Robotics Compiled - 21 Apr

Mechanisms and Robotics
DE ZG561
BITS Pilani Lecture -1
Pilani Campus
Module 1. Fundamentals of
Robot Technology
 Introduction
 Automation and Robotics
 Robotics in Science Fiction
 Progressive Advancement
 The Robotics trends and the future prospects
 Robot Anatomy
 Links, Joints and Joint Notation scheme
 Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
 Required DOF in a Manipulator
 Arm Configuration
 Wrist Configuration
 The End-Effector (EE)
 Human arm characteristics
 Precision of Movement
 Robot specification
22 April 2019 DE ZG561, MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS 2
Introduction to Automation
 Mass production assembly lines were introduced in 1905 by
Ford Motor Company.
 Specialized machines were designed to manufacture for high
volume production of mechanical and electrical parts.
 When production cycle ends and new models of parts are
introduced, production machines have to be shut down and
the hardware retooled.
 Since periodic modification of the production hardware is
required, this type of automation is called Hard Automation.
 When programmable mechanical systems are used to
perform manufacturing tasks, new components can be made
just by changing the program in the machine, This type of
automation is called Soft Automation.
Introduction
 Flexible automation is an extension of programmable
automation.
 A flexible automated system is capable of producing a
variety of parts or products with virtually no time lost for
changeovers from one part style to the next.
 Industrial robots are good examples of flexible
manufacturing systems (Flexible automation).
 Using robots in actual manufacturing platforms is,
therefore, a decision to improve flexibility and to increase
the agility of the manufacturing process.

Use of the word Robot
 The word ''robot comes from the
Czech word ''robota'' which means
tireless work. It was first used in 1921
by the novelist Karel Capek in his
novel ''Rossum‘s Universal Robots".
 The fantasy associated with robotics

offered by science fiction movies, and
printed and animated cartoons is so
far from reality that actual industrial
robots seem primitive.
A robot from Karel Capek's novel

Source: INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS PROGRAMMING,
J. Norberto Pires ''Rossum 's Universal Robots
Robotics in Science Fiction
Gort from the movie The

Robot in The Terminator
day the earth stood still.
Source: www.jeffbots.com
C-3PO and R2-D2 Robots

from Star wars
Source: www.smithsonianmag.com
Industrial Robots
Material handling,
plasma cutting,
spot welding, and
 resistance welding The slim design of the Panasonic VR-5
are all done with ease by the six axis AII robot makes it the perfect solution
Panasonic VR-120HII. This high performance for compact work areas. This robot
robot is controlled by the easy to use model is typically outfitted for MIG
Panasonic robot controller. welding or material handling tasks.
Automation and Robotics
 Robotics Institute of America defines a robot as a
“reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to
move material, parts or specialized devices through
variable programmable motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks”.
 A Robot is a software-controllable mechanical device that
uses sensors to guide or more end-effectors through
programmed motions in a workspace in order to
manipulate physical objects.
 Contrary to popular notions about robots in science fiction
literature, today’s industrial robots are not Androids built to
impersonate humans but most are anthropomorphic in the
sense they are patterned after the human arm.
Industrial Applications
Robots Performing Spray Painting

Robots Performing Arc Welding

Spot Welding Robots

Medical Applications
Robotic system called Da Vinci, used for heart surgery, programmed to
follow the surgeon’s hand movements accurately without any tremors.
Medical Robot Robot Performing Surgery

Search and Rescue Applications
A robot picking a suitcase from a car

Image Source: https://newatlas.com/
Pacbot – A Robot for military application
Source: www.army-technology.com
A robot used for disposing

explosive ordnance
https://www.qinetiq.com

Search and Rescue Applications

Industrial Robot - History
 The Unimate was the very first industrial robot.
 Conceived from a design for a mechanical arm patented
in 1954 (granted in 1961) by American inventor George
Devol
 The Unimate was developed as a result of the foresight
and business acumen of Joseph Engelberger - the
Father of Robotics.
 In 1961 Engelberger established Unimation, Inc., a
Condec Corp. company in Danbury, Connecticut, to
develop the business in the newly established robotics
industry he created.

Unimation Inc founded by

George C. Devol along with
Engel Berger J in 1956
manufactured Programmable
Universal Machine for
Assembly (PUMA robot).
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 First industrial produced by Unimate was installed in
General Motors, USA in 1961.

A compact and computer-

controlled robot for
 high speed,
 close-tolerance assembly,
 light materials handling, and
 inspection applications.

Industrial Robot
The Tomorrow Tool (T3 robot) manufactured by Cincinnati
Milacron Inc. is (shown in figure).
T3 robot is an articulated six axis robot.
CINCINNATI MILACRON T3-776

The Robotics trends and
the future prospects
 Public Security / Military
 Healthcare
 Coworkers
 Robots at Home
 Robots in Education
 Entertainment

The Robotics trends and
the future prospects
 Complex mechanical hands with fingers attached to a
robot.

Coordinate Systems
• Cartesian

Coordinate Systems
• Cylindrical

Coordinate Systems
• Spherical

Robot Anatomy
Arm
• Study of the physical construction of Wrist
a Robot.
Shoulde
• The Manipulator consists of Rigid r
links and Joints.
Elbow
• A Joint provides relative motion
between two links. Manipulator
Wrist
Elbow
Shoulder
or
Base
Hand End Effector
Mechanism Basics
 Mechanisms consist of connected parts with the objective of
transferring motion and force from a power source to an
output.
 One part is designated the frame because it serves as the
frame of reference for the motion of all other parts. The frame
is typically a part that exhibits no motion.
 Links are the individual parts of the mechanism. They are
considered rigid bodies and are connected with other links to
transmit motion and forces

Joints
 Links in a mechanism are connected
using joints.
 The joints can be of the following types
 Pin Joint
 Sliding Joint
Source: Machines and Mechanisms, Applied Kinematic Analysis (Fourth Edition) – David H. Myszka

Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of freedom is often used to describe the

number of directions that a robot can pivot or
move a joint.
Lecture 5 DE ZG/ES ZG561 Mechanisms and Robotics BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
Degrees of Freedom
 Consider an open kinematic chain as shown below.
J2
L2
L1
J1
 Link-1 is connected to the ground link-0 by a revolute

joint.

Degrees of Freedom
 Hence link-1 can rotate about joint-1 w.r.t. ground link

and contributes one degree of freedom.
 Similarly link-2 can rotate about joint-2 w.r.t. link-1.
 Or link-2 has one degree of freedom w.r.t. link-1.
 Therefore this open loop chain has as many degrees of

freedom (DOF) as the number of joints in the chain, as
each joint is of one DOF.
 Variable defining the motion of a link at a joint is called a

joint-link variable.
Degrees of Freedom
 Thus in an n-DOF robotic manipulator n joints are used

and n independent joint-link variables are required to
completely specify the position and orientation of the each
link.
 Hence for example B
L2
in case of two DOF
L1 C
manipulator shown in
figure two joint-link
variables are A
required to define the
position and
orientation of the end
point C.
Links, Joints and Joint Notation
Scheme
Types of Robot Joints
Type Notation Symbol Description
Revolute R Rotary motion about an axis
Prismatic P Linear motion along an axis

Pin Joint

Prismatic Joint

Further classification of
revolute Joints
prismatic joint L
revolute joint R
rotary joint V
twist joint T
Human Arm Characteristics
Required Degrees of Freedom
• For moving objects placed on a line or a circle  1 dof
• For moving objects anywhere on a flat surface  2 dof
• Picking objects anywhere on a 3D space  3 dof
• Reaching in to complex profiles  > 3 dof

Arm Configurations
S. Configuration Joints
No.
1. Cartesian (3 Linear joints)
2. Cylindrical (2 Linear joints, 1 Rotary Joint)
3. Polar (Spherical) (1 Linear joint, 2 Rotary joints)
4. Articulated (jointed arm) (3 Rotary Joints)

Robot Configurations
• Cartesian

• Cylindrical

• Spherical

• SCARA (Selective compliance assembly robotic arm)

• A variation of the cylindrical configuration involving,
1 linear joint and 2 rotary joints

Wrist Movements

Robot Specifications
• Drive System
– Electrical
– Hydraulic
– Pneumatic
• Speed of Motion
• Load-Carrying Capacity (Pay – Load)
• Control Systems
• Precision of Movement
– Spatial Resolution
– Accuracy
– Repeatability
• Compliance
• Work Volume
Drive System
1. Hydraulic drive: gives a robot great speed and strength.
These systems can be designed to actuate linear or
rotational joints. The main disadvantage of a hydraulic
system is that it occupies floor space in addition to that
required by the robot.
2. Electric drive: compared with a hydraulic system, an electric
system provides a robot with less speed and strength.
Accordingly, electric drive systems are adopted for smaller
robots. However, robots supported by electric drive systems
are more accurate, exhibit better repeatability, and are
cleaner to use.
3. Pneumatic drive: are generally used for smaller robots.
These robots, with fewer degrees of freedom, carry out
simple pick-and-place material handling operations.
Robot Sensors
1. Position sensors: are used to monitor the position of joints. Information
about the position is fed back to the control systems that are used to
determine the accuracy of joint movements.
2. Range sensors: measure distances from the reference point to other
points of importance. Range sensing is accomplished by means of
television cameras or sonar transmitters and receivers.
3. Velocity sensors: are used to estimate the speed with which a
manipulator is moved. The velocity is an important part of dynamic
performance of the manipulator. Variations in acceleration during the
movements between points give rise to the dynamic nature of the
manipulator. Inertial forces due to changes in acceleration, damping
forces due to changes in velocity, and spring forces due to elongation in
the links caused by gravity and the weights carried should be monitored
and controlled to fine-tune the dynamic performance of the manipulator.
4. Proximity sensor: are used to sense and indicate the presence of an
object within a specified distance or space without any physical contact.
THANK YOU
The presenter is grateful to the following text books and their authors for
preparation of teaching aids for students.
Machines and Mechanisms, Applied Kinematic Analysis (Fourth Edition) –

