WSC STUDY GUIDES

SCIENCE 2019

Enabling
Enabling
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Disclaimer from OnePwaa 
This study guide was created by our members with the intention to help members of 
the community find a sense of direction when preparing for the competition. The 
information in this Study Guide is true and complete to the best of our ability, but we 
cannot guarantee that all information provided is 100% correct.  

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breadth and depth of your knowledge and understanding. The WSC curriculum is open 
to open to interpretation and as such, can have several different analyses. ​Tip: click on 

underlined words in this study guide to reach websites and articles for further reading! 

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Many thanks to the following people who contributed to the research, organisation 
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Shaurya Chandrawanshi  Daniel Pham 
Sophia Giblett  Haris Rizwan 

1 
Contents 
Empowering Technologies...........................................................................3
Home is Where the Smart is......................................................................11
Dirty Jobs | Technologies of Marginal Occupations........................25
Ennobling Technologies..............................................................................31
Enabling Transactionologies.....................................................................37
Concluding Questions.................................................................................40

2 
Empowering Technologies 
Some technologies require no power source, but many, if not most, do. In general, the more 
portable a technology, the more likely it is to use a battery—although there are exceptions, 
such as some vacuum cleaners, which must be plugged in wherever you want to use them. 
This will serve well as a topic for discussion, specifically in aspects such as (1) the reliance of 
technology on power source, and (2) the relationship between batteries and portability. 
Addressing the former prompt, modern technology has certainly developed a 
near-indispensable relationship with power sources. It has undeniably eased many aspects of 
human life, for example, an electric fan that provides comfort during periods of high 
atmospheric temperatures or a fuel-powered automobile for long-haul travel that would be 
impossible with manual effort. As more and more technologies use a power source, and as we 
use technology with increasing frequency, the absence of power brings discomfort in people, 
as articulated by Lieberman in ​this piece​. ​Suggestion for further discussion: Are we being overly 
reliant on power, and technology? 
For the latter prompt, batteries has certainly played a central role to the increasing portability 
of technology, judging from the abundance of technologies that use batteries in this age. 
Discuss: Why do some technologies still rely on non-portable sources of energy? Are the boundaries 
clear between those that require portability of energy source(s) and those that do not? 

With your team, conduct some basic research into the science of batteries. How do they 
work? What makes a rechargeable battery different than a standard battery? 

Despite the ​various types of batteries​ available for use, they can all be described as a 
self-contained object with the ability to produce a limited amount of power. Storing electrical 
energy in the form of chemical energy, a battery produces electricity ​by converting its stored 
energy​. The primary unit for creating electricity in a battery is ​a cell​, with two electrodes (the 

3 
cathode and the anode, typically made of different metals) that share a medium called the 
electrolyte. Cells are connected together to create a battery, which has an additional 
metal/plastic case for protection and battery terminals to connect to other parts in an 
electrical circuit. 
The battery works as follows​: during energy discharge (the release of energy), electrons 
accumulate at the anode due to chemical reactions at the site, resulting in an electric charge 
difference between the anode and cathode. Ions (charged particles) are also released into and 
react with the electrolyte, converting chemical energy to electrical energy. Simultaneously, 
electrons try to repel one another and move to the cathode to balance the charge via the 
external circuit. The transportation of current within the battery and in the circuit generates 
electricity. 
However, in the case of disposable batteries, the battery is of no use after the chemicals that 
create the energy discharge are depleted. Secondary batteries, also known as rechargeable 
batteries, on the other hand, can reverse the operation described above to restore the original 
state. This can be done with the help of an external power source. The prime example of this is 
charging lithium-ion batteries that are in smartphones and computers today. 
 
 
Be sure to consider key terms such as: 
● Anode​: the negative terminal in the battery, and the place where the ​conventional 
current​ flows from the external circuit into the device.   
● Cathode​: the positive terminal in the battery, and the place for the conventional 
current to flow from device into the external circuit. 
● Electrolyte​: the catalyst within a cell, situated between the anode and the cathode to 
facilitate the movement of electrically charged particles, hence the conductivity of the 
battery. ​Lead acid​, ​nickel-cadmium​, and ​Lithium-ion​ are among the popular electrolytes 
used in batteries. 
● Capacity​: measured in amperes-hour, this is the maximum amount of energy that can 
be extracted from a fully charged battery under certain conditions. Depending on the 
use and storage conditions of the battery, the capacity may change. ​Read more: o
​ ther 
battery specifications.  
● Discharge: the decrease in a battery’s capacity, brought about either by using the 
battery for electricity or through the process of ​self-discharge​, which is when 
electrochemical reactions that underlie the process of discharge happen spontaneously 
within a battery.  

4 
 
How does wireless charging work? Discuss with your team: is there anything to fear from 
wireless power? 
Wireless charging​ (also called inductive charging - although this is just one of the ​forms of 
wireless charging​), allows the charging of devices powered by batteries without the need to be 
wired to a power source. This technology utilizes electromagnetic waves to transfer energy 
through a process called electromagnetic induction. Installed in the charger, which is typically 
in the shape of a pad/base, is an induction coil to generate an electromagnetic field. The field is 
transferred to a second induction coil in the device, and then transferred to electrical energy to 
charge. Standards have been set, such as ​Qi​, to ensure the compatibility of chargers and 
batteries. 
 

 
Diagram of the wireless charging station and its interaction with the device being charged 
 
Wireless power, until now, seems to be an attractive choice with its ease of access and 
convenience. Risks of wireless power has been stated frequently, but have yet to be credibly 
substantiated. Some has expressed concern about the possibility of reduced battery life, such 
as the author of ​this report​, who believed the continual battery usage while charging wirelessly 
will affect battery life. According to the report, batteries are allowed to ‘rest’ while charging, a 
characteristic that distinguishes it from wireless charging. ​The claim was refuted​ by the 
Wireless Power Consortium -- an organization that seeks to endorse, support, and promulgate 
the use of wireless charging and the Qi standard. Other concerns centered on the possibility 
that the radiation from electromagnetic waves in the process of wireless charging poses a 
health risk for users. However, the field created by wireless charging is ​no more dangerous 

5 
than radio waves​, and are ​nowhere near​ the frequency of ionizing, high-speed matter that can 
bring about great health consequences for humans. 
 
However, concerns still remain on how to maximize the compactness of wireless charging 
methods, especially among different wireless charging protocols. Although Qi is the most 
widely used standard, a number of others are still implemented and used on a great scale. The 
engineering expertise and the cost for the end-user if cross-standard charging is integrated 
would be prohibitive -- this partly explains the ​discontinuation of development for Apple’s 
AirPower charging base​, given that the Apple Watch series’ proprietary standard is at a 
discrepancy compared with other Apple products (eg. iPhones) which conform to the Qi 
standard. 
 
Speaking of fear: not long ago, the batteries in certain phones gained notoriety for 
spontaneously exploding. A few years earlier, ​MacBooks were blowing up​. Why do batteries 
explode​?  
Summary of Linked Articles  
According to Apple, the bursting of a battery should be considered as “expected behavior”. For 
example: the $129 battery of a MacBook Pro is expected to fail; we should be buying new ones 
every year. It is also important to note that Apple’s swelling batteries are toxic to humans. The 
gas coming out from the explosion is flammable and corrosive. Basically, coming into contact 
with a corrosive substance can harm you due to the chemical reaction occurring. Though 
Lithium Polymer batteries are relatively safe in comparison to most batteries, they can still 
harm you. The chemicals could burn your skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. What stops these 
batteries from short circuiting and causing explosions are the slips of polypropylene that make 
sure the electrodes don’t touch. It is worth noting that Lithium ion batteries are usually the 
culprits of these explosions.  
 
If the electrodes were to touch, the battery would heat up very quickly. These batteries are 
filled with flammable electrolytes that react greatly when they come into contact with oxygen. 
So why do we use them? It’s because of their high efficiency. High amounts of energy are 
stored inside them, and they can keep our electrical devices running for hours on end. The 
reason they continue becoming more volatile are because of our unreasonable demands. We 
want batteries with HIGHER CAPACITIES, in SMALLER PACKAGES for CHEAPER PRICES. 
Other issues include production flaws*, design flaws, user-supplied damage, bad chargers and 
industry pressure/competition.  

6 
 
* In ​phones today, there's often not enough space between the battery’s protective pouch and 
electrodes. The pressure from being packed in too tightly or overcharging with voltage can 
damage the electrodes and create flammable hydrogen gas. 
 
Is it ever safe to depend on a technology that can sometimes be dangerous? 
It is never 100% safe. Hence, we should not be too dependent on technologies that have the 
potential to be dangerous. The reason why we continue to use them is because we have no 
better alternatives. For example: though Lithium-ion batteries pose various dangers, they are 
efficient. In order to become less dependent on dangerous technologies, we must continue to 
look for better, safer options.  
 
Explore the ​future of batteries​.  
Summary of Linked Article 
Better batteries mean better products. Our smartphones will last longer, our electronic 
transport methods will develop, and energy storage will become more efficient. HOWEVER, 
THESE DEVELOPMENTS TAKE TIME. For one, many chemical processes must be taken into 
consideration, as these are the things that we must overcome. There is also the need to 
commercialize designs for consumers: we need to make design we can sell or earn profit from. 
New solutions involve the use of new materials. Nowadays, we use​ ​carbon graphite​ for anodes. 
Now we’re eyeing silicon nanoparticles.  
 
