D= = 0.324
2.472
This system no longer represents a standard second order system, the transient
response is also effected by the zeros of the transfer functions at s = − K c / K D .
In general, if K D is large, zero will be close to the origin in the s-plane, the
overshoot will be increased substantially and damping ratio ζ no longer gives an
accurate estimate on the peak overshoot of the out put.
a=tf(828450,[1 361 828450])

b=tf([1458 828450],[1 1819.2 828450])
46
Derivative Output Compensation
The reason behind using derivative of the actuating error signal is to improve the
damping of the system can be extended to the output signal.
47
Eliminating minor feedback loop,
KK 1
G(s) =
s (τs + 1 + KK 2 )
The velocity error constant
KK 1
K v = lim sG ( s ) =
s →0 1 + KK 1
The closed loop transfer function is given by
C (s) KK 1
= 2
R( s ) τs + (1 + KK 2 )s + KK 1
and the characteristic equation is
s2 +
(1 + KK 2 ) s + KK1 = 0
τ τ
The natural frequency and damping ratio of the compensated system are given as
KK 1 1 ⎡1 + KK 2 ⎤
ωn = and ζ = ⎥
τ 2 ⎢⎣ τ ⎦
For specified K v and ζ , we can write
48
1 ⎡ KK t ⎤
ζK v = ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣⎢ τ ⎥⎦
Example 3
θR θL
45000 1
n=
s (s + 361.2 ) 10
When ‘S’ is open
4500 K A
G ( s) =
s (s + 361.2)
Assume that the steady state error to unit ramp input is required to be less that
0.025 deg (0.000436 rad).
Solution
1
Required K v = = 2293.6
0.000436
This requirement is satisfied if
2293.6 × 361.2
KV = = 184.1
4500
For this value of K A , the characteristic equation of the system becomes
s 2 + 361.2 s + 828450 = 0
This gives
49
ω n = 910.2, ζ = 0.198
Relative stability is obviously very poor.
Now, closing the switch ‘S’.
4500 K A
G(s) =
s(s + 361.2 + 45000 K A )
The closed-loop transfer function
θ L ( s) 4500 K A
= 2
θ R ( s ) s + (361.2 + 4500 K t )s + 4500 K A
Velocity error constant
4500 K A
KV =
361.2 + 45000 K t
The characteristic equation of the system is
s 2 + (361.2 + 45000 K t )s + 4500 K A = 0
where
361.2 + 45000 K t
ω n = 4500 K A and ζ =
2 4500 K A
The tachogenerator feedback increases the damping of the system; it however

reduces the system K v .
With K A = 184.1 , we get critical damping when K t = 0.0324 . We get
K v = 455.4
Therefore
e ss unit ramp
= 0.0022 rad = 0.126 deg and
50
Integral Error Compensation
⎛ 1 ⎞
K c ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎝ Ti s ⎠
The plant transfer function is
K
G ( s) =
s (τs + 1)
The controller transfer function is
⎛ 1 ⎞ K
D( s ) = K p ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ = K p + i
⎝ Ti s ⎠ s
The open-loop transfer function of the overall system is
K (K p s + K i )
D ( s)G ( s ) =
s 2 (τs + 1)
The characteristic equation of the closed loop is
τs 3 + s 2 + KK p s + KK i = 0
Applying Routh criteria this equation yields the result that the system is stable for
0 < Ki < K p /τ
Example
51
K
G ( s) =
s (τs + 1)
a=tf(828450,[1 361 828450])

c=tf([66276 662760],[1 361.2 66276 662760])
52
53

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KMEC 522: Transient Response Analysis

The manner in which a dynamic system responds to an input, expressed as a

• The nature of the input(s), expressed as a function of time

The time response of any system has two components:

a. Transient response: This component of the response will (for a stable

Figure 1: Transient and steady state periods of time response

system, we must measure it performance. Then based on the desired performance,

The most important characteristic of the dynamic behaviour of a control system is

First order system

Figure 2: First Order system

Unit-step response of first order system

Figure 3 : Response of a first order system

The error signal e(t ) is then

Laplace transform of unit impulse function is 1 , and substituting R ( s ) = 1 , then

The response curve is as shown

Second Order System

An example of a second order system is the servo system.

The simplified equation is:

(a) servo system

The equation can be rewritten as:

(a) Underdamped case 0 < ζ < 1

for step input

inverse Laplace transform

the error signal therefore

(b) Critically damped case ζ = 1

for step input

c(t ) = 1 − e −ωnt (1 + ω n t ) for t ≥ 0

(c) Overdamped case ζ > 1

Figure: Unit-step response curves of the system

Definitions of transient-response specifications.

The desired performance characteristics of control systems are specified in term

Second order systems and transient-response specifications

(a) rise time, tr is obtained by c(t ) = 1

(b) peak time, t p

sin ω d t p = 0 or ω d t p = 0, π ,2π ,.....

for the first peak ω d t p = π , hence

(c) Maximum overshoot, Mp

The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time t = t p = π

(d) Settling time, ts

Impulse response of second-order systems

The inverse Laplace of the equation as follows

c(t ) = ω n2 te −ωnt for t ≥ 0

ωn −⎛⎜ ζ − 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t ωn −⎛⎜ ζ + 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t

Figure : Unit impulse response curves

1. Determine the values, of K and k of the closed-loop system shown in Figure Q1 so

3. Figure 3 is a block diagram of a space-vehicle attitude-control system. Assuming

Higher Order Systems

Consider the general system shown

in general, G(s) and H(s) are given as;

In general, for step input

Dominant closed-loop poles

Stability Analysis in the complex plane

Routh’s stability criterion

Procedure of the Routh’s stability criterion

1. Write the polynomial in in s in the following form:

Application of Routh’s Stability Criterion.

determine the effects of changing one or two parameters of a system by examining

2. Consider the unity-feedback control system with following open-loop transfer

Is this, system stable?

3. Consider the following characteristic equation:

Using Routh stability criterion, determine the range of K for stability.

Effects of Integral and Derivative Control Actions on System Performance

Integral Control Action.