David H. Myszka
Industrial Robotics - Mikell P. Groover
Fundamentals of Robotics – Robert Schilling

Mechanisms and Robotics
DE ZG561
BITS Pilani Lecture -2
Pilani Campus
Fundamentals of Robot Technology
Robot Anatomy
 Links, Joints and Joint Notation scheme
 Degrees of Freedom (DOF)
 Required DOF in a Manipulator
 Arm Configuration
 Wrist Configuration
 Design & Control issues
 Precision of Movement
 Manipulation & Control
 Robotics sensors
 Robot specification
 Robot programming & work cell control
 The End-effector (EE)
 Bio-mimic robots

Cartesian Configuration

Cylindrical Configuration

Polar Configuration

Jointed Arm Configuration

Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of freedom is often used to describe the

number of directions that a robot can pivot or
move a joint.
Links, Joints and Joint Notation
Scheme
Type Notation Symbol Description
Revolute R Rotary motion about an axis
Prismatic P Linear motion along an axis

Further classification of
revolute Joints
prismatic joint
or L
Linear
Revolute or R
Rotational joint
Revolving joint V
twisting joint T
Joint Notation Scheme
• For moving objects placed on a line or a circle  1 dof
• For moving objects anywhere on a flat surface  2 dof
• Picking objects anywhere on a 3D space  3 dof
• Reaching in to complex profiles  > 3 dof







Wrist Configurations
 Arm configurations carry and position the wrist, the
second major part of a Manipulator, Wrist is attached to the
end point of the arm
 Wrist subassembly enables the manipulator to orient the

end-effector to perform the desired task properly.
 The end effector, if gripper, must be oriented at an

appropriate angle to pick and grasp a work piece.

 For an arbitrary orientation of wrist in 3-D space, the wrist
must possess at least 3-DOF.
 This 3-DOF gives three rotations about the three principal

axes.
 Less than 3-DOF wrists are also used depending on the

requirement.
 Wrist must be compact and at the same time must not

affect the performance of the arm.
Two Axis Wrist (RT) Two Axis Wrist (TR)
Three Axis Wrist (TRT)
 Wrist with Roll, Pitch and Yaw motions is shown below.

Design and Control Issues
• Robots require higher mobility and
dexterity than conventional machine
tools.
• The mechanical structure of a robot
consists of rigid cantilever beams
connected by hinged joints.
• This is inherently poor in stiffness,
accuracy and load carrying capacity.

Design and Control Issues
• The errors accumulate
because the joints are in
series.
• The position and motion of
each joint is affected by the
position and motion of other
joints.
• The weight and inertial load
of each link is carried by the
previous link and the links
undergo rotary and linear
motion, making centrifugal
and Coriolis accelerations
significant.

Manipulation and Control
• In the analysis of spatial mechanisms (manipulators), the location of links,

joints and end effector in 3-D space is continuously required.
• These need to be calculated using mathematical methods.
• To describe the position and orientation of a body in space a frame or a
coordinate system is attached to the body
• The position and orientation of this frame with respect to a reference
frame, mathematically describes the location of the body.

Robot Specifications
• Drive System
– Electrical
– Hydraulic
– Pneumatic
• Speed of Motion
• Load-Carrying Capacity (Pay – Load)
• Control Systems
• Precision of Movement
– Spatial Resolution
– Accuracy
– Repeatability
• Work Volume

Spatial Resolution, Accuracy, Precision



Drive System
1. Hydraulic drive: gives a robot great speed and strength.
These systems can be designed to actuate linear or
rotational joints. The main disadvantage of a hydraulic
system is that it occupies floor space in addition to that
required by the robot.
2. Electric drive: compared with a hydraulic system, an electric
system provides a robot with less speed and strength.
Accordingly, electric drive systems are adopted for smaller
robots. However, robots supported by electric drive systems
are more accurate, exhibit better repeatability, and are
cleaner to use.
3. Pneumatic drive: are generally used for smaller robots.
These robots, with fewer degrees of freedom, carry out
simple pick-and-place material handling operations.
Speed of Motion
• Maximum speed of 500 degrees/second can be
achieved.
• Highest speed can be achieved by large robots
with arm extended fully.
• Hydraulic robots tend to be faster than electric drive
robots.
• Robots with electric drives have better control.
• Selection of the most desirable speed also
depends on
– Accuracy of positioning of the object
– Weight of the object to be handled
– Distances to be moved.

Load Carrying Capacity
1. The load the robot can carry at its weakest position without
including the weight of the end effector, while maintaining
its specified accuracy.
2. Effective/Net load carrying Capacity =

(Load carrying capacity – weight of the end effector)@ the
weakest position

Robot Controls and Programming
1. Limited-Sequence Robots (No Feedback)
2. Play back robots with point-to-point control
3. Play back robots with continuous path control
4. Intelligent Robots
Robot Programming
1. Lead-through Programming
2. Textual Language Programming
Teach Pendant
THE END-EFFECRTOR
 The end-effector is external to the manipulator and its DOF

is not counted while defining the DOF of the Manipulator.
 This is because the DOF of the end-effector do not

contribute to the Manipulatability of the Robot.
 Different types of end-effectors are attached to the end of

the wrist depending on the task to be completed.

End Effectors
 End-effectors are classified into two basic groups.
 Grippers
 Tools.
 Grippers are end-effectors used to grasp or hold the

work piece during the work cycle.

End Effectors
Grippers
 Mechanical Gripper
 Vacuum
 Magnetic
 Adhesive devices
 Simple Mechanical devices
 Dual Grippers
 Grippers with interchangeable fingers
 Grippers with sensory feedback fingers
 Multi-fingered grippers

End Effectors
Type Features
 Mechanical Gripper One or more fingers actuated by the robot
controller that grip the part
Vacuum Suction cups used to hold flat parts with a
smooth surface
Magnetic Electro or permanent magnets employed
to lift ferrous parts.
Adhesive devices Adhesive substances used to lift light and
flexible materials.
Simple Mechanical Hooks and Scoops
devices

End Effectors – Mechanical
Grippers
Linkage Type Mechanical Gripper
Cam Operated Gripper
Mechanical Gripper
End Effectors – Mechanical
Grippers
• Two fingered
Angular Gripper
Two-Fingered Parallel Gripper
External & Internal
End Effectors - Vacuum
Vacuum Gripper

End Effectors - Magnetic

End Effectors Multi-Fingered
Robotiq Gripper,
Barrett Hand Canada
USA
Lacquey
Fetch Gripper,
Netherlands
End Effectors - Multi-fingered
Multi-fingered Gripper
Source: Robotiq Inc, Adaptive Gripper instruction manual

End Effectors - Tools
 For many tasks of the manipulator, the end-effector is a
tool rather than a gripper.
 Cutting tool, drill bit, screwdriver, welding torch, Spray

gun, wrench are a few examples.
 The tool is directly attached to the end of the wrist.
 A gripper may be used to hold the tool instead of the

work piece.

Biorobotics and Humanoid Robotics
• Bio-robotics is historically connected to service robotics.
• Their task is to help humans in diverse activities such as
house cleaning to carryout a surgery.
• Assisting the disabled
• Playing a piano etc.
The ultimate objective of researchers is to produce a

humanoid robot.
• The humanoid robots should
– communicate with other robots and humans
– facilitate robot programming
– Learn from experience
– Adapt to different tasks, environments and places
Challenges in Bio-robotics and humanoid robotics
• Research in anthropomorphic robotics has advanced to
the development of anthropomorphic components like
– Visual and tactile sensors
– Anthropomorphic actuators
• Replicating the functionality of the human brain is one of
the hardest challenges in bio-robotics.

THANK YOU
The presenter is grateful to the following text books and their authors for
preparation of teaching aids for students.
Machines and Mechanisms, Applied Kinematic Analysis (Fourth Edition) –

David H. Myszka
Industrial Robotics - Mikell P. Groover
Fundamentals of Robotics – Robert Schilling

DE ZG/ES ZG561
Mechanisms & Robotics
BITS Pilani Dr. Y V. D. Rao
Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG561
Anatomy of Robots
Anatomy of Robots
 General mechanical structure of a robot is like the

skeleton of human body.
 Thus robot anatomy is study of physical construction of

structure the robotic.
 Mechanical structure of a robot consists of links, which

are rigid links connected by joints.
 This segment of links connected by joints ensures

mobility and reachability and is termed as arm of the
robot.
 Another segment that confers proper orientation to end
element called end-effector is termed as the wrist.
 End effector performs the desired task of the robot.
 Most of the manipulators are mounted on a base

fastened to the floor or on a mobile platform called
Autonomous Guided Vehicle (AGV).
 A typical arrange of these four basic elements are shown

in figure below.

Endeffector
Base
Work
piece
Mechanical Structure of a Manipulator

 Mechanical structure of a robot is a mechanism, with
rigid links as links.
 All the links in a robot are binary links.
 A link that is connected to only two other links is a

binary link.
 Two links in a robot are connected together by a joint.
 Many types of joints are possible to join two links.
 However, only two basic types are commonly used in

industrial robots.
 They are Revolute (R) and Prismatic (P) joints.
 At a joint between two links relative motion is possible.
 The relative motion at a revolute joint is of rotation.
 Revolute joints are also known as pin joints or rotary

joints.
 In the second type of joint, prismatic joint, relative

motion is of sliding or linear motion.
 Screw and nut & rack and pinion are used to form a
prismatic joint.
 Other variants of revolute joints are rotary and twist
joints as shown.
 Both of these joints are of one degree of freedom joints.
 Kinematic chain of a robotic manipulator is

characterized by degree of freedom and space swept by
the end effector.

symbol for prismatic and revolute joints are
shown in figure below.
prismatic joint
revolute joint
rotary joint
twist joint
Degree Of Freedom
 Number of independent motions a body can perform in

3-D space is called Degree of Freedom (DOF).
 A rigid body in space has six DOF, three for position and
three for orientation.
 In 2-D two translations and one rotation identify the DOF.
 Consider an open kinematic chain with two links with
two revolute joints as shown.
J2
L2
L1
J1
 Link-1 is connected to the ground link-0 by a revolute

joint.