A silicon atom can store 20x more the amount of lithium than a carbon atom. Since we will 
need less silicon atoms, we can make smaller batteries with higher capacities. The issue is that 
silicon has a tendency to swell. Companies are attempting to tackle this problem by putting the 
microscopic silicon particles into spherical structures. By organizing them like this, there is 
more room for the silicon to expand. 
 
Another option is the use of lithium metal for anodes. Using lithium metal as an anode would 
allow for batteries with higher charges (when compared to batteries with carbon graphite 
anodes). Solid electrolytes have also gotten attention for their potential use in electrical 
vehicles. Replacing highly flammable materials with something solid (ex: ceramics or glass) 
means that the battery will be able to withstand higher temperatures, ultimately resulting in a 
higher capacity for energy storage. 
  

7 
How would better power sources affect our everyday lives? Would they mostly just make 
our phones last longer between charges, or would they have impacts on access to technology 
for, say, underprivileged populations? 
Underprivileged populations lack access to good power sources. Better power sources may 
improve their lives, but these sources must be easily accessible. This means that they cannot be 
too expensive to maintain.  
 
Many technological prognosticators have forecast an “Internet of Things”—in which 
everything around us is connected to the Internet, from the clothing we wear to the chairs on 
which we sit. Yet these devices would probably ​require batteries​. Consider this potential 
battery technology, which uses ​freeze-dried bacteria​.  
For background information on the Internet of Things,​ ​click here. 
Summary of Linked Articles  
People have been making predictions on the amount of objects that’d be connected to the 
Internet every year. This predicted number is declining. The answer may have to do with the 
batteries that power these devices. Batteries need to be constantly replaced, meaning that 
millions of devices need this fix every few years. When it comes to the Internet of Things, 
batteries with finite life-spans will lead to gaps/missing info in critical data. This data is 
necessary for the system to assess safety risks. We must start looking for better alternatives, 
and one method involves the use of freeze-dried bacteria. 
 
“Papertronics” has the potential to power the Internet of Things. Sokheun Choi and his 
colleagues have developed a paper-based battery that relies on bacteria. These bacteria are 
exoelectrogens, which means that they can transfer electrons outside of their cell 
Bacteria-based batteries use respiration to convert biochemical energy stored in organic 
matter into biological energy. ​The battery is activated with the use of water/saliva, which 
revives the bacteria. The bacteria is used to generate an electric current and devour the 
battery once it dies. This makes it very easy to dispose. Paper batteries also mean flexible 
batteries. They can be bent or folded to create serial/parallel connections.  
 
Is it acceptable to use living creatures to generate electricity, or is this a form of 
exploitation? Would it be different if the bacteria were horses, or tardigrades? Does the 
calculation change if the creatures are dead? 
This is a debatable question that depends on an individual’s unique moral perspective. For 
further reading, visit: 

8 
https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2008/04/creating-renewable-energy-from-
living-organisms-52070.html 
 
Not all devices use batteries. Some are ​autonomously powered​, through sunlight and other 
means, and others we still plug in to the electric grid (a.k.a. mains electricity) through outlets 
in our walls.  
Summary of Linked Article 
The development of microprocessors have allowed more and more small devices to be 
equipped with smart technologies. Experts believe that the use of batteries must be stopped in 
order for the IoT to reach its full potential. Using batteries means that lots of replacements 
must be done. This proves to be an extreme inconvenience. However, it must fill the gap for 
now- especially in poorer areas where the latest technology is not easily accessible. 
There are various ways to eliminate the use of batteries: 
- Using light, motion, or temperature changes to extract energy that will be used to run 
future IoT sensors. 
- Using power from the radio signals in your surroundings. This method has successfully 
powered a functioning, battery-free cell phone.  
 
But not all plugs are the same. Why does a “British” plug look different than a “European” 
plug—where did these differences originate, and does it mean the electricity behind them is 
different, too? Be sure to learn the difference between alternating and direct current, and 
between adapters and converters. 
 
Though there has been an attempt to create a universal domestic power plug, political and 
economic issues have often got in the way. Read this site for a thorough understanding on the 
different kinds of plugs:  
https://www.worldstandards.eu/electricity/plugs-and-sockets/ 
  
Direct Current VS Alternating Current:  
Direct current, which was pioneered by Thomas Edison, flows in one direction. The current of 
electric charge flows in one direction only. Alternating current, which was pioneered by Nikola 
Tesla, constantly changes direction. When voltage begins to drop, the current’s polarity will 
change. By altering polarity, the voltage which was gradually decreasing will eventually go back 
up. With higher voltage, you can supply power to electrical appliances more quickly. More 
energy is also conserved since less will be lost during transmission. The high voltage it carried 

9 
served as a double-edged sword. Though it was able to harness electrical energy in a more 
effective and efficient manner, it was also dangerous.  
 
The electric charge flowing through alternating current systems were lethal and could easily 
electrocute a human being. Luckily, Tesla was able to come up with a solution. He looked to the 
invention of European inventors for help and found that the transformer could help him with 
his endeavors to establish an electrical system that was superior to Edison’s direct current. By 
utilizing a transformer, he could control the high voltage involved in alternating current 
systems. This made long-distance transmissions much safer. Meanwhile, direct current is much 
safer since it was designed to function with low voltages. However, there are two main 
disadvantages to the direct current empire Edison was attempting to establish. First: direct 
current is short-ranged. It’s reach was limited and Edison struggled to meet the high demand of 
consumers. Second: due to low voltage (especially in comparison to alternating current), a lot 
of electrical energy is wasted during transmission from a generator to a consumer’s household.
 
 
Though adapters and converters may serve similar purposes, they do work differently. Refer to 
this site for an understanding of the basic differences between the two: 
https://www.worldstandards.eu/electricity/information-for-travellers/ 
 
Sometimes large groups of people behave in predictable ways; we all laugh when an alpaca 
falls off a surfboard. But we may be moving into a Bandersnatch era in which technologies 
enable a more fragmented social experience—and the consequences may even include 
changes in how we consume electricity​.  
Summary of Linked Article: 
Due to changes in consumer demands, reasons for electricity consumption have changed over 
the years. Nowadays, this consumption is heavily affected by Netflix- whose popularity 
continues to soar. Many of us have become victims of Netflix. Its addictive nature is making us 
more and more likely to spend majority of our days lying on the couch, wasting time as we 
binge-watch a popular series. 
Should we find ways to use technology to spread out different kinds of social burdens, from 
when people commute to work to when they eat their meals? 
Technology can be used to tackle various issues. It has affected​ ​the food we eat​, the daily lives 
of commuters, etc. Its fundamental purpose is to make our lives easier. Thus, whatever offers 
the most benefits is what we should be working towards.  

10 
Home is Where the Smart is 
Companies such as Amazon and Google are competing to develop (and sell products for) the 
“smart home”—but the truth is that homes have been getting “smarter” for generations, and 
more comfortable for even longer than that. Discuss with your team: is there a limit to how 
smart and comfortable we should want our homes to be? 
It is often said that 1901 was when homes really started to become ‘smart’, with the advent of 
the engine-powered vacuum cleaner. The​ early 20th century​ then saw a rush of inventions, 
from washing machines to toasters. It’s often a peculiar realization to consider just how 
different homes were only a century or so ago. The perfect example of this is the refrigerator. 
Imagine having to keep food fresh without a fridge! 

The more recent predictions, from around the ​mid-to-late 20th century​ have been remarkably 
accurate. The ‘Push-Button Home’ of 1950, occupied and created by Emil Mathias let him do 
exactly what it said on the tin: perform most tasks with the push of a button. The ‘House of 
Tomorrow’ exhibit in Disney’s ‘Tomorrowland’ stood from 1957 to 1967, and got about 20 
million visitors in its lifetime. A collaboration between Monsanto and Disney, it advertised 
things like height-adjustable sinks and included only hands-free telecommunication. 
In the contemporary world, we have the ‘Internet of Things’, and appliances such as Google 
Home and Amazon’s Alexa. There are pros and cons to these appliances. The major questions 
are: 
● Whether having smarter homes makes for stupider inhabitants, i.e. skills are lost
● Whether the appliances could be collecting personal data on their inhabitants
● Whether the electricity usage by digital alternatives is sustainable

Consider the temperature control technologies that enable many of us to live even in 
climates that may be ​outside our comfort zones​. How do homes stay warm when it is cold 
out? How do they get cold when it is hot out? Explore how indoor heating and air 
conditioning work. Is it worse for the environment when we warm a cold place or when we 
cool a warm one? Discuss with your team: to save resources, should governments regulate 
how much people can control the climate in their private spaces? 
The article talks of Oymyakon, Russia, which is the coldest city in the world with only 500 
inhabitants, close by to Yakutsk, Russia - the coldest major city in the world - which has 
300,000 inhabitants.The residents eat mostly meat, have to keep garages heated to ensure car 
engines don’t freeze, only get days off from school at below -52°C, have outdoor toilets, and 
subsist on ‘Russki Chai’ (which is just vodka). 

11 
 
Heaters work by electric currents passing through heating coils, producing heat energy.  
ACs work through compressors adding coolants, condensers condensing air, and then 
evaporators evaporating the air again as cool air.  

 
Generally, heaters use more electricity than ACs, since they’re 
generating heat, while ACs are only moving heat around. A 
simple way to understand heaters is that the orange, glowing 
part of that picture - the heating coil - has electricity running 
through it. The electricity encounters resistance in the process, 
and generates a large amount of heat. 
 
The debate on government regulations mainly focuses on the 
use of coolants, particularly on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) use. These are considered 
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs). Agreements ranging from the Kigali Treaty, to the 
Montreal Protocol (one of the most successful international agreements on climate change 
ever) address this issue. 
 
 
 
 

12 
Some homes are found in areas with significant pollution. Here, people who can afford it may 
rely on ​air purifiers​ to try to breathe cleaner air indoors, whether at home, at school, or even 
in hotels and other public spaces. What are the different ways in which these filters work? If 
you found yourself in Beijing on a smoggy day in June, would you rather have an ionizing 
filter or one based on activated carbon? Discuss with your team: will increasing access to 
indoor air purification cause people of means to disregard increasing pollution outdoors? 
Should rich people be forced to breathe the same air as poor people? 
The article talks about how high-tech air purifiers use miniscule meshes, double-glazed 
windows and a variety of other methods to keep SM2.5s (dangerous airborne substances) at a 
negligible level. It also elaborates on how this has become a competitive feature in the market, 
as cleaner indoor environments are now a selling point for hotels, malls and other 
establishments. 
As for the smoggy day in Beijing, I’d say the ionizing filter, because the amount of carbon 
required is generally quite inefficient, and carbon doesn’t last too long. The way these two 
filters work is slightly different.  
 
Ionizing filters use cations (negatively charged ions) to move impurities and such substances 
either towards the filter, or towards the walls. Activated carbon absorbs impurities into its 
carbon material, as it is porous in nature. 
Better indoor air facilities definitely reduce the focus on fixing air quality outside, it’s 
undeniably escaping the real world. Although rich people are already forced to breathe the 
same air as poor people when they’re outside, it can be argued forcing the privileged to 
experience the world’s pollution could raise awareness. 
 
The main issue in this debate would be whether the free market would lead to better 
conditions for everyone as a result of air quality becoming a selling point. For example, the 
advent of sanitation facilities was firstly enjoyed by the rich, however, as more profit could be 
made through more customers, and governments recognized the immense advantages of 
sanitation, it became more widespread and the poor gained access to it as well. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

13 
Consider this argument that air conditioning ​created the modern city​. Pay special attention 
to the idea that air-conditioned cities separate those who can afford to inhabit 
air-conditioned spaces from those left on the inhospitable street. Discuss with your team: is 
inequality of comfort an issue for governments to resolve? To what degree does access to 
enabling technology lead to a loop in which those who lack access are less able to gain it? 
The article focuses on how ACs have revolutionized infrastructure, and places like malls, 
offices and even apartment buildings wouldn’t exist without air conditioning. Originally 
invented to ensure paper didn’t warp from humidity, ACs have become essential to human life. 
Generally, however, the people who can’t afford constant air conditioning could be considered 
“socially invisible” or so, and they’re often very distinctly set apart from those who can. 
Inequality of comfort is not necessarily a government issue, however, as certain comforts 
become basic requirements, governments generally take responsibility for it. The concept of 
relative poverty is relevant here. The debate on this would focus intensively on just how 
detrimental a lack of comforts like air conditioning could be to those who can’t access it, and to 
defeat the motion, one would need to prove that government intervention might worsen the 
situation. For example, by enforcing stricter standards, fewer people may get access to 
housing, as all prices might hike up. If they don’t, landlords could suffer. 
 
A loop in access is an interesting concept, and the debate on this would focus on inequality, 
disparity and socioeconomic mobility. The Great Gatsby curve is an example of the same 
principle. However, it is arguable that enabling technologies simply raise the standard so 
rapidly, that we don’t realize that access is significantly rising for the disadvantaged. An 
example would be eyeglasses. An enabling technology that wasn’t always available to the 
lesser privileged has become an everyday appliance for pretty much every socioeconomic 
class. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

14 
Of course, there is more to a home than being able to wear sweatpants and a t-shirt in your 
living room. There is also the need (or, for some, preference) to keep it clean and orderly. 
From washing machines to the FoldiMate, inventors have sought ways to lighten the load of 
housework. Look into the following devices and consider them in the context of the 
emerging field of home automation, or domotics. Be sure to consider not just how they 
function but their impact: 
 
Vacuum Cleaners: 
 
Powered Vacuum Cleaners that use suction 
have been around since 1901, developed 
independently by Hubert Cecil Booth, and David 
T. Kenney, and are constantly developing to aid 
our homes even more. Their impact on society 
has been large, because once when we had to 
use a duster and a cloth to gather dust 
painstakingly off of the floor, taking even more 
effort to clean items such as carpets, we are now 
able to simply turn on a button and manoeuvre a 
machine around the room, quickly and 
effectively gathering dust and cleaning items 
such as sofas, which would otherwise take a 
much longer time. Vacuum Cleaners were one of 
the first domestic robots in home automation that were developed, and this domotic makes 
cleaning dust even easier, as now all we have to do is switch a button and the vacuum moves 
around the floor, constantly vacuuming without our hands getting tired, and changing direction 
whenever they bump into something. The original design only allowed the machine to clean 
autonomously without human control, but it has developed to include other cleaning features 
such as things to improve health (UV sterilization, HEPA filter), cleaning modes (e.g. spinning 
brushes for tight corners), to include wet mopping, or antidrop and antibump sensors, and daily 
cleaning schedules. The first Robovacs used random navigation, which means they could miss 
spots while cleaning, but now some models include ​mapping systems, ​where they can create a 
floor plan which can potentially be stored permanently, and has a memory, knowing where it 
has previously cleaned, which improves efficiency. Despite all these improvements and 

15 
features, ​according to the CEO of Perceptln​, obstacles such as dog dirt, cables, and shoes are 
still hard to navigate around.  
 
Inside a vacuum cleaner, an electric current moves the motor which causes the fan to spin, and 
as the fan blades turn, they force air towards the exhaust port. When air particles air drive 
forward at high speeds, the density of the particles, which is the air pressure, increases in front 
of the fan, and decreases behind the fan. This causes the pressure level in the area behind the 
fan to drop below the pressure level outside of the vacuum, which creates a suction. This 
means that the surrounding air goes inside of the vacuum cleaner, and as these air particles get 
sucked in, they rub against loose dust or dirt, and friction carries it through the inside of the 
vacuum. Vacuum cleaners commonly include rotating brushes at the intake port, which knock 
dirt from carpets so it can be picked up by the air stream. This dirt-filled air passes through the 
vacuum cleaner bag, which is made from a porous woven material (such as cloth or paper) and 
acts as an air filter. The holes let air particles through, but dirt particles are too large to pass 
through, which means that air moves through the material and flows back outside, but the dirt 
is collected inside the bag. Later, one would empty out this bag, and the vacuum would be 
ready for use again. 
 
As previously stated, the most important part of the vacuum is the suction which is created, 
and the power of the suction depends on some factors. Depending on the power of the fan, the 
vacuum can be more or less efficient, and obviously the higher the speed, the stronger the 
suction. As well as this, when a lot of dirt is inside the bag, the air faces more resistance on the 
way out, and the particles of air will move slower if there is more debris due to increased drag. 
This means that a vacuum cleaner will work better if you have just emptied out the bag, rather 
than using a dirty bag. Finally, the size of the intake port hugely affects the power of suction. 
The speed of the vacuum fan in constant, so the amount of air passing through the vacuum 
cleaner at a time is also constant. Even if the intake port is large or small, the same number of 
air particles have to pass through into the vacuum. The smaller the port, the quicker the 
individual air particles have to move to get through in the time. ​Bernoulli’s Principle​ states that 
when air speed increases, pressure decreases, and this drop in pressure is what results in 
suction at the intake port, therefore narrower vacuum heads can create a stronger suction 
force and pick up heavier dirt particles than larger intake ports.  
 

16 
The most common types of vacuum cleaners are the upright vacuum and the canister vacuum, 
which both collect dirt in a porous bag. ​Read this article​ to learn the differences and similarities 
between them.  
Washing Machines: 
Washing machines are made of two drums, the 
Inner Drum, which rotates, has small holes to let 
water in and out, and has an agitator or paddles 
which turn the clothes around in the water, and the 
Outer Drum, which is water tight and holds in the 
water while the Inner Drum rotates. Everything in 
the washing machine is electrically controlled by 
the programmer, which has a variety of different 
programs for different types of material and 
clothes.  
 
The first step to using a washing machine is putting 
the clothes and detergent in and setting the 
program. This program opens the water valve so both cold and hot water (which has been 
heated by the​ heating element​, converting electrical energy into heat) and then the thermostat 
measures the temperature of the water and makes sure it is correct for the chosen program is 
correct for the chosen program. When the water is at the correct temperature, the inner drum 
rotates at high speeds, washing the clothes. The washing detergent pulls the dirt from the 
clothes and traps it in the water. Next the water is drained from both drums, and then is rinsed 
one more time. After the clothes have been rinsed, the inner drum rotates at an extremely high 
speed (around 130 km/h), which gets ride of the water and dries your clothes a little bit. This all 
relies on ​centrifugal forces​, which is basically the outward force on a mass when it is rotated. In 
a washing machine, this force can be used to throw water molecules on the clothes radially 
outwards during the spin cycle of the washing machine. This is because the clothes are forced 
into a circular path, but the water is not, and it flies off.  
 
The first washing machine invented, similar to the ones we know today, was a drum type 
washing machine with a galvanised tub and an electrical motor, invented by Alva J. Fisher, of 
the Hurley Machine Company of Chicago. It has had a large effect on society, making washing 
clothes much easier and quicker, and also gets the dirt out more effectively. According to a 
study by the University of Montreal, washing machines has had a huge effect on society, as 

17 
‘washing machines liberated women’. Some may consider this somewhat exaggerated, but 
these conveniences transformed women’s lives by decreasing the time women had to spend 
doing the everyday household chore, enabling them to enter the workforce. All other home 
technologies from vacuums to fridges decreased time of household chores, but washing was a 
task that had to be done every day, thus reducing the time needed to do this task made women 
able to get jobs on top of doing the traditional tasks at home. Having women as part of the 
workforce, of course, has been one of the greatest changes of the past couple of centuries, so 
having home technologies has been hugely revolutionary.  
 