 Hence link-1 can rotate about joint-1 w.r.t. ground link
and contributes one degree of freedom.
 Similarly link-2 can rotate about joint-2 w.r.t. link-1.
 Or link-2 has one degree of freedom w.r.t. link-1.
 Therefore this open loop chain has as many degrees of

freedom (DOF) as the number of joints in the chain, as
each joint is of one DOF.
 Variable defining the motion of a link at a joint is called a

joint-link variable.
 Thus in an n-DOF robotic manipulator n joints are used
and n independent joint-link variables are required to
completely specify the position and orientation of the each
link.
 Hence for example B
L2
in case of two DOF
L1 C
manipulator shown in
figure two joint-link
variables are A
required to define the
position and
orientation of the end
point C.
 To position and orient a body freely in 3-D space, a
manipulator with 6-DOF is required.
 Such a manipulator is called a spatial manipulator.
 It has three joints for positioning and three joints for

orienting the end-effector.
 A manipulator with DOF less than six has constrained

motion in 3-D space.
 In some of the cases the desired job is done using five

or even four DOF (Joints).
 Many Industrial robots have DOF five and less than five.
 A planar robot can only sweep in 2-D plane and can

have any DOF.
 A planar robot with three joints can sweep a plane if two

joints are used for positioning and one joint is used for
orientation.
 Spatial robots with DOF more than six are known as

redundant robots as these have surplus joints.

 This extra DOF is useful in increasing its dexterity.
 A robot with dexterity can around the obstacles and

reach the objects at subspace.
 However, redundant robots are difficult model,

coordinate frame transformation, program and control.
 Total DOF of the robot is divided into two parts.
 First part is at the arm and second part is at the wrist.

 Arm DOF is used to position the end effector in space
and remaining DOF of the wrist are useful in orienting the
end effector.
 In a typical six DOF robot, first three DOF are arm DOF
and remaining three DOF wrist DOF.
 Type and arrangement of joints in the arm and wrist can

vary considerably.

Arm Configurations
 Mechanics of an arm with 3-DOF depends on the type

the three joints used and their arrangement.
 Arm which positions the wrist in 3-D space must have

the following characteristics.
 Links must be long enough to provide the maximum

reach in space.
 Robot links must be robust enough to bear not only the

load due to work piece but also must carry the wrist and
the end effector.

 As per the type of joints and arrangement of links, four
distinctive basic structures are possible for the arm.
 First one among these is Cartesian or rectangular

configuration with all the three joints prismatic.
 Second one is Cylindrical configuration with one

revolute and two prismatic joints.
 Third one is a spherical or polar configuration with two

revolute and one prismatic joints.
 Last one is also known as articulated or jointed-arm

configuration with all the three joints revolute.
ARM CONFIGURATIONS
 Cartesian configuration is the simplest with three

prismatic joints.
 It is constructed with three perpendicular slides, with

only linear motion along the three principal axes.
 However there is an upper and a lower limit for each link

movement.
 The end point of the arm operates in a cuboidal space
called workspace.
 This is a PPP configuration.

 Portion of space around the base of the manipulator that
can be accessed by the arm end point is called
workspace.
 Shape and size of the workspace depends on the arm

configuration, structure, DOF, size of links and design of
joints.
 Physical space swept by the end effector of the robot

may be more or less than the arm end point workspace.
 Volume of the space swept is called work volume.
 Surface of the workspace is called work envelope.

 Two types of constructions are in use in case of
Cartesian arm.
 They are cantilever type and the other box or gantry type
configuration.
 Cartesian arm is easy to program and gives high
precision.
 However, this configuration has limited manipulatability.
 Cartesian configuration gives large work volume but has

a low dexterity.
 Gantry robot is used to handle heavy loads and can
move objects precisely.
 Cylindrical configuration uses two perpendicular
prismatic joints and one revolute joint.
 one of the three prismatic

joints in Cartesian
configuration is replaced
with one revolute joint.
 In one of the possible

constructions first joint is
revolute and the other two
are prismatic.
 Rotary joint is formed with a block revolving around a
vertical stationary cylindrical column.
 Revolving block can also slide along the vertical

stationary cylindrical column up and down.
 Also this revolving and sliding block carries a horizontal

link that slides freely in side the block in and out.
 This is a RPP configuration.
 The end point sweeps a cylindrical space.
 Workspace is a hollow cylindrical space.

 Due to mechanical constraints like actuators and
transmission elements, full 3600 rotation is not possible.
 Cylindrical configuration offers good mechanical

stiffness.
 However, wrist positioning accuracy decreases as the
distance of the end-effector from vertical column
increases.
 It can access narrow horizontal cavities with ease and

useful for machine-loading operations.

 Other than RPP configuration many other
configurations are possible like PRP, PPR etc.
 However, all configurations may not give the required

workspace and some may sweep only a plane.
 Such configurations which sweep a plane are called as

non-robotic configurations.
 Polar or Spherical configuration consists of two revolute

and one prismatic joints.
 Prismatic joint is built using a telescopic link.

 Telescopic link is raised
and lowered about a
horizontal axis using a
revolute joint.
 These two links are in

turn rotated about a
vertical axis.
 Hence this arrangement

is known as RRP
configuration.

 Arrangement of these joints gives the robot the flexibility
of moving the end arm point with in a spherical shell
space.
 Hence workspace of polar configuration robot is a

spherical shell.
 Shoulder joints in this robot allow the end-effector to go

below the base.
 Because of this flexibility objects below its base can be

manipulated easily.
 However its mechanical stiffness is lower than Cartesian
and Cylindrical configurations.
 Also their positioning accuracy decreases with increase

in radial distance of end effector from base.
 Also their construction is more complex than they

appear.
 These configurations are employed in in applications

like machining, spray painting etc.
 Other configurations possible with two revolute and

one prismatic joints are RPR, PRR etc.
 But PRR will not give spherical configuration.
 Articulated or
jointed-arm
configuration
consists of two
straight links
corresponding to
forearm and upper
arm with two
rotary joints like
elbow and
shoulder in human
beings.
 These two links are mounted on a base that rotates
about the vertical axis.
 Thus articulated arm configuration robot best simulates

a human arm.
 Hence this type of robotic configuration are also referred

to as anthropomorphic manipulators.
 This configuration has all the three joints revolute hence

it is a RRR or revolute manipulator.
 Work volume of this robot is a sphere.

 And with proper selection of link lengths and right
design of joints, the arm end point can sweep a full
spherical space.
 Arm end point can reach the base point and even below
the base.
 This configuration is most dexterous.
 However positioning accuracy varies with the location of

arm endpoint in work space.

 This robotic configuration has wide variety of industrial
applications.
 Other arm configurations may be obtained assembling

the links and joints differently, resulting in properties
different from those defined above.
 By combining the characteristics of articulated and
cylindrical configurations another robot with revolute
motions those are confined to the horizontal plane is
obtained.
 Such a configuration is called SCARA: Selective

Compliance Assembly (or Articulated) Robot Arm.
 SCARA configuration has a only vertical major axis
motions.
 Due to these
vertical axis rotations
gravitational, coriolis
and centrifugal forces
effects are less on the
structure as
compared to when
the axes are kept
horizontal.

 Especially at high speeds and also when ever high
precision is required this aspect is very important.
 This arrangement provides high stiffness to the arm in

the vertical direction and high compliance in horizontal
plane.
 This versatility makes a SCARA robot congenial for

many assembly tasks.
 Hence the name and the work space is a hollow
cylinder as shown in figure.
THANKYOU
DE ZG /ES ZG 561
BITS Pilani Dr. Y. V. D. Rao

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ ES ZG561
COORDINATE FRAMES AND TRANSFORMATIONS
 2-DOF Planar Manipulator.
 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 =
3-DOF RPP cylindrical manipulator arm 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎and 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
−𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐

𝑻𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟏
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Where 𝑪𝟐𝟑 and 𝑺𝟐𝟑 refer to 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑
and 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 respectively
RRR articulated Manipulator
 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 −𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟗

𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
0𝑻 = = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟔𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟏 −𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟗
𝟔𝟎𝟎 , 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 ,
𝟑 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟗𝟔
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝜽𝟑 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 and
𝑳𝟐 = 𝑳𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
Fourth example is RPY Wrist

Kinematics of 3-DOF polar arm

COORDINATE FRAMES, MAPPING AND TRANSFORMATIONS
 A Robot consists of several rigid links,
connected together by joints, to achieve the
required motion in space and perform the
desired task.
 The position of links in space and their motion
are described by spatial geometry.
 Also motion of each link can be described with

respect to a reference coordinate frame.
 Hence a coordinate frame is attached to the

body of each link.
 Establishing a spatial relationship between the
manipulator and object that is to be manipulated
by the robot is known as modeling in robotics.
 For mathematical modeling of position and
orientation of links in space with respect to a
reference frame, Vectors and matrix algebra are
used.
COORDINATE FRAMES
In general, in 3-D space, a coordinate frame
consists of three orthogonal right handed
principal axes 𝑿, 𝒀, 𝒁 .
Let the origin of these principal axes be at the
point ′𝐎′ and also let the unit vectors along these
axes be respectively 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛.
A frame is labelled as
𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 or by a number
𝟏.
Other frames are

labeled similarly
like 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 or 𝟐
etc.
Any point ′𝑷′ in 3-D space can be defined w.r.t.
this frame by a vector 𝑶𝑷 given by
𝑶𝑷 = 𝒑𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒑𝒚 𝒚 + 𝒑𝒛 𝒛
Where 𝒑𝒙 , 𝒑𝒚 & 𝒑𝒛 are
the components of the
vector 𝑶𝑷 along the
three coordinate axes or
the projections of the
vector 𝑶𝑷 along these
axes 𝑿, 𝒀, 𝒁
respectively.
If the point ′𝑷′ or the vector 𝑶𝑷 is described w.r.t
the frame 𝟏 , then the notation used to denote
this vector is 𝟏𝑷 with 𝟏𝑷 has components
𝟏𝒑𝒙 , 𝟏𝒑𝒚the
Thus & 𝟏vector
𝒑𝒛 . of the point ′𝑷′ is
𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝒑𝒙 𝒙 + 𝟏𝒑𝒚 𝒚 + 𝟏𝒑𝒛 𝒛