Home Robots: 

Home Robots are a domestic service autonomous robot that does household chores. Some 
examples of ​tasks​ Home Robots may carry out include: cleaning, security, toy robots, and social 
robots. One of the earliest home robots is the ‘HERO’, which was sold during the 1980s, which 
could play songs, games, notify important events, and even guard the home. By 2006, over 3.5 
million home robots were in service, and they became more affordable and accessible to all. 
They have the potential to have a large impact on our lives, however, ​according to this article​, 
they haven’t really fulfilled what they can possibly do in our lives, due to several factors.  

Dishwashers: 

These were first invented by Josephine Cochran in 1886, and have hugely decreased the time 
needed to clean up after cooking. Like washing machines, they have enabled women to enter 
the workforce, thus affected home life and the economy hugely.  

In a dishwasher, cold water is supplied to the 

machine by your plumbing, and the heating 
element at the bottom of the machine 
converts electrical energy into heat, and 
warms the water to a high temperature (much 
higher than how you would wash by hand, 
making it more hygienic). An electrical pump 
at the bottom of the machine then pumps the 
water up through the side walls, and the 
water is sprayed into the machine through 

18 
the bottom metal paddle, which is metal because it needs to withstand higher temperatures, 
making it spin around. Cooler water (further away from the heating element) sprays from holes 
in the plastic upper paddle, also making this spin around. The water moves around the plates, 
and it falls back to the bottom of the machine where it is heated a pumped around again, 
creating a cycle where the dishes get repetitively washed to make them cleaner.  
 
As well as helping women, obviously dishwashers fulfil their basic purpose of cleaning dishes 
more effectively than hand washing, due to the fact that they are cleaned longer in a machine, 
use more detergent, are cleaned more, and use hotter water which is more hygienic. 
Furthermore, dishwashers have many ​alternative uses. 

Sometimes, you want to eat something delicious: maybe a seafood dinner, maybe eggs for 
breakfast. You could order (it is hard to ever say no to Foodpanda) but, if you choose to cook, 
you’ll discover that enabling technologies are all over the modern kitchen. Explore how the 
following devices work, and discuss with your team: do they have drawbacks? Does the rise 
of such devices make it harder for people without them to cope—and does it impact typical 
household roles and employment opportunities? 

Microwaves: 
Microwaves are used to heat up food, and they work by emitting microwaves (the 
electromagnetic frequency) that channels thermal energy directly to the molecules, heating 
food up by radiation. The microwave contains a generator called a magnetron, which converts 
electricity into radio waves, and blasts it into the main microwave. These microwaves bounce 
back and forth off of the reflective metal walls, but if they hit the food they go directly into it. 
As they travel through the food, they make the molecules vibrate, which means they heat up. 
The microwaves are transferring their energy into the molecules inside the food, causing the 
food to heat up. 
 
Toaster: 
Electrical energy enters the toaster, and the current flows through thin filaments which are 
connected together. These filaments are so thin that they transfer electrical energy into heat, 
flowing red hot when electricity flows through them. Like heaters, the filaments beam heat 
towards the bread in the toaster, and the steady supply of heat quickly heats the bread.  
 
 
 

19 
Convection Oven: 
The main difference between a convection oven and a regular oven is that it has a fan and 
exhaust system, and a normal oven doesn’t. The fan and exhaust blow hot air around the food, 
then vent it back out, so that the hot air surrounds the food and cooks it more evenly and more 
quickly, which obviously comes with ​benefits​.  
 
The oven emits thermal radiation from electricity which passes as a current through the coiled 
wires of the elements, which heats up. The air then flows over these wires and is heated up, and 
then is blown into the oven. 
 
Rice Cooker: 
Firstly, water and rice are put into the cooking pan which is placed into the rice cooker’s shell. 
The pan’s weight depressed the thermal sensing device (thermometer) and the heating plate 
brings the water to boil. Rice cookers warm rice by transferring heat from the heating plate to 
the cooking pan, and use conductive metals such as copper and metal, as they transfer heat 
easily. Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius, so the temperature of the water won’t get any 
hotter, so as long as there is water in the pan the temperature should stay stable. After the rice 
has absorbed all the water inside the pan, the temperature will start to rise; and the rice cooker 
senses this and either switches itself off or to a warming cycle. This means that the rice has 
finished cooking and is entering the resting stage. One way the rice cooker can do this is by 
using ​fuzzy logic.  
 
Coffee Maker:  
The coffee makers main parts are the resovoir (holds water once your pour it into the pot), 
white tube (leads up from reservoir and carries hot water to the drip area), shower head (water 
arrives here from white tube and is sprayed over the coffee grounds), and heating element 
(​resistive heating element​ and an aluminium tube for water to glow through). To make coffee, 
the first thing you do is pour in water, and then the water flows through the valve, into the 
aluminium heating tube, and due to gravity it goes partially up the white tube. You turn on the 
switch, and the heating element heats up the aluminium tube and the water in the tube boils. 
Bubbles and water flow up through the white tube and go through the shower head, dripping 
into the coffee grounds. The hot water flows through the ground coffee beans and picks up 
their caffeol on the way down to the coffee pot.  
 

20 
Juicer: 
There are two main types of juicers: centrifugal juicers and masticating juicers.  

Centrifugal juicers use sharp blades to chop up fruit and high speeds, the same way a blender 
does. The spinning of the blades separates the juice from the pulp (the same way centrifugal 
forces separates water from clothes), and then the liquid passes through a filter which further 
separates the liquid from the pulp.  
 
Masticating juicers, also known as cold press juicers or slow juicers, use a single auger to crush 
fruit into small sections, and then squeezes the juice along a static screen while the pulp goes 
out a separate outlet. This is often seen as healthier as it keeps in more minerals and enzymes, 
but ​which juicer is actually better? 
 
Pressure Cooker: 
A pressure cooker is commonly used to simulate the effect of braising food in a shorter space 
of time. It traps steam produced from boiling the liquid, because of the sealed airtight lid, which 
causes both the internal pressure and temperature to rise. This cooks the food, and after use, 
the steam is slowly released so that the vessel can be opened safely.  
 
Magnetic Stove: 
Also called an ​induction​ burner, this is a ceramic plate with an electromagnetic coil underneath 
it. When you turn on the burner, an electric current runs through the coil, which creates a 
magnetic field. There is no heat on the burner itself, but when you set a pan on the burner, this 
magnetic field induced small electric currents in the pans metal. The pan’s base is made from 
iron, and as iron is a poor conductor of electricity, this electrical energy is converted to heat 

21 
energy. On an induction cooktop, the heat comes from induction and the pan itself, not the 
burner.  
 
Consider the technologies of personal grooming: hair dryers and straighteners, shavers, 
waxing, cosmetics, even toothbrushes. When were they invented, and how have they 
changed over time? Discuss with your team: is a device still an enabling technology if it helps 
us accomplish that helps us achieve an aesthetic goal but does not technically make us more 
“able”? 

Hair Dryers: 
These were first invented by Alexander 
Godefroy in 1890, in France, and were 
originally a bonnet attached to the chimney 
pipe of a gas stove. In America they were first 
patented in 1912 by Gabriel Kazanjian. At 
first, they were stationary, heavy, and hard to 
operate, but through the ages they have 
become more and more accessible to all. In 
1915, they started becoming handheld, but 
they were still heavy and quite hard to use. 
There were many instances of overheating 
and electrocution, and they took a long time 
to dry your hair with, capable of using only 
100 watts (these days we can use up to 2000). From this time, the actual mechanics of the 
hairdryer hadn’t changed very much, and development has focused on improving the wattage 
and external appearance of the dryer. An important change was the hairdryer becoming 
plastic, from metal, which meant it could become more lightweight and easier to transport. The 
bonnet dryer was introduced in 1951, and was good as it gave an even amount of heat to the 
whole head at once. Near this time the rigid hood hair dryer was introduced (which is 
commonly seen in salons) and it could use a much higher wattage.  

In 1991, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission began mandating that all dryers had to 
meet safety standards for the company to be able to manufacture them, and that all dryers 
must have a ​ground fault circuit interrupter​, so they can’t electrocute anyone if they get wet. 
Its application was successful as the number of deaths by hair drying electrocution has 
decreased rapidly from the 1950s.  

22 
Hair Straighteners: 
The first form of this appears in the 1870s in France, made by Marcel Grateau, who made 
heated metal hair care tools. Hair straighteners were first patented by Isaac Shero in 1909, 
who used two flattened cloth irons for pressing down his hair on both sides. The early models 
were extremely dangerous because they are simply heated iron; they could destroy hair and 
were just heated by iron. Even after the invention of hair straighteners, some women just used 
clothes irons to straighten their hair, which was very dangerous and generally abandoned in 
the ‘60s. Hair straighteners today have ceramic coated heating parts, which are less harmful to 
the hair, and heat up faster than hair irons not made of ceramic. Hair straighteners work by 
breaking down the hydrogen bonds in the hair cortex (these cause the hair to open and curl) 
and prevents hair from holding its original form, however hydrogen bonds can reform if they 
are exposed to moisture, which means that people even today often have to re-straighten their 
hair a lot.  
 