 In matrix form, the same vector is represented
by
𝟏𝒑𝒙
𝑻
𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏 𝒑𝒚 = 𝟏 𝒑𝒙 𝟏 𝒑𝒚 𝟏 𝒑𝒛
𝟏𝒑𝒛
 Here in both the notations, the leading
superscript refers to the coordinate frame
number or simply the coordinate frame.
 Direction cosines of the vector 𝟏𝑷 are
𝟏𝒑𝒙 𝟏𝒑𝒚 𝟏 𝒑𝒛
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 =  𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 =  𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜸 =
𝑳 𝑳 𝑳
 Where
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 = 𝑶𝑷 = 𝑷 = 𝟏𝒑𝒙 + 𝟏𝒑𝒚 + 𝟏𝒑𝒛
𝑻
Transpose of the matrix 𝑷 is 𝑷

MAPPING
 Changing the description of a point or a vector

in space from one coordinate frame to another is
known as Mapping.
 Description of second frame 𝟐 in relation to

the first frame 𝟏 has threepossibilities.
 First possibility is only rotation of second frame

is w.r.t. first frame with their origins initially
coincident.
 This is referred to as changing the orientation in
Robotics.
 In second case, second frame is translated
away from the first frame without any rotation,
with the axes of both the frames remaining
parallel.
 This is known translation of the origin of the
second frame from the origin of the first frame.
 In the third case, second frame is first rotated
w.r.t the first frame and then moved away from it.
 Another alternative is second frame is first

translated, then its orientation is also changed.
 That is in both of these cases second frame is
translated as well as its orientation is also
changed.
 However, modeling only changes the
description of the point in space and not the
location of the point in space.
MAPPING BETWEEN ROTATED FRAMES
Consider two frames, frame {𝟏} with axes 𝑿, 𝒀, 𝒁

and frame {𝟐} with axes 𝑼, 𝑽, 𝑾 with common
origin {𝑶} as shown in figure.

 In this arrangement, second
frame is rotated w.r.t. the first
frame and then moved away
from it.
A point 𝑷 in space can be
described by the two frames
𝟏 & {𝟐} and can be
expressed as vectors 𝟏𝑷 and
𝟐𝑷 𝟏given
𝑷 = 𝟏 by𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒚 + 𝟏 𝒛 …. (1)
𝑷𝒙 𝑷𝒚 𝑷𝒛
 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑷𝒖 𝒖 + 𝟐𝑷𝒗 𝒗 + 𝟐𝑷𝒘 𝒘 ….(2)

 Where 𝑷𝒖 , 𝑷𝒗 & 𝑷𝒘
are projections of
point 𝑷on the frame
{𝟐} or 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘
 Because the point is

same, its two
descriptions given
by 𝟏 & 𝟐 are
related.
 To deduce this relation let us consider that,
knowing the description of point 𝑷 in frame {𝟐}, it
is desired to find its description in frame {𝟏}.
 This can be done by
projecting the vector 𝟐𝑷
on to the coordinate axes
of frame {𝟏}.
 Projections of 𝟐𝑷 on
frame {𝟏} are obtained by
taking the dot product of
𝟐𝑷 with the unit vectors
of frame {𝟏}.
 Thus we get
𝟏𝑷𝒙 = 𝒙. 𝟐𝑷 = 𝒙. 𝟐𝑷𝒖 𝒖 + 𝒙. 𝟐𝑷𝒗 𝒗 + 𝒙. 𝟐𝑷𝒘 𝒘
𝟏𝑷𝒚 = 𝒚. 𝟐𝑷 = 𝒚. 𝟐𝑷𝒖 𝒖 + 𝒚. 𝟐𝑷𝒗 𝒗 + 𝒚. 𝟐𝑷𝒘 𝒘
 𝟏𝑷𝒛 = 𝒛. 𝟐𝑷 = 𝒛. 𝟐𝑷𝒖 𝒖 + 𝒛. 𝟐𝑷𝒗 𝒗 + 𝒛. 𝟐𝑷𝒘 𝒘
 In matrix form it may be written as

𝟏𝑷𝒙 𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘 𝟐𝑷𝒖  In short
 𝟏𝑷𝒚 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘 . 𝟐𝑷𝒗
𝟏 𝑷𝒛 𝒛. 𝒖 𝒛. 𝒗 𝒛. 𝒘 𝟐𝑷𝒘  𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷

𝟏𝑷𝒙 𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘 𝟐𝑷 𝒖
 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷  𝟏 𝑷 𝒚 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘 . 𝟐𝑷 𝒗
𝟏𝑷𝒛 𝒛. 𝒖 𝒛. 𝒗 𝒛. 𝒘 𝟐𝑷𝒘
𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘
 Where 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘
𝒛. 𝒖 𝒛. 𝒗 𝒛. 𝒘
 Because frames {𝟏} and {𝟐} have the same
origin, they can only be rotated with respect to
each other.
Hence this matrix 𝟏𝑹𝟐 or simply 𝑹 is called
rotation matrix or rotational transformation
matrix.

It contains only dot product of unit vectors and
is independentof point 𝑷.
 Thus rotation matrix 𝑹 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 is used to
transform the coordinates of any point 𝑷 in
frame {𝟐}to frame {𝟏}.
 Similarly the rotation matrix 𝟐𝑹𝟏 which
transforms from frame {𝟏} to frame {𝟐} is given
by
𝒖. 𝒙 𝒖 . 𝒚 𝒖. 𝒛 𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘
 𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝒗. 𝒙 𝒗. 𝒚 𝒗. 𝒛  And 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘
𝒘. 𝒙 𝒘. 𝒚 𝒘. 𝒛
 That is 𝟐𝑷 =
𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷
 From matrices for 𝟏𝑹𝟐 and 𝟐𝑹𝟏 below, it is
𝑻
obvious that 𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 , as dot product of
vectors is commutative.
𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘 𝒖. 𝒙 𝒖. 𝒚 𝒖. 𝒛
 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘  𝟐 𝑹𝟏 = 𝒗. 𝒙 𝒗. 𝒚 𝒗. 𝒛
𝒛. 𝒖 𝒛. 𝒗 𝒛. 𝒘 𝒘. 𝒙 𝒘. 𝒚 𝒘. 𝒛
𝑻
 Hence we can write 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑷

 From the equation 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷 we can
write −𝟏 −𝟏
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷
−𝟏
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑷 = 𝑰 𝟐𝑷
−𝟏
 Or 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑷
−𝟏
That is 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑷
𝑻
 Also it is known that 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑷

 Hence we can write
−𝟏 𝑻
𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐
In general for any rotational matrix 𝑹
 𝑹 −𝟏 = 𝑹 𝑻 and
 𝑹 𝑹 −𝟏 = 𝑹 𝑹 𝑻 = 𝑰
THANK YOU
DE ZG /ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
MAPPING OF TRANSLATED
FRAMES
Mapping between translated frames
 Consider two frames {𝟏} and {𝟐} with origins 𝑶𝟏
and 𝑶𝟐 such that the axes of frame {𝟏} are parallel
to axes of frame {𝟐} as shown in figure 4.
 A point ′𝑷′ in
space can be
expressed as
vectors 𝑶𝟏 𝑷 and
𝑶𝟐 𝑷 with
respect to the
two frames {𝟏}
and
{𝟐}respectively. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 The two vectors are
related as
𝑶𝟏 𝑷 = 𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 𝑷
 Or 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑷 + 𝟏𝑫𝟐
Where 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐
is the translation of
origin of frame {𝟐}
with respect to
frame {𝟏} .
Because
𝑻
𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝒑𝒖 , 𝟐𝒑𝒗 , 𝟐𝒑𝒘
𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝒑𝒖 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒑𝒗 𝒗 + 𝟐𝒑𝒘 𝒘
And 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒛
 Or 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑷 + 𝟏𝑫𝟐
𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝒑𝒖 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒑𝒗 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒑𝒘 𝒛 + 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒛

𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝒑𝒖 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒑𝒗 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒑𝒘 𝒛 + 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒛
 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝒑𝒖 + 𝒅𝒙 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒑𝒗 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒑𝒘 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒛
 Also 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑷𝒙 𝒙 + 𝟏𝑷𝒚 𝒚 +

𝟏 𝑷𝒛 𝒛
 Hence 𝟏𝑷𝒙 = 𝟐𝒑𝒖 + 𝒅𝒙 ;
 𝟏𝑷𝒚 = 𝟐𝒑𝒗 + 𝒅𝒚 ;
𝒅𝒛
 𝟏𝑷𝒛 = 𝟐𝒑𝒘 + 𝒅𝒛 ; 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙

 Translation is qualitatively different from
rotation in one important aspect.
 In rotation the origin of two coordinate frames is
same.
This invariance of origin feature allows the
representation of rotation in 3-D space as a
𝟑 𝑿 𝟑 rotation matrix 𝑹 .
However, in translation, the origins of translated
frame {𝟐} and original frame {𝟏} are not
coincident and translation is represented by a
 𝟑A𝑿powerful
𝟏 vector,representation
𝟏𝑫𝟐 . of translation is in a
4-D space of homogeneous coordinates.
In these coordinates, a point 𝑷 in space with
respect to frame {𝟏} is denoted as.
𝟏 𝒑𝒙
𝑻
𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝒑𝒚 = 𝟏𝒑𝒙 𝟏 𝒑𝒚 𝟏 𝒑𝒛 𝝈 .
𝟏 𝒑𝒛
𝝈
 The fourth non-zero positive element in the

above matrix is called a scale factor.
 The physical coordinates are obtained by
dividing each element in homogeneous matrix by
the scale factor.
For a scale factor of 𝟏, homogeneous matrix
and Cartesian matrix are identical.
 Scale factor is used either to magnify or shrink
elements of a vector in original Cartesian matrix.
For example a physical vector 𝑴 = 𝟓𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌
or 𝑴 = 𝟓, −𝟐, 𝟑 𝑻 is equivalent to homogeneous
coordinate vector 𝑳 = 𝟓, −𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟏 𝑻 with a scale
factor of 𝝈 = 𝟏.
𝑻
 Or for 𝝈 = 𝟐 it is 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎, −𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟐 or for
𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟓, −𝟏, 𝟏. 𝟓, 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑻 𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟓and so on.
In robotics normally a scale factor of 𝝈 = 𝟏 is
used.
Using homogeneous coordinates 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑷 + 𝟏𝑫𝟐
is written as in vector form as.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝒙 𝟐𝒑𝒖
𝟏𝑷 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝒚 𝟐𝒑𝒗 .
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒛 𝟐𝒑
𝒘
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑷 .

Here 𝟏𝑻𝟐 is a 𝟒𝑿𝟒 homogeneous
transformation matrix for translation of origin
from 𝑶𝟏 to 𝑶𝟐 given by
𝑻
𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝑶𝟏 𝐎𝟐 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝟏 .
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
And 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 .
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎𝟏
The above (𝟒𝑿𝟒)transformation matrix is known
as the basic homogeneous transformation
matrix.
Mapping between rotated and translated
frames
Now considering the combined rotation and
translation of frame {𝟐} with respect to frame {𝟏}
as shown in figure.
The distance
between the two
origins is vector
𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐 = 𝟏 𝑫 𝟐 .
Let a point ′𝑷′ in
space is described
with respect to frame
{𝟐}as 𝟐𝑷 . BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
And the same point with respect to frame {𝟏}
is 𝟏𝑷 .
 In terms of vectors from the
figure.
𝑶𝟏 𝑷 = 𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 𝑷.
But 𝑶𝟐 𝑷 = 𝟐𝑷 in frame
{𝟐}

Now consider an intermediate frame {𝟏′ }with its
origin coincident with𝑶𝟐 .
Hence frame {𝟏′ }is

to be rotated with
respect to frame
{𝟐} so that axes of
frame {𝟏′ } are
parallel to frame{𝟏′ }.
Thus frame {𝟏′ } is related to frame {𝟐} by pure

rotation.
Hence we can write 𝟏′ 𝑷 =
𝟏′ 𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷 .
Also since frame {𝟏′ } is aligned with (parallel to)
frame {𝟏},
𝟏′ 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 .
 Then we can write.
𝑶𝟐 𝑷 = 𝟏′ 𝑷 = 𝟏′ 𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷 .
Therefore 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑫𝟐 +
𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷 .
 Here 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝑻 .
Or 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑷 .
Where 𝟏𝑻𝟐 is a 𝟒𝑿𝟒 homogeneous

transformation matrix.
It describes both the position and rotation of
frame {𝟐} with respect to frame {𝟏}.
The elements of the homogeneous

transformation matrix 𝟏𝑻𝟐 are .
𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘 𝒅𝒙
𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘 𝒅𝒚
 𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝒛. 𝒖 𝒛. 𝒗 𝒛. 𝒘 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 The matrix is divided into four subparts and
these sub-matrices are as shown below.
𝐑 𝟑𝐗𝟑 𝐃 𝟑𝐗𝟏

𝐏 𝟏𝐗𝟑 𝛔 𝟏𝐗𝟏
Here 𝐑 𝟑𝐗𝟑 is rotation
matrix.
𝐃 𝟑𝐗𝟏 is translation
matrix. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝐏 𝟏𝐗𝟑 is Perspective
matrix.
Perspective matrix 𝑷 is used in vision systems
and usually is set to zero otherwise.
And 𝝈 𝟏𝐗𝟏 is Scale

factor.
Scale factor 𝝈 has non zero positive
value.
Scale factor 𝝈 > 𝟏for enlarging and 𝝈 < 𝟏is for
reducing is used.
For defining the position and orientation of the
frame {𝟐} with respect to frame
{𝟏},transformation matrix 𝑻 takes the form.
𝑻
And 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 .
Then 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑷 .
THANK YOU
DE ZG /ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
COMPOSITE TRANSFORMATION
Composite Transformation
 Transformation for multiple frames can be defined on

similar lines as in case of transformation between two
frames.
X Z
 Consider
2 3
three Y
{2}
2
{3}
frames 𝟏 , 𝟐 & 𝟑
(D) 2
O 2 O 3
3
P 2 3
P
with each frame Z
X
2
3 P
(D) 1 1
(D)
translated and Z 1 2
P
3
Y
1
3
rotated with respect {1}

to the preceding O 1 Y 1
frame as shown in
X 1
figure.
 Here the required transformation is from frame
𝟑 with respect to frame 𝟏 .
 The transformation from frame 𝟑 to frame 𝟐

is
 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑻𝟑 𝟑𝑷
 And transformation from frame 𝟐 to frame 𝟏
is
 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑷
 Finally transformation from frame 𝟑 to frame
𝟏 is
 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟑 𝟑𝑷
 Also we can write 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑷 as
 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 𝟑𝑷
 Hence 𝟏𝑻𝟑 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑

 On similar lines for 𝒏 frames it can be written
 𝟏𝑻𝒏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 𝟑𝑻𝟒 … … 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒏

Inverting a Homogeneous Transformation Matrix
 In robotic analysis often the transformation

matrix 𝒊𝑻𝒋 is required while transformation
matrix𝒋𝑻𝒊 is known.
 This is done by computing the inverse of 𝒋𝑻𝒊 .

 Inversion of the 𝟒𝑿𝟒 Transformation Matrix can
be computed using conventional methods.
 However, the homogeneous transformation

matrix 𝑻 can be inverted easily as explained
further.
Consider two frames 𝟏 and 𝟐
rotated and translated relative to W
each other as shown in figure. {1’} {2}
U O3
 Homogeneous transform Z
(1D2)
𝟏𝑻𝟐 is {1} (1D3) V
𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏 𝑫𝟐 O1
 𝟏𝑻𝟐 = Y
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 X
 Andhomogeneous transform 𝟐𝑻𝟏 is

𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟐 𝑫𝟏
 𝟐𝑻𝟏 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 The sub matrix, rotation matrix 𝑹 has the
𝑻
property 𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 .
 Now mapping a point from frame 𝟐 to frame

𝟏 is given by
 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟏𝑫𝟐 + 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷
 Pre-multiplying both sides by 𝟐𝑹𝟏
 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐 + 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷
 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐 + 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷
 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐 + 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝑷
𝑻
 Since 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰
 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐 + 𝟐𝑷
 Hence rearranging
 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 − 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐

 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 − 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐 …….. (1)
 Also 𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑫𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷
 Or𝟐𝑷 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑷 + 𝟐𝑫𝟏 ……(2)
 Comparing equations (1) and (2)
𝑻
 𝟐𝑫𝟏 = −𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟐  Or 𝟐𝑫𝟏 = − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
𝟐𝑹𝟏 𝟐 𝑫𝟏
 Therefore 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = becomes
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑻 𝑻 −𝟏
 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐  𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑻 𝑻
−𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
 𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Example 1: Given 𝟏𝑻𝟐 below find 𝟐𝑻𝟏 .
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟏𝑻𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟓. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝟏
 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐

−𝟏
 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐
𝑻 𝑻
−𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
 𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑻
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟕. 𝟎
 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟎
𝟕. 𝟎
𝑻
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟓. 𝟎
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟕. 𝟎 𝑻
−𝟕. 𝟎
𝑻
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟔𝟐  − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = −𝟖. 𝟓𝟔𝟐
−𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑
𝑻 𝑻
−𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑻 𝑻
−𝟏 𝟏𝑹𝟐 − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
 𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑻
−𝟕. 𝟎
𝑻
 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔  − 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏 𝑫 𝟐 = −𝟖. 𝟓𝟔𝟐
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟕. 𝟎
= 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟖. 𝟓𝟔𝟐
−𝟏
𝟐𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

Fundamental rotation matrices
 A frame 𝟐 may be rotated about one or more of
the principal axes, or an arbitrary axis or by
some fixed angles relative to another frame 𝟏 .
Principal axes rotation Z W
θ
 Let a frame 𝟐 is
rotated about one of V
the three principal O θ
axes of frame 𝟏 by an Y
angle 𝜽 about 𝒛 − X θ
𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 of frame 𝟏 as U
shown in figure.
 The corresponding rotation matrix 𝟏𝑹𝟐 is known
as the fundamental rotation matrix.
 This is denoted by the symbol 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 or 𝑹 𝒛, 𝜽 or
𝑹𝒛,𝜽 .
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 is computed from the dot product of unit

vectors along the principal axes. 𝒗
θ
𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘 𝒚
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘
𝒛. 𝒖 𝒛. 𝒗 𝒛. 𝒘 θ
𝒙 𝒖

𝒙. 𝒖 𝒙. 𝒗 𝒙. 𝒘
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝒚. 𝒖 𝒚. 𝒗 𝒚. 𝒘
𝒗
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 90 + 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 90
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 90 − 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 90 θ
𝒚
𝐜𝐨𝐬 90 𝐜𝐨𝐬 90 𝐜𝐨𝐬 0
θ
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝟎 𝒙 𝒖
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜽 𝟎
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜽 𝟎
 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Similarly fundamental rotation matrices for
rotation about x axis and axis are
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑹𝒙 𝜽 = 𝟎 𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜽
𝟎 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽
𝑪𝜽 𝟎 𝑺𝜽
 𝑹𝒚 𝜽 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
−𝑺𝜽 𝟎 𝑪𝜽

 For rotation about 𝒊𝒕𝒉 axis the elements in 𝒊𝒕𝒉
row and 𝒊𝒕𝒉 column are 𝟎 except the element
𝒊, 𝒊 .
 The other two diagonal elements are 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽.
 The remaining element in 𝒊 + 𝟏 𝒕𝒉 row is −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.