Shavers: 
These have ​been in existence since​ the Bronze Age, one believed to age up to 4000 years ago. 
In prehistoric times, clam shells, shark teeth, and flint, were sharpened and used as shavers. 
The first modern straight razor was made in Sheffield, England, between the 18-19th century, 
and has a sharpened blade and was made of steel. Daily shaving used to be not widespread, so 
some never shaved, and some had their servants to do it for them. Shaving every day only 
began in America after World War 1, as they were required to do their gas masks fit properly. 
This became easier when the safety razor was invented, which was the common standard 
during the war. The safety razor with disposable blades was patented by Gillette in 1901, 
which was a success as now people only had to buy new blades, and not a whole razor. 
Commonly used today, an electric razor was soon invented in the 1930s, which had a rotating 
or vibrating blade, and is seen as much easier to use, though more expensive.  
 
Waxing: 
Waxing was first introduced in Egypt, who were the forerunners of many beauty rituals, and 
they used tweezers (made from shells), pumice stones, early beeswax, or sugar based waxes. In 
the Roman Empire, many women waxed as well, as the lack of body hair was considered to 
show an upper class person. During the Middle Ages, it was the fashion to remove hair from 
your face, like your eyebrows, but not your body, and they used walnut oil or vinegar to do so. 
In 1915, Gillette created the ​first razor specifically for women. ​Wax strips were introduced in 

23 
the 1960s, and these days there are two main forms of waxing: strip waxing, and stripless 
waxing.  

Cosmetics: 
Red mineral or ochre pigments were first used by Homo Sapiens in Africa to paint on their face, 
and also appearing in Africa were the ​first actual cosmetics ​for beauty purposes, where the 
Egyptians used castor oil as a protective balm, and skin creams of beeswax were used 
thousands of years ago. Nowadays, makeup is made of a different ​composition, ​including 
chemicals which are much worse for our skin.  

Toothbrush: 
Even before bristle toothbrushes were invented, people rubbed pasted and water in their 
mouth for oral hygiene. People used the plant ​‘Salvadora Persica’​ for oral hygiene. Bristle 
toothbrushes were first invented in China, using hairs from hogs backs and bamboo. The first 
patent for a toothbrush in the US was by Wadsworth in 1857. These days, toothbrushes most 
often use Nylon, and they started using this from 1938. ​Learn more​ about the development of 
the toothbrush ​here​.    

24 
Dirty Jobs | Technologies of Marginal Occupations 

We often glorify high-profile technologies and those who develop them—but we spend less 
time considering the less glamorous technologies and those who need to work with them. 
For every computer programmer, there is an electrician who makes it possible to plug that 
computer into a wall. Discuss with your team: what are some of the technologies we think 
the least about but rely upon the most? 

Examples of technologies include springs, lasers, and RFIDs. Springs are seen in locks, pens, and 
firearms, all of which are necessary both for education and the safety of the general 
population. Lasers are used in information processing, such as in DVDs, and are functional in 
the field of medicine, where laser surgery is often performed. Bar Code Readers also involve 
lasers, and such has fundamentally changed our lives. RFID, or radio frequency identification, is 
found in passports and trackers. Read more about RFIDs ​here​. 

For instance, consider waste disposal and treatment. Every time you walk out of a bathroom, 
you leave something behind. Where does it go, and where does the water you use come from? 
Explore with your team: ​how does plumbing work​, and what are some of the latest innovations 
in the industry? Be sure to spend some time looking into the world of high-tech toilets, 
trenchless sewers, and even paper towel dispensers, including new models in China that use 
facial recognition​ to limit how much you take. But also consider how the legacy of older 
technologies ​can still affect us today​—in this case, leaving millions of Moscow residents 
without running hot water every summer. 

Plumbing can be defined as any system that 

is used to convey fluids for a wide variety of 
purposes. This marvel goes way back to 
ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, 
Romans and Indian cities where systems 
were required to provide potable water and 
wastewater removal for applications such as 
public baths. However we’ve come a long 
way from bath-houses, lead drain pipes and 
simply dumping waste into rivers.  

25 
Modern plumbing heavily relies on the basic laws of nature namely pressure and gravity. The 
plumbing in your house is divided into two different subsystems; one responsible for carrying 
freshwater in and the other for transporting wastewater out. The freshwater that enters your 
house is under pressure allowing it to travel upstairs, around corners etc. As water enters, a 
meter registers the amount you use. However if you want to use hot water another step is 
required since the water that enters is cold. A pipe from the main input carries the cold water 
to your water heater where it’s heated and transported via a hot water line to appliances.  
 
 
Unlike the supply system, the drainage system is not dependent on 
pressure and instead uses the principles of gravity. Waste matter 
leaves your house as all the drainage pipes bend at a certain angle; 
downwards. Gravity pulls the waste along and the waste line carries it 
to sewage plants or septic systems where the water is purified and 
again sent back to your homes via the supply system. However the 
drainage system is not that simple since it includes much more 
including vents, traps and clean outs. Traps are very essential to 
drainage systems. They’re S-shaped pipe bends beneath every sink 
which allow enough water to travel to the drainpipe but enough to stay to prevent the entry of 
sewer gas into your homes. 
 
Plumbing has however been further revolutionised by numerous innovations including low 
flush toilets, PVC pipelines instead of lead pipes and even facial recognition toilets! Consult 
this article​ for more on the recent innovations in plumbing. One notable innovation is the 
introduction of trenchless plumbing. In the past, if a pipeline was broken plumbers would have 
to dig an unsightly trench around the pipe to provide another route for the water. Not in 
today’s time though, due to the fact that now another sewer line can be snaked underground 
right through the existing pipeline. 
 
Plumbing has also met environmental conservation since many users in places where the 
quantity of water is dropping drastically are using greywater recycling systems. Most systems 
use water from showers, sinks, washing machines and dishwashers, which is relatively clean 
and contains very few pathogens. This water requires very little treatment before it can be 
reused for non-drinking purposes, like toilet flushing and lawn watering. Be sure to check out 
this link ​on more plumbing innovations. 

26 
 
When it comes to toilets, they aren’t very far behind in the world of innovations. Notable 
examples include the Neorest Nx2 which automatically opens as you approach, comes in with a 
built in seat heater and has a built in aerated cleanse that’ll clean you off. Just watching ​how 
this toilet works​ makes you feel extravagant. Read more on high tech toilets ​here​. 
 
Plumbing innovations aren’t the only advancements being made when it comes to bathrooms. 
Just consider how in China, tourist authorities have installed facial recognition toilet paper 
dispensers, which release 60 cm strips of paper towel for every user. Tourist Authorities at 
Beijing’s Temple of Heaven wanted to improve tourist facilities and were growing tired of the 
theft of over usage of toilet paper and hence this step was taken. Read more about it ​here​.  
 
As we continue to develop and rise in the field of plumbing combining it with luxury and 
technology it’s somewhat easy to forget the basic necessities that modern plumbing provides 
us with. Take the citizens of Moscow for instance, who in the summers completely run out of 
hot water. You might be thinking:why would you require hot water in the summers? Well, 
temperatures in Moscow can drop up to 12 degrees Celsius. Since Russians get their hot water 
from plants throughout the city, the pipelines need maintenance every summer leaving the 
people of Moscow deprived of hot water. However if you take into account areas like Northern 
Serbia where it’s too cold for even a flush toilet to work, the people of Moscow still have it 
easy. Read these articles for more information: 
https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/world/europe/21moscow.html 
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2266374/Oymyakon-coldest-village-earth-Temper
atures-drop-71-2C-locals-wear-glasses-freeze-faces-school-shuts-falls-52C.html 
 
 
Sometimes bugs and vermin invade our homes and 
workplaces, from Argentine ants to weasels and rats. Is 
there a way to ​build a wall​ to keep them out? Consider 
the pest control industry and the technologies that 
enable it. Discuss with your team: do we unfairly 
criticize traditional chemical pesticides for their impact 
on human health, or do they create an artificial world 
order centered on unhealthy and unsustainable food 
production? 

27 
 
The article discusses a photonic fence, a laser machine that kills insects. Its kill zone extends 30 
meters horizontally and 3 meters vertically, and is designed to fight against mosquitos, Asian 
citrus psyllids, and fruit flies. The device is supposedly eye-safe and invisible, and ought to 
make clean kills, delivering just enough heat to kill insects without wasting power. Thus, it 
would not significantly damage the environment in general (if not at all) and, in the long run, 
would be more cost efficient. 
 
Harmful insects evoke direct injury to plants by eating leaves or burrowing in stems, fruit, or 
roots, may transmit bacterial, viral, or fungal infections into a crop, and serve as vectors for a 
multitude of diseases. Chemical pesticides, substances that prevent, destroy, repel, or reduce 
the severity of pests, vary in toxicities.  
Food consumed by the public may have pesticide residues, water may be contaminated with 
pesticides, and these farmers that apply pesticides are exposed to high levels of such, with the 
dermal and inhalation routes of entry being common. People are not wrong to criticize these 
chemical weapons, as they can be spread through runoff, cause leeching, and additionally be 
spread through its volatilization.  
These pesticides are stored in our colon, where they slowly but surely poison the body. Even if 
a piece of fruit or vegetable is washed, traces of pesticides are likely to remain on it. Exposure 
to some pesticides can cause irritation of the eyes and skin, birth defects, ADHD, damage to 
the nervous system, cancer, and other symptoms. Thus, pesticides do in fact have a negative 
impact on human health and are unsustainable. 
 
SOURCES: 
https://www.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/why-we-use-pesticides 
https://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/chemicals-and-contaminants/pesticides 
http://croplifeindia.org/eight-benefits-of-pesticides/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

28 
 You are probably reading this outline on a device built on an assembly line. Consider the 
technologies that make mass production possible, from stainless steel to the conveyer belt. 
In the context of industry, what is a “prime mover”? Discuss with your team: do newer 
technologies make manufacturing jobs less “dirty” but also less valued? Or does modern 
society’s interest in manufactured products mean we respect those who manufacture them 
more than ever? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mass production refers to the manufacture of large amounts of standardized products, 
normally on an assembly line. Although today many are mechanized, assembly lines have 
always played a massive role in manufacturing with each person or machine performing a 
specific task and passing the product onto the next worker in the sequence. Perhaps the 
earliest example of a mechanized assembly line dates back to 1913, when Henry Ford 
introduced the first ever automated assembly line to manufacture automobiles.  
From stainless steel to conveyor belts, mass production has undergone massive development 
to increase the quantity and the quality of products that can me made. Stainless steel, an alloy 
composed of chromium and carbon, is widely known for being corrosion resistant which has 
lead to the material to be used in the manufacture of cutlery, cookware and surgical 
instruments. The question also refers to conveyor belts which have greatly eased the load of 
transporting materials around a factory. A motor keeps running until the load is on the belt, 
turning on and off according to whether the belt is empty or not. Read more on the conveyor 
belt ​here​. 
Over the course of the last few years, multiple innovations have eased the load of workers in 
factories making mass production even more efficient. Technologies such as 3D printing and 
nanotech have allowed factories to develop materials at ease lowering costs and increasing 
quality. Refer to the following articles for more: 

29 
 https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/devel
opment-mass-production-has-dramatic-impact-industry-and-society 
https://disruptionhub.com/5-technologies-factory-of-the-future/ 
https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielnewman/2017/08/08/top-5-digital-transformation-tren
ds-in-manufacturing/#28d8660d249f 
https://www.digitalistmag.com/executive-research/5-production-technologies-innovation-ec
onomy 
 
Newer technology is valued by workers to somewhat of an extent since it makes them more 
comfortable and it eases their job. Imagine a worker having to transport heavy loads across a 
factory by hand rather than by conveyor belt. However, the introduction of newer tech does 
lead to the fact that the jobs done by up to 10 people can now be done by a singular robot, 
creating technological unemployment. Consult this article for ​more​. We, however, don’t 
respect manufacturing jobs as much as we should simply think that the ‘machinery did all the 
work’. 
 
   

30 
Ennobling Technologies 

We have come a long way from Captain Hook. Take some time to consider each of the 
following “assistive” technologies and how it functions, whether by bending light or by 
limiting range of motion. Which has been around the longest, and which are evolving the 
most quickly? 

Prosthetics: 
Prosthetics are an artificial body part, first invented by Douglas Bly in 1858. Even before that, 
the earliest prosthetics replaced big toes and were found in Egypt. These are not limited to 
limbs, but are any part of your body which is artificial, including artificial hearts, organs, and 
other body parts. There are of course simple prosthetics that are just fake body parts, made of 
materials such as wood or plastics, but in the present day, prosthetics have evolved to include 
myoelectric and bionic prosthetics. Myoelectric prosthetics work because muscles generate 
small electrical signals when they contract, so the electrodes are placed on the skin’s surface, 
and these electrodes can measure muscle movement, which then are used to control the 
prosthetic limb. Bionics could be considered the most advanced, using merely thoughts to 
control additions to the body. It works because of electrical impulses from your brain which 
travel through your body to make a limb move, but they now reach a ‘dead end’ for where the 
limb was previously, and using ​targeted muscle reinnervation,​ the amputated nerves get 
reattached to a functioning muscle. The prosthetic is built to respond to the functioning 
muscles movement, creating a pathway between the brain signals and the new bionic limb. This 
could be the area which arguably evolves the quickest, due to the necessity of these products, 
and how important body parts are to us, and the potential we have in this field.  

Hearing Aids: 
These were first created as war trumpets in the 17th century, and are a device designed to 
make sound audible to someone with hearing loss. They receive sound through a microphone, 
and convert the sound waves to electrical signals. They send the signals to an amplifier, which 
increases the power of the signals and sends them to the ear via a speaker. There are two main 
types, analog (converts sound waves into signals), and digital (converts sound waves into a 
numeral code similar to binary before amplifying them). There are many ​types of hearing aids. 

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Walkers: 
These are one of the slowest evolving ennobling technologies, due to the fact that there isn’t 
much potential for it. They consist of simply a metal framework with 3 or more points of 
contact with the ground, and the contact us either rubber points or wheels (wheeled walkers 
are called rollators), and aim to help the elderly or disabled walk.  
 
Speech Recognition: 
This enables recognition and translation of spoken languages into text by computers, and is 
commonly used in everyday life in devices such as Siri. This field is fast developing, to try and 
make it as accurate and as helpful as possible, with more and more things speech recognition 
can do. It works by the PC Sound Card converting analog waves spoken into digital form, and 
the software breaks down the word into three phonemes, then puts phonemes into words in 
the dictionary. The software matches what they think the word spoken is and places it on 
screen.  

Eye Glasses: 
Glasses are lenses made of prisms that refract light and make it bend to go to the eye at the 
correct time, helping people who have trouble seeing. Convex lens are used for long 
sightedness, and they bend light toward the ends of the lense and push the focal point back to 
the retina (as being Long sighted means the image comes into focus after it hits the retina). 
Concave lens are used for short sightedness, and they spread light away from the center of the 
lens and move the focal point forwards (as short sightedness means that the image comes into 
focus too early). 
 
Sign Language to Speech Conversion: 
This translates sign language to speech, which is beneficial to the hearing impaired as it helps 
them communicate without the need of a translator. This can be through using an app with a 
user interface where you just use the camera, or ‘​deaf gloves​’, which people wear and it figures 
out what they are saying, though with ​not much success. 
 
Adaptive Eating Devices: 
These are devices ranging from utensils that have been adjusted slightly to high tech robotics 
that aid people with eating for whatever reason, whether it’s if they are children, the elderly, or 
have special needs. Browse ​this​ ​website​ to find some of these devices. Browse ​these​ ​websites 
to find out some of the more advanced adaptive eating devices. 

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Wheelchairs: 
The first record for a form of wheelchair was found in China dating between 5-6 BCE, and 
thousands of years later, the first wheelchair similar to the modern one we use today was 
invented by Henry Jennings in 1932, and it was the first folding, tubular, steel wheelchair. 
These aren’t really evolving quickly, though recently electric wheelchairs have been invented, 
so people don’t need someone to push them, they can get around and control where they go by 
themselves. Racing wheelchairs are also being adapted because they are generally quite 
uncomfortable, and to attract more people to do the sport, they are making adjustable seats 
that tip forward or backwards, so less pressure will be placed on the lower and upper body.  
 
Look at the origins of the “optophone” in the early 1900s—an optical character recognition 
technology that could “sound out” letters and numbers for the blind. If a similar device were 
developed for music, would it be more useful for entertainment or for education? What new 
applications might devices of this kind make possible? 
The ​Optophone ​was invented by Dr. 
Edmund Fournier d’Albe of 
Birmingham University in 1913, and 
it is the earliest known application 
of ​sonification​. It scanned test and 
converted them into audible 
outputs (time varying chords of 
tone) which could be interpreted by 
a blind person, if they learnt how. It 
used selenium photo sensors to 
detect black print and convert it 
into sound. The earliest demonstrations were in London in 1918 by Mary Jameson, with a rate 
of reading one word per minute, but later as she improved 40-60 words per minute. This was a 
key advancement in technologies which helped the disabled, because up until then you needed 
a book specially printed in Braille for a blind person to read, but with the invention of the 
Optophone you could take any text, which was good as not all texts were available in Braille, 
and make it possible for a blind person to interpret.  
 

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Consider technologies that allow us to track and improve our own health—from fitness 
bands and glucose monitors to stationary bicycles. Discuss with your team: is it possible for 
these health-enabling technologies to be too helpful—and, if so, in what ways? 
It’s common to see people wearing watches that track your steps, heart rate, and many other 
levels, but these technologies can be so enabling they become disabling. According to ​this 
article​, your Apple Watch or Fitbit can cause you to worry unnecessarily about your heart rate, 
and even with normal differences in pace on an hour to hour basis, it can cause people to rush 
to the doctor for actually no reason. Though of course it can be beneficial to some, it has 
caused many unnecessary visits to Doctors who are already dealing with too many patients. 
The NHS has had an ​increased number of visitors​ for heart ‘problems’ since fitbits were 
released to the market, and most of these problems aren’t even problems.  
 
It is even possible that these enabling technologies can cause Doctors and medical personnel 
to slack of their duties. According to ​this report, ​Doctors used a Fitbits data on a man’s heart 
rate to make the decision to shock him, which though could be seen as a positive thing that it is 
so helpful, due to the lack of perfect accuracy Doctors should definitely not be depending on 
these devices and should be using their own medical equipment instead, and not based on a 
simple watch. If this becomes a common thing, if mistakes are made by a Fitbit, there could be 
huge detriments to society, with Doctors partially neglecting their duties, and basing their 
work not off knowledge but off a watch, and could put lives at risk.  
 