𝒕𝒉
 The final element in 𝒊 + 𝟐 row is +𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.
 Homogeneous transformation matrix for
rotation about principal axes is obtained by
adding the zero elements 𝑫 matrix and 𝑷 & 𝑺
matrices.
 For rotation about say 𝒀 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔we have
𝑪𝜽 𝟎 𝑺𝜽 𝟎
 𝑻 𝒚, 𝜽 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
−𝑺𝜽 𝟎 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Fundamental rotation matrices are multiplied to
represent a sequence of rotations.
 For example if rotation by an angle 𝜽𝟏 about
𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 followed by rotation by an angle 𝜽𝟐 about
𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 is given by

 𝑹 = 𝑹𝒚 𝜽𝟐 𝑹𝒙 𝜽𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝜽𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜽𝟏 −𝑺𝜽𝟏
−𝑺𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝜽𝟏 𝑪𝜽𝟏
𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐
𝑹 = 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏
−𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

Example1: The coordinates of point 𝑷 in frame
𝟏 are [𝟑. 𝟎 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟎] . The position vector 𝑷 is
rotated about the 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by 𝟒𝟓𝟎 . Find the
coordinates of point 𝑸, the new position of point
𝑷.
Solution:
 The 𝟒𝟓𝟎 rotation of 𝑷 about the 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 of
frame 𝟏 𝑪𝜽
is −𝑺𝜽 𝟎 𝑪𝟒𝟓 −𝑺𝟒𝟓 𝟎
𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽 𝟎 = 𝑺𝟒𝟓 𝑪𝟒𝟓 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎
𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
For the rotation of
vectors
𝟏𝑸 = 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 𝟏𝑷
Substituting values of 𝑹𝒛
and1𝑷 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎 𝟑 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
𝟏𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟓
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
 Thus, the coordinates of the new point 𝑸 relative
to frame 𝟏 are [𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟓 𝟏. 𝟎]𝑻 .
 Or the new position vector is
[𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟑. 𝟓𝟑𝟓 𝟏. 𝟎]𝑻
Example 2:
 Frame 𝟐 is rotated with respect to frame 𝟏

about the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by an angle of 𝟔𝟎𝟎 . The
position of the origin of frame 𝟐 as seen from
frame 𝟏 is 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = [𝟕. 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎]𝑻 . Obtain the
transformation matrix 𝟏𝑻𝟐 , which describes frame
𝟐 relative to frame 𝟏 . Also, find the description
of point 𝑷 in frame 𝟏 if 𝟐𝑷 = [𝟐. 𝟎 𝟒. 𝟎 𝟔. 𝟎]𝑻
Solution
 The homogeneous transformation matrix that
describes frame 𝟐 with respect to frame 𝟏 is
𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Because frame 𝟐 is rotated relative to frame
𝟏 about 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by 𝟔𝟎𝟎 using
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝑪 𝟔𝟎 −𝑺 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 𝑺 𝟔𝟎 𝑪 𝟔𝟎 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓
 And given that 1𝑫𝟐 = [𝟕. 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎]𝑻
 Substituting 1𝑹𝟐 and 1𝑫𝟐 in the above equation

𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 1𝑫 =
𝟐 𝟓. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟓. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Given that 2 𝑷 = [𝟐. 𝟎 𝟒. 𝟎 𝟔. 𝟎]𝑻 , description of
point 𝑷 in frame 𝟏 is given by
 1𝑷 =1𝑻𝟐 2𝑷
 Substituting the
values
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎 𝟐. 𝟎
1
 𝑷= 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟓. 𝟎 𝟒. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎 𝟔. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝟎
 1𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟎𝟒
𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒
𝟏
 1𝑷 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑻
𝟏. 𝟖𝟎𝟒 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟒
Example 4
 The transformation matrix 1𝑻𝟐 which describes

the position and orientation of frame 𝟐 relative
to frame 𝟏 by
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎
1𝑻 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟓. 𝟎
𝟐
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Using this matrix, determine the description of

frame 𝟏 relative to frame 𝟐 .

Solution:
 The homogeneous transformation for
describing frame 𝟏 relative to frame 𝟐 , 2𝑻𝟏 is
given by 𝟐𝑹 𝟐𝑫
 2𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏𝑻 −𝟏
𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 The inverse of 1𝑻𝟐 is given
by 𝟏𝑹 𝑻
− 𝟏𝑹 𝑻
−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝑫𝟐
 𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓
 And 𝟏𝑫𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎 𝑻
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑻
 𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓
 And
𝟐𝑫𝟏 = − 𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝑻 𝟏𝑫𝟐
 Substituting
values 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟕. 𝟎 −𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟎
 𝟐𝑫𝟏 = − 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟓. 𝟎 = −𝟖. 𝟓𝟔𝟐
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟕. 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑻
 Therefore, 𝟏
2 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟖. 𝟓𝟔𝟐
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Example 6
 Obtain the equivalent rotation matrix 𝑹 , if
origins of frames 𝟏 and 𝟐 are coincident and
differ only in orientation. Following rotations are
carried out about the axis of the fixed frame 𝟏 :
first rotation about 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by 𝟒𝟓𝟎 then about
𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by 𝟑𝟎𝟎 and finally about 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 by
𝟔𝟎𝟎 . BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Solution:
 Rotations are in order 𝒙 − 𝒚 − 𝒙 about the

fixed axes.
 Hence, it is case of fixed angle

representations.
 Therefore,1𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝒙 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑹𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑹𝒙 𝟒𝟓𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑹𝒙 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓

𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓
 𝑹𝒚 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
−𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑹𝒙 𝟒𝟓𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
 On multiplication one
gets
𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟒 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟒
 1𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 −. 𝟎𝟖𝟖𝟒
−𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟗 −𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟔
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BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Kinematic Parameters for Modeling of a Manipulator
Kinematic Parameters for Modelling of Robots
 Task of any robot is to manipulate bodies in
space.
Tool or end effector of the robot has to follow a

planned trajectory with in the workspace while
manipulating the bodies.
 To follow a planned trajectory the position and

orientation of the end effector or tool is to be
controlled.
This in turns demands control of position of each
of the links and joints.
 Trajectory planning and control of joints require a

definite program of tool and joint motions.
This in turn requires a Mathematical modeling of

the manipulator.

 Hence Mathematical modeling of the manipulator
is done by describing the spatial position of links
and joints and position and orientation of the end
effector.
 while designing a robot, Kinematic and Dynamic
models play an important role.
 A kinematic model of a robot describes the

position of links and joints and position and
orientation of the end effector.
 Differential kinematics deals with velocity,
acceleration and other higher derivatives of
position variables.
 A dynamic model of a robot describes the

relation between forces/moments that cause
motion of joints and links.
 kinematic model of a manipulator is defined
using some kinematic parameters of motion of the
body, robot end effector or the object that is being
manipulated.
 kinematic model requires parameters of motion.

 Hence to describe the Kinematic and Dynamic
models the first and foremost requirement is to
understand the anatomy of the robot and attach a
system of frames to the various links and joints of
the robot.
 Most of the industrial robots are open and serial

manipulators.
 That is each link is connected to two other links,
at most, without any closed loops in the chain.
 robotic manipulator has two types joints.
 Revolute and Prismatic.

 Degree of freedom of a manipulator is the
number of independent parameters required to
completely specify its position and orientation in
space.
 Since each joint is of one degree of freedom, the

degree of freedom of manipulator is equal to
number of joints in the manipulator.
 Each joint has a joint axis with respect which
joint motion is described.
Link (i-1)
X
Z Axis of Rotation
Revolute Joint

X
Link i
Link (i-1) Z
Axis of Translation
Y
Prismatic Joint
 By convention Z- axis of the coordinate frame is

always aligned along the joint axis.

Numbering the Links
 The links of a manipulator are numbered

outwardly starting from the immobile base.
 The Base link is numbered ‘0’.
 First mobile link connected to base link is

numbered ‘1’.
 And in this sequence 2, 3 …. and last link at the

free end is numbered ‘n’.
 Of course the last link ‘n’ is the “Tool” or End
effector.
Link 2
Link 3
Link 1
Tool
Link 0
(Base)

Numbering the Joints
 Joints are numbered with joint between links ‘0’

and ‘1’ as joint ‘1’.
 Between links ‘1’ and ‘2’ as joint ‘2’, etc. as

shown. Link 2
Link 3
Link 1 Tool
Link 0 (Base)
Links in a Manipulator

Joint 3
Link 2
Joint 2
Link 3
Link 1 Tool
Joint 1
Link 0 (Base)
 The joint between the end effector link ‘n’ and

link ‘(n-1)’ as joint ‘n’.
Total Number of Links and Joints
 An ‘n-DOF’ manipulator arm consists of ‘n’
joints connecting ‘(n+1)’ links including the
base link ‘0’.
 To describe a body in space six

parameters are required.

 Three for position and three for orientation.
 Thus a typical robotic manipulator consists of an

arm that accomplishes the task of positioning the
end effector and has three links from base.
 And orientation is achieved using the wrist.

Link and Joint Parameters .
 To describe the position and orientation of a link

in space, a coordinate frame is attached to each
link, say frame {i} to link ‘i’.
 The position and orientation of a frame ‘i’ with

respect to frame (i-1) is described by a
Homogeneous transformation matrix.

 In a robot except for the base Link and end
effector every other link is connected to two other
links by joints at either end.
A link defines the relative position and

orientation of joint axes at its two ends.

 Figure below shows the link ‘i’ with joint axes
‘(i-1)’ and ‘i’.
Axis (i-1) Axis i
Link i
Joint (𝒊 + 𝟏)
Joint (𝒊)
Description of Link Axes

Axis (i-1) Axis i
Link i
Joint (𝒊)
Joint (𝒊 + 𝟏)
A
ai
Description of Link Length

 For the two axes ‘(i-1)’ and ‘i’ the common
perpendicular is the shortest distance between the
two joint axes.
 This shortest distance along common normal is

defined as the link length and denoted by “ai” as
shown in figure.