Enabling technologies do more than help people overcome physical impediments; they can 
also address social and resource limitations. Could ​3D printing​ improve the living conditions 
of people without adequate access to housing in their communities, or does it face obstacles 
that this article overlooks? Could we one day unpack portable classrooms from our car 
trunks? Discuss with your team: what other applications can you imagine for 3D printing 
that might help those in need? Be sure to look at its use to create ​prosthetic limbs​ and even 
more comfortable ​helmets​. 
The first article talks about 3D printed houses, and how they’re faster to build and cost about 
$4,000. The only major issue, it claims is a lack of space in areas like slums, where housing is 
needed the most. Some other issues I ​googled​ basically boiled down to a lack of regulations on 
such projects, few engineers who work with this technology, and the very limited amount of 
materials that can be used (concrete and plastics).  
 

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Some issues I personally could see are that, you can only 3D print the actual physical house. 
The plumbing, electricity, gas and other amenities would still need to be arranged for in the 
traditional way (for now), and the design may not properly fit in with the availability of these 
facilities. 
 
The second article talks about how 3D printing has revolutionized the supply of prosthetic 
limbs to countries in Africa, emphasizing how Kenya needs about 40,000 more prosthetic 
technicians, and only 20% of those in need of prosthetics actually have them. The third explains 
how the Swiss Guard, which keep Vatican City secure also have 3D printed helmets now. 
Unpacking portable classrooms might seem a bit ridiculous in the traditional sense, and I do 
think the actual raw materials would still be required, so carrying around enough concrete for a 
room is ridiculous. If we switch raw materials, we can already carry huge tents. This is a very 
plausible possibility. 
 
Sometimes we choose ways in which to limit our own lifestyles, out of concern for health, 
religion, or the environment; sometimes those choices are made for us. Either way, a person 
might want something that would ordinarily be uncomfortable or out of bounds. A vegan 
might crave a burger; a left-handed person might benefit from a mouse in tune with their 
intuition. Explore the science and design of vegan meat substitutes and of “left-handed” 
products, then discuss with your team: should technology allow people to bypass limits that 
they choose for themselves? Why would it be controversial whether genetic engineering 
could produce ​kosher pork​? Should the government mandate that left-handed products ​cost 
the same​ as their right-handed counterparts? 
Vegan meat substitutes, for the most part, are just protein substitutes designed to imitate the 
taste of meat. Left-handed products are simply designed to benefit lefties.  
 
Technology absolutely should have the mandate to let people bypass their limits. Examples like 
kosher pork are self imposed limits, so they’re simply arbitrary changes supported by 
technology, but from hearing aids to prosthetics, imposing limits on technology’s mandate is 
strictly an ethical dilemma, and not one of capability. 
 
The reason Kosher Pork is controversial, is because the reasons pork isn’t kosher is debatable. 
Regardless of what a scripture entails, religions are open to interpretation for essentially every 
one of their followers. One explanation may clash with another, and cloned pork may not be 

35 
kosher for another school of thought. To claim a blanket statement like “cloned pork is kosher” 
can raise controversy within circles of the faithful who disagree. 
 
The government should not mandate that left-handed products cost the same as right-handed 
counterparts. To force suppliers to switch designs for social good is ineffective. Simple bans 
and rules rarely ever work. The government should encourage non-handed products where 
possible, and ensure that ​government provision​ is non-discriminatory. 
 
   

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Enabling Transactionologies 

If there ain’t no such thing as a free lunch, it might as well be easy to pay for. Recent years 
have seen the rise of new technologies for buying things—and for merchants to keep track of 
what they are selling. Consider technologies that “smooth out” financial transactions. 
Alternative checkout​ methods has been one of the noticeable trends in retail in the recent 
years. With customers’ increasing need for a speedy checkout and convenient methods for 
transaction, these methods for payment are becoming more and more attractive. Although 
debit and credit cards remain the most popular non-cash means of payment, others are also 
rising in popularity: from mobile payments, QR (short for Quick Response), ​scan-and-go​, to 
portable POS’s (such as the one offered by ​Shopify​). 

Merchants are also working to improve their technology to serve an increasing customer base, 
specifically in inventory management and sales. ​Barcode systems​, for example, are being used 
to manage the types and numbers of each product in stock. To manage and visualize sales, 
extensive use of spreadsheets and dashboards have been used extensively. This allows 
merchants to better develop strategies to achieve more impressive sales and maintain the 
business. 

How contactless credit cards work—or Apple Pay? 

In general, ​contactless credit cards​ utilize technologies to allow credit card holders to carry out 
transactions by letting the card come into close contact with a reader, without physically 
touching it. Built into each contactless credit card is an antenna that helps secure the 
transaction with the reader via RFID technology (short for Radio Frequency Identification). 
The credit card chip, which emits radio waves, communicates with the reader to complete and 
verify the transaction. 

Apple Pay, using ​near-field communication (NFC)​ technology, allows contactless transactions 
and eliminates the need for verification via credit card PIN (Personal Identification Number - a 
numerical code used by the credit card holder to verification purposes). With the special 
Secure Element​ chip built into Apple devices and additional safeguarding technologies such as 
tokenization​, users can add their cards and use Apple Pay in lieu of physical credit cards. 

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In some parts of the world, people even pay for things with QR codes. Where is this practice 
most common, and why? 
The practice is most common in ​countries like Japan and China​, where top companies have 
integrated transaction capabilities into QR codes: now, simply through scanning a QR code, an 
user will be able to make a payment. This popularity can be explained by ​the ease of access​ that 
these QR codes can provide, given that the WeChat platform has a QR code reader built in, for 
example. The ​affordability ​of creating QR codes and managing them is also an attractive factor 
for businesses in choosing QR codes as their preferred method for payment. This triggers a 
feedback loop: as companies using QR gain a greater share of the market and their services 
become more widespread, QR will gain more popularity. 

Be sure to explore how each of the following works: 

● Near-field communication​: a short-range wireless connectivity standard that allows 

devices to communicate through the exchange of electromagnetic waves within a 
certain radius (around 3 - 4 centimeters). 

● Payment terminals​: also called a Point of Sale (POS) terminal, this refers to the device 
that communicates with payment cards in order to carry out non-cash transfers. 
Payment terminals are often connected to a larger system to help merchants manage 
the transactions. 

● Captchas​: A test in order to distinguish between human and automated input through 
asking the user to solve a puzzle, answer a question, or to enter text from a distorted 
image before allowing access to the destination page. 

● EFTPOS​: Abbreviation for Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale, this refers to the 
process of transferring funds (making transactions) using a bank or credit card. 
Through this method, the funds from the buyer’s bank account is wired directly to the 
beneficiary’s bank account. 

● QR codes: The method of transaction in which scanning a QR code (short 

for Quick Response) ​redirects an user to a webpage to complete their 
transaction​. The QR code can be processed by the device’s integrated 
camera. ​Han Xin​ code, BharatQR, and Masterpass are among the various 
QR-code-based technologies on the market. 

● Chip and pin​: Commonly seen in credit or debit cards, the chip-and-pin card 
features a special, SIM-like pattern, which contains a Personal 
Identification Number (PIN) with other personal information. After swiping 
the card, the cardholder would need to input a four- or six-digit PIN to 

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 validate the transaction. This helps prevent fraudulent and unauthorized transactions. 

● Magstripe​: Information about the card and its holder is stored on the magnetic iron 
particles on the card’s stripe. To read this information and complete the transaction, 
the cardholder would swipe the card through a reading head. This method is rather 
precarious, and therefore has largely been discontinued, due to the possibility of ​being 
illegally replicated for malicious use​. 

● Contactless payments​: methods of payment that do not require physical proof of cards 
or money, but use communicative technologies described above to implement, 
complete, and verify transactions. 
 
Some  argue  that  lack  of  access  to  the  technologies  of  the  modern  financial  system  are  one 
obstacle  to  people  finding  their  way  out  of  poor  communities.  Discuss  with  your  team: 
should  the  government  provide  every  vendor  with  a  credit  card  reader?  Should  all  cash  be 
made  “smart”  so  that  it  knows  who  owns  it—reducing the value of theft in hopes of reducing 
street crime in struggling communities? 
There  is  the  possibility  that  we  could  live  in  a  futuristic,  ​cashless  society​.  However,  many 
believe  that  the  use  of  cash  will  continue  to  prevail.  In  most  countries  across  the  world,  cash 
payments  still  account  for  the  overwhelming  majority  of  consumer  transactions.  For  further 
reading, refer to this site:​ ​https://www.beuc.eu/blog/why-digital-cant-replace-cash/ 
 
   

39 
Concluding Questions & Additional Areas of Inquiry 

CONCLUDING QUESTIONS: 

The television show Revolution posited a world in which electricity stopped working. Discuss with 
your team: how much would this dramatic development change your life? 
This development would distinctly impact our lives. The loss of wifi and daily appliances would 
be a detriment to one’s efficiency and ability work, as files would not be able to be accessed, 
and as people would have to severely alter their daily routines to adapt to situations. 
Furthermore, many lives would be put in danger due to the loss of life-support for critical 
patients, and forms of electrical aid, such as pacemakers for cardiac patients and heating 
during winter, would be lost. The global economy would also struggle to continue on, as means 
of mass production through machinery would be down along with companies that control them 
and the distribution of goods. Global chaos would likely ensue. However, it must be noted that 
humanity has an inherent ability to adapt to situations. Our world’s governments, 
organizations, and multitude of private companies would immediately respond to this situation 
and help people handle this sudden change. We would simply need to resort to more 
traditional methods of production. 

Is easy access to Google making us worse at remembering things? Is Google Maps making us less 
able to get around on our own? Discuss with your team: when does the application of technology 
become dependence on technology—and is dependence necessarily bad? 
Google maps may in fact be lessening our ability to get around. The neurons in our brains are 
fluid and flexible, relying on constant usage to remain functional. The presence of Google, 
which stores “unlimited” information, reduces our need to remember things, and thus also 
takes away our ability to do so. Now there is less need for spatial memory, particularly for 
places we visit less. University of Pennsylvania neuroscientist Russell Epstein, a leading spatial 
cognition researcher, noted in his research that followers of cue-based routes have more 
active caudates than mappers do.Read more on caudates ​here​. He delineates our hippocampi, 
which stores these memories and neurological routes, may in fact shrink as we rely more on 
technologies, such as google maps as mentioned here, and people with smaller hippocampi 
stand at greater risk of memory loss, Alzheimer’s, dementia, depression, schizophrenia, and 
post-traumatic stress disorder.  

40 
 The application of technology becomes dependence when we struggle to survive without it. In 
a sense, technology is no longer an utility, and instead an addiction that manifests in human 
society, stripping away our abilities and sense of independence. A reliance on technology is 
detrimental, as there is a chance that we could end up without technology and electricity, and 
the fact that we cannot survive without such would serve as a danger to our wellbeing under 
these aforementioned circumstances. 
 
Read more: ​https://www.wired.com/2011/07/is-google-ruining-your-memory/ 
 
Consider enabling technologies first introduced in works of fiction, such as medical tricorders, Babel 
fish, robot servants, and the hoverboard. Is any explanation given for they work? Are we developing 
anything like them in the real world—and, if so, what is the science behind them? Should fans of 
their imagined versions brace themselves for disappointment? 
Fiction has introduced us to several enabling technologies and many have tried to recreate 
them, unfortunately with most of them ending up in flames.  
 
Medical tricorders were first introduced in Star Trek where Dr.McCoy used 
them to examine patients. Tricorders are handheld devices which diagnose the 
user’s medical conditions and take basic medical conditions in a matter of 
seconds. Reports suggest that such a device is in the making by scientists but the 
Food and Drug Administration of the USA is greatly opposed to such an idea. 
Qualcomm launched a competition in 2012 for scientists to create such a device 
in order to win ten million USD. It should be able to diagnose 15 conditions and 
30 people in 3 days. Till now, no one has claimed the prize. There are reports that medical 
tricorders may emerge from "diagnostic medical apps" like Liftpulse and iSeismograph. Read 
more on tricorders ​here​. 
 
Found in the Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, Babel fish are yellow and 
leech like. They act like universal translators and if you stick one in your 
ear, you can understand anything said to you in any form of language. As 
said in the series: “ It feeds on brain wave energy, absorbing all unconscious 
frequencies and then excreting telepathically a matrix formed from the 
conscious frequencies and nerve signals picked up from the speech centres 
of the brain.” Similar to these creatures, Yahoo has launched a multilingual translator app 
called Yahoo! Babel Fish.  

41 
 
Popularised by the Back to the Future movie series, the 
hoverboard is a levitating transportation device that 
allows users to float mid-air. Guinness World Records 
recognizes the term hoverboard to include 
autonomously powered personal levitators. In May 
2015, the Romania-born Canadian inventor Cătălin 
Alexandru Duru set a Guinness World Record by travelling a distance of 275.9 m (302 yd) at 
heights up to 5 m (16 ft) over a lake, on an autonomously powered hoverboard of his own 
design.On April 30, 2016, Guinness World Records recognized a new record of 2,252.4 m. The 
Flyboard Air was powered by jet engine propulsion, and its use allowed Franky Zapata, in 
Sausset-les-Pins, France to beat the previous record by nearly 2 km.[Another method of 
achieving self-levitation is superconductivity, used by the Slide hoverboard.In October 2014, 
American inventor Greg Henderson demonstrated a prototype hoverboard working on a 
magnetic levitation​ principle. Similar to maglev trains, the hoverboard requires a surface of 
non-​ferromagnetic​ metal such as copper or aluminum to function, carrying up to 140 kg (300 
lb) while hovering 2.5 cm (1 in) above the surface. 
 
When students at the University of Canada released a video of a robot they called PR2 doing 
household chores, it captivated everyone. Although robot toys and vacuum cleaners are now 
common in households, we have yet to develop a fully automatic robot servant. Scientists 
believe with innovations in processors,sensors and open code software we aren’t that far 
away. But people may seem reluctant to keep robot servant. Read up on these articles for 
more:  
https://spectrum.ieee.org/robotics/home-robots/so-where-are-my-robot-servants 
https://www.inverse.com/article/46357-3-reason-why-americans-are-reluctant-about-robot-
servants 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

42 
 Today, someone writing a screenplay can use screenwriting software to ensure they follow the right 
template and approach. Such technologies have seemingly transformed the creative process; it was 
not long ago that a writer working on the second draft of a novel would need to retype it from 
scratch, instead of opening a DOCX file and moving words around. It was not long before that that 
there were no typewriters with which to type that novel in the first place. Discuss with your team: 
have technologies allowed us to be more creative? How do you foresee their impact in the 
future—will every artist use a drawing pad, or will computers take over the creation of art 
altogether? 
 
Screenwriting softwares are word 
processors which specialise in typing up 
screenplays. Compared to normal word 
processors, screenwriting software fulfils 
the need which arises from the 
peculiarities of screenwriting including the 
standard screenwriting format which is not 
handled well by normal word processors. 
Screenwiritng softwares provide you with 
easier shortcuts and tools to type up 
character names, include page breaks and other tools to help facilitate your creativity. 
Applications like Celtx and Sophocles also come with schedule and budget features. Thus, such 
technologies do help put creative ideas on paper much easier by providing us with the tools to 
do so. The time taken for writing up a draft and then editing and rewriting it is also cut short, 
which allows for writers to be more productive and efficient.  
 
Read ​this article​ about AI creating art and whether or not people consider it to be actual art. 
Will people continue to draw and write and act, or will computers truly take over art? 
Although they might assist in bringing ideas of life, computers taking over art can’t be ruled 
out. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

43 
 Consider internationalization (referred to as i18n) and localization in software development. What 
kinds of factors do they need to take into account? What are some other ways developers can take 
to ensure their tools are accessible by a wider range of people? Discuss with your team: should all 
websites and online services be required to exist in multiple languages and with modifications to 
account for different cultural norms in different societies? 
 
Internationalization generally means the act of making something international. Software 
internationalization refers to the coding, design 
and development of a program that enables easy 
localization for target audiences that vary in 
culture, religion or language. Easily put, 
internationalization is designing software in such 
a way that it can be translated into a variety of 
languages for a target locale. Read more on 
internationalization and what entails it ​here​. 
Developers have been working on multiple tools 
to help every person have access and easily use 
the web. Check out ​this article​ on tools that have been introduced to help people with 
disabilities use the internet. Websites should be catering to a wide range of people with 
different languages and cultures. Google Translate can only do so much, and developing 
modifications to website would allow for a greater audience to access webpages more easily 
and be generally satisfied with what the website has to offer. However, it would be 
unreasonable if a website targeting a local audience with a local language is expected to cater 
outside of its target community. Read more on this ​here​. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

44 
Spend some time learning about the technologies that enable learning—from the archaic abacus 
and slide rule to newer devices that some schools are phasing out while others struggle to obtain 
them at all, such as overhead projectors and whiteboards. How do automated response systems 
(“clickers”) work, and how can they be used in non-competitive classroom settings? Of course, the 
earliest “automated answers” were in paper form, through scannable sheets popularized by 
companies such as Scantron beginning in the 1970s. Discuss with your team: in what ways are tests 
that are easier to score good for students and teachers? Do such systems have any downsides for 
teachers or students—and in what ways are they vulnerable to exploitation? 
An audience response system serves as an easy way to collect responses from multiple people 
instantly. 
It is a mix of hardware and software that allows users to submit votes on a handheld keypad, 
and the results are then compiled and then displayed instantly. Benefits include fast and 
accurate data gathering, audience engagement, and such can be an extremely valuable way to 
gather feedback as it allows for entirely anonymous responses that are not led by the crowd. 
Scantron test forms, now common in modern day classrooms, are a form of Optical Mark 
Recognition (OMR). This technique was devised in the mid-19th century, first appearing in the 
form of punch tape used for communicating data via telegraph is an early version of OMR 
technology. The Scantron Corporation started selling their products, mainly scantron 
machines themselves, to schools and university departments for low prices in the 1970s, 
planning to make a profit by selling the OMR sheets necessary to take the tests. Benefits of 
scantrons include making grading considerably faster for a teacher, and such enables students 
to also receive feedback faster. They also make standardized assessments like the ACT, SAT, 
and MCAT possible, as hundreds of thousands of students take these exams annually.  
However, such mandates that tests be in multiple choice format, which may not be accurate in 
terms of determining a student’s ability as luck plays a major factor. Furthermore, this 
technology is also vulnerable to exploitation as those submitting the scantron forms would be 
able to easily change the students’ answers, either by accident or on purpose. Most automated 
response systems also have loopholes and programming that can be hacked. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

45 
Can the same technology that enables one group disable another? 
Consider such technologies to be dis-enabling and although not much can be found on this, 
certain technologies have brought upon themselves much criticism for hampering the progress 
of certain groups of people. For instance, CAPTCHAs received many criticisms, especially from 
people with disabilities, but also from other people who feel that their everyday work is slowed 
down by distorted words that are difficult to read. It takes the average person approximately 
10 seconds to solve a typical CAPTCHA. You may also use ​this article​ on web accessibility as 
another example. 

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