Axis (i-1) Axis i
Link i
Joint (i)
Joint (i+1)
Link Twist αi
A
Link Length 𝒂𝒊
B
αi
Description of Link Parameters
Link Twist - αi
 The angle between the projections of the

axes‘(𝒊 − 𝟏)’ and ‘𝒊’ on a plane perpendicular to the
common normal AB is known as the link twist or
angle of twist denoted by “𝜶𝒊” .

 The link twist angle “𝜶𝒊” is measured from the
axis ‘(𝒊 − 𝟏)’ to axis ‘𝒊’ in the right hand sense about
the common normal 𝑨𝑩.
Link Parameters
 These two parameters “𝒂𝒊” and “𝜶𝒊” are known

as link parameters and are constant for a given
link.

 For industrial robots the links are usually
straight.
 That is two joint axes are parallel, giving length

of link equal to physical length and twist is zero.
ai

 For two links connected by either a revolute joint
or prismatic joint, the relative position of these
links is measured by the displacement at the joint.
 For revolute joint it is joint angle “θi”.
 The angle between the two adjacent common

normals‘ 𝒂𝒊 − 𝟏 ’ and ‘ 𝒂𝒊 ’, measured in right hand
sense about the axis ‘ 𝒊 − 𝟏 ’ is Joint angle.
Joint angleis rotation about the joint axis ‘𝒊 − 𝟏’
needed to make ‘𝒂𝒊 − 𝟏’ parallel to ‘𝒂𝒊’.
 For a prismatic joint displacement is joint

distance “𝒅𝒊”.
 Joint distance is the perpendicular distance

between the adjacent common Normals ‘𝒂𝒊 − 𝟏’ and
‘𝒂𝒊’ is measured along axis ‘(𝒊 − 𝟏)’.
 Joint distance is the translation needed along
the joint axis ‘(𝒊 − 𝟏)’ to make ‘𝒂𝒊 − 𝟏’ intersect with
‘𝒂𝒊’.
 Thus the two parameters joint angle “θi” and

joint distance “𝒅𝒊” are called joint parameters.

Link and Joint parameters
The two parameters link length “𝒂𝒊” and link twist

“𝜶𝒊 ” are link parameters and are constant for a
given link.
 And the two parameters joint angle “θi” and joint

distance “𝒅𝒊” are called jointparameters and one of
them is a variables for a joint.

 Hence for the two types of oneDOF joints one of
the two joint parameters (‘𝜽𝒊’ and ‘𝒅𝒊’) is constant
and the other is a variable.
 Thus displacement of a joint is measured by

either angle ‘𝜽𝒊’ or distance ‘𝒅𝒊’ depending on the
type of the joint.

Revolute Joint Y
θi
Link (i -1)
X
θi
Zi-1
di is constant or di = 0
 For revolute joint 𝒅𝒊 is zero or constant and

𝜽𝒊varies.
Prismatic Joint
X
Link (i-1) Link Zi-1

i
Y di
θi is constant or θi = 0
 For prismatic joint θi is zero or constant and di

varies.

 The varying parameter is known as joint variable.
 Generalized parameter ‘q’ is used to denote the

joint displacement variable of each type of joint.
 The generalized displacement variable is defined

as
𝜽𝒊 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐢 𝐢𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝒒𝒊 =
𝒅𝒊 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐢 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜
 Kinematic Model is the analytical
description of the spatial geometry and
motion of a manipulator as a function of
time with respect to a fixed or inertial
reference frame.
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Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Kinematic Modeling of a Manipulator
Kinematic Modeling of a Manipulator
 To manipulate objects in three dimensional
space, the end effector must follow a definite
trajectory and the position and orientation of the
end effector must be controlled.
 Kinematic Model is the analytical description of

the spatial geometry and hence motion of a
manipulator as a function of time with respect to a
fixed or inertial reference frame.
 Describing the relation between the joint
variables and position and orientation of the end
effector is the kinematic model .
 kinematic model of a manipulator is defined

using kinematic parameters of each link which are
constants and variables.

 Kinematic modeling of a robot is of two types:
 Given a set of joint-link parameters, finding the

position and orientation of the end effector with
respect to known reference frame is known as
forward or direct kinematics.
 This model gives the position and orientation of

the end effector as a function of the joint variables
and other joint-link constant parameters.
 Finding the a set of joint- variables that position
and orient the end effector with respect to known
reference frame is known as reverse or inverse
kinematics model.
PositionOrientati
Joint Direct on
Variables Kinematics Of End Effector
𝒒𝒊 𝒕 Model 𝒏𝒐𝒂𝒅
PositionOrientati Inverse Joint

on Kinematics Variables
Of End Effector
Model 𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝒏𝒐𝒂𝒅
Denavit and Hartenberg Notation
 To define a Kinematic model of a Robotic

manipulator a number of frames must be attached
to each link of the Robot.
 Denavit and Hartenberg in 1955 proposed a

systematic procedure for assigning the right
handed orthogonal frames to all the links in an
open kinematic chain of a manipulator and defined
the four link – joint parameters.
 And this is known as Denavit-Hartenberg
notation.
A frame {𝒊} is rigidly attached to distal end of the

link 𝒊 and it moves with link 𝒊.
 An n-DOF manipulator has (n+1) frames with

frame {0} or base frame acting as the reference
inertial frame.
 And frame {𝒏} is the “Tool frame”.
 Figure below shows a pair of adjacent links: link

(𝒊 − 𝟏) and link 𝒊.
The associated joints are: Joint (𝒊 − 𝟏), joint𝒊 and
joint (𝒊 + 𝟏).
 The joint axes are (𝒊 − 𝟐), (𝒊 − 𝟏) and 𝒊.
 Line AB is the common normal to axes (𝒊 − 𝟐)

and (𝒊 − 𝟏) and common normal to axes (𝒊 − 𝟏) and 𝒊
is line CD.

 Line AB is the common normal to axes (𝒊 − 𝟐) and
(𝒊 − 𝟏) and common normal to axes (𝒊 − 𝟏) and 𝒊 is
line CD.
Assignment of Frames
 A frame𝒊 is assigned to link𝒊 as follows:
 The 𝒁𝒊-axis is aligned along the joint axis 𝒊, with

its direction being arbitrary.
Y
 The choice of
direction defines the Link (i-1)
positive sense of joint X

Z Axis of Rotation
variable 𝒒𝒊(𝜽𝒊 or 𝒅𝒊). Revolute Joint

 The 𝒁𝒊-axis is aligned along the joint axis 𝒊,
with its direction being arbitrary.

 The 𝑿𝒊-axis is perpendicular to axes 𝒁𝒊 − 𝟏and 𝒁𝒊
and points away from axis 𝒁𝒊 −1 that is 𝑿𝒊 −axis is
directed along the common normal CD.

 The origin of the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 coordinate frame, frame {𝒊},
is located at the intersection of the axis 𝒊 of joint
(𝒊 + 𝟏) and the common normal between axes (𝒊 −
𝟏) and 𝒊 , that is normal CD.
 Finally 𝒀𝒊- axis is assigned using the right-
hand orthogonal coordinate frames {𝒊}.
𝒀𝒊

 Frame {𝒊} for the link 𝒊 is at the distal end
of the link 𝒊and moves with the link 𝒊.
Frame
𝒀𝒊

 With respect to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} and frame {𝒊}, the
four DH parameters – two link parameters (𝒂𝒊 , 𝜶𝒊)
and two jointparameters ( 𝜽𝒊 , 𝒅𝒊 ) are defined as
follows.

Link length (𝒂𝒊): is the distance measured along
𝑿𝒊-axis from the point of intersection of 𝑿𝒊-axis with
𝒁𝒊 − 𝟏-axis, point C to the origin of the frame {𝒊},
pointD: that is, distance CD.
𝒀𝒊
𝒂𝒊

Link twist (𝜶𝒊): is the angle between 𝒁𝒊 − 𝟏–
axis and 𝒁𝒊–axis measured about 𝑿𝒊–axis in
the right hand sense.
𝜶𝒊
𝒀𝒊

 Joint Distance ( 𝒅𝒊 ): is the distance measured
along 𝒁𝒊 − 𝟏 -axis from the origin of frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}
point B to the intersection of 𝑿𝒊-axis with 𝒁𝒊 − 𝟏-axis,
point C. That is, distance BC.
𝒀𝒊
𝒅𝒊

Joint Angle (𝜽𝒊): is the angle between 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏 – axis
and 𝑿𝒊– axis measured about 𝒁𝒊 − 𝟏– axis in the right
hand sense.
𝒀𝒊
𝜽𝒊
 The convention outlined above does not result in
a unique attachment of frames to links because
alternative choices are possible.
 For example, joint axis 𝒊 has two choices of
directions possible along 𝒁𝒊 – axis, one pointing
upwards and the other pointing downwards.

 For example, joint axis 𝒊 has two choices of
directions possible along 𝒁𝒊 – axis, one pointing
upwards and the other pointing downwards.
Frame

 To eliminate such multiple options and give
unique frame assignment to all links of a
manipulator an algorithm is required.

 Frames are assigned to each link of the
manipulator starting from the base link to the end
effector.
 An n-DOF manipulator has (𝒏 + 𝟏) frames with
frame {0} as base frame and frame {𝒏} as the tool
frame.
 To get unique frame assignment to all links the

following algorithm is proposed.

Assignment Algorithm
 Displacement of any link and joint is measured

with respect to a frame.
 The position of each link at which the joint

displacement is zero is known as ZERO POSITION.
 For a Revolute Joint when the joint angle "𝜽" is

zero is ZERO POSITION.

Y
θ
Link (i-1)
X
Z Axis of Rotation
Revolute Joint
 While for a Prismatic Joint Zero position
corresponds to minimum joint displacement.
 Further when all the joints in the Robotic

manipulator at Zero Position the Robot is in what is
known as “HOME POSITION”.
 Thus if all the elements of the displacement

vector 𝒒𝒊 are Zero then the n- DOF Robot is in
Home Position.
 That is 𝒒𝒊 = 𝜽𝒊 , 𝒅𝒊 𝑻 = 𝟎.
Prismatic Joint X
Link i
Link (i-1) d
Z
Axis of Translation

Link 2 Link 3
Link 1
Tool
Link 0
(Base)

Link 2
Link 3
Link 1 Tool
𝜽 𝟏 =0
Link 0
(Base)
Zero position of Link-1

Tool
Link 3
Link 2
Link 1
Link 0
(Base)
Home position
 Before assigning frames, Zero position of each
joint and hence Home position of the manipulator
is to be decided.
 However, because of mechanical constraints, the
range of motion of the joints is restricted and in
certain instances the home position may not be
reachable.
 In such cases new home position is obtained by
adding a constant value to the joint displacement.
 This may be angle 𝜽in case of a Revolute joint or
linear displacement 𝒅 in case of a Prismatic Joint.
 Both the first link ‘ 𝟎 ’ and last link ‘ 𝒏 ’ are
connected to only one other link .
 Assignment of frames for these two links ‘𝟎’ and
‘𝒏’ is possible in many ways.
 Hence frames for the first frame 𝟎 and last frame

𝒏 are assigned only after assigning frames to the
intermediate frames𝟏, 𝟐 … . . 𝒏 − 𝟏 .
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Assignment of Frame to links
Assignment of Frame to links
 There four stages in assigning the frame.
 Labelling all the links and joints.

 Assigning frames to intermediate links
𝟏, 𝟐, … … . (𝒏 − 𝟏)
 Assigning frame to base link ‘𝟎’
 Assigning frame to last link ‘𝒏’

Different steps in assigning the frames
 Step 0: Label 𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝒏 links and joints from 𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝒏.
 Step 1: Assignment of 𝒁 − 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 to intermediate

links first, then to Baseand last links.
 Align 𝒁𝒊 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 with the joint ( 𝒊+𝟏 )

for 𝒊 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … … . (𝒏 − 𝟏)

 As an example let us consider a 2-DOF Planar
Manipulator shown below.

 Let us first consider the mechanical structure of
the 𝟐 − 𝑫𝑶𝑭Planar Manipulator.
 That is links and

joints are
Link 2 (End-effector)
identified. Link 1
There are three
links in the
Manipulator. Link 0 (Base link)
 Base link is “𝟎”, next link is “𝟏” and last link is
“𝟐”, the end effector.
 Links 𝟎 and 𝟏 are

connected by a Link 2 (End-effecto
Link 1
Revolute joint, that is
joint “𝟏”.
 And the other two Joint 1 (Revolute)
Link 0 (Base link)
links 𝟏 and 𝟐 are joined
by Prismatic pair.
P (x,y)
Y Tool Point
Link 2
d2
Link 1
θ1
O
X
2-DOF Planar Manipulator
Link
0
 And the axis of the joint-𝟐, Prismatic, is with in
the plane. P (x,y)
 Axis of revolute Y L2
joint- 𝟏 is
perpendicular to d2
plane of the
L1
Manipulator. 2-DOF Planar
θ1
O Manipulator
L X
0
Zero position for the link- 𝟏 is when the joint
variable-𝟏, that is 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎.
θ1=0 L2
O P (x,y)
L1 X
L0
 And for the link-𝟐 the zero position is when the
slider is fully in side position, that is 𝒅𝟐 is
minimum.
L2 d2=0
O P (x,y)
L1 X
L0
Home Position
θ1=0 d2=0 L2
O P (x,y)
L1 X
L0
 Home position for the manipulator is as

shown.
 Next 𝒛𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛𝟏 − axes are aligned along the axes
of the two joints 𝒋 − 𝟏 (revolute) and 𝒋 − 𝟐
(prismatic).
 Since there is only one intermediate link-𝟏frame

is assigned to this link first.
 For the link-𝟏 frame 𝟏 is assigned with 𝒛𝟏 along
joint 𝟐 as shown.
θ1=0
d2=0 z1 L2
O P (x,y)
L1 joint 𝟐 X
L0
 For the link-𝟏, frame 𝟏 is assigned with 𝒛𝟏 along
joint 𝟐 as shown. (In case of revolute joint)
L1 L2
O
joint 𝟐
L0 z1
Here second joint also is revolute

𝒁𝟎– 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔is aligned along the direction of 𝑱𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 − 𝟏
axis.
z1 L2
O
joint 𝟏
L L
z0 1
0
For the above manipulator 𝒁𝟎– 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 is, assigned

as shown in figure.
𝒁𝟎– 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔is aligned along the direction of 𝑱𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 − 𝟏
axis.
L1 L2
O
L0 z1
z0

𝒁𝒏– 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔is aligned along the direction of 𝒁(𝒏 − 𝟏)
axis and pointing away from the 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌 − 𝒏.
z1
O L2 z2
L1
z0 L0
 In case of this manipulator 𝒁𝟐– 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, therefore, is

assigned as shown in figure.
𝒁𝒏– 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔is aligned along the direction of 𝒁(𝒏 − 𝟏)
axis and pointing away from the 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌 − 𝒏.
L1 L2
O
L0 z1 z2
z0
 Step 2: Assignment of 𝑿𝒊 − 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔to all the links.
𝑿𝒊axis is perpendicular to 𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏) and zi axes and

pointing away from 𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏) axis.

x1
z1 L2
O
L1 z2
L0
z0
𝑿𝟏 axis is perpendicular to 𝒁𝟎 axis and z1 axes and

pointing away from 𝒁𝟎 axis.

L1 x1 L2
O
L0 z1 z2
z0
𝑿𝟏 axis is perpendicular to 𝒁𝟎 axis and z1 axes and

pointing away from 𝒁𝟎 axis.

 Step 2: Assignment of 𝑿𝟎 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 to baselink.
𝒙𝟎 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 is chosen parallel to x1-axis in the home

position of the 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 − 𝟏;
 That is when 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎 or 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.

𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏
𝑳𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝑶
𝒛𝟐
𝑳𝟎 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎
𝒛𝟎
x0 L1 x1 L2
O
L0 z1 z2
z0
Assignment of 𝑿𝒏 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 to the last link, 𝒏
 If joint 𝒏 is prismatic,𝑿𝒏 axis is parallel to 𝑿(𝒏 − 𝟏)

axis.

x0
𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎
x1 x2
L1 z1 L2
O
z0 z2
L0

𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝑶
𝑳𝟎 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟎

 Step 3: Assignment of 𝒀 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 to all links.
𝒀 − 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 are assigned as per the right hand

orthogonal co-ordinate axes.

𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟎 𝑶 𝑳𝟎
𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝑶
𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟎 𝑳𝟎
𝒀𝟏
𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝑶
𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟎 𝑳𝟎
𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐

 Step 4: Assignment of Origin to all links
 Origin for the intermediate links (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … . 𝒏) is

located at the intersection of 𝒁𝒊 and 𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏) axes.

 Origin for the intermediate link−𝟏 is located at
the intersection of 𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟎 axes.
𝒙𝟎
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑳𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝒛𝟏 𝑳𝟐
𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟎 𝑶𝟏 𝒀𝟐
𝒀𝟏
 For the base link ‘𝟎’, it is located based on the
type of joint-𝟏.
 For Revolute joint : Origin is located along the

axis of the joint-𝟏 at a suitable location so that
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.

 Joint between links 0 & 1 is Revolute.
 Hence origin of frame 𝟎 is located along the axis

of the joint-𝟏 so that 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.
 Thus this origin is at the joint 𝟏 itself as shown.

x0 x1 x2
Y0 L0 L1 z1 L2
z2
O0
z0 Y1 Y2
 Therefore this origin O0 coincides with the origin

of frame 𝟏 , O1.

 If joint- 𝟏is Prismatic : Origin of the base link 𝟎 is located
arbitrarily so that 𝒙𝟎 and 𝒙𝟏 axes are parallel and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎.
 For the end link ‘𝒏’, origin is located at a convenient point

on the last link, that is, the tip of manipulator.

x0 x1 x2
Y0 z1
z2
O0 O1 O2
z0 Y1 Y2
 With this choice of origin for end link ‘𝒏 = 𝟐’, and
joint 𝟏 being prismatic, joint variable 𝒅𝟐 is the
distance from origin of frame 𝟏 to origin of frame
𝟐 as shown.
 And the rotation of the axes 𝒛𝟎 and 𝒛𝟏 about the
axis 𝒙𝟏 defines angle of twist of the link- 𝟏 ,
𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 .
x0 x1 x2
Y0 link- 𝟏 z1
z2
z0 O0 Y1 O1
Y2
x0 x1 x2
Y0 z1
z2
z0 O0 O1
Y1 Y2
Two origins coincide

 Since the two origins frames 𝟎 and 𝟏 coincide
𝒂𝟏 = 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.

 Hence the four D-H parameters for the link- 𝟏 are
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and𝜽𝟏 ≠ 𝟎.
x0 x2
x1
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟎 𝟐
Y0 𝜽𝟏 ≠ 𝟎 𝟏 z1
O1 O2 z2
z0 O0 Y1
Y2
𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎

 Having fixed the origin for frames 𝟏 and 𝟐 the
four D-H parameters for the link- 𝟐 are 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟐 =
𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 ≠ 𝟎 and 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 .
x0 x1 x2
d2
Y0 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎
z1 O2 z2
z0 O0 Y1 O1
𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟎
Y2
 Therefore, joint link parameters for both the links
are ( two sets of D-Hparameters for the links
𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐 ) are
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 and 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 .

 The displacement variables for the links 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐
are respectively 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 .
Displacement
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 Variable 𝒒𝒊
1 0 900 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 0 0 𝒅𝟐 0 𝒅𝟐

 It is important to note that each row in joint link
parameters in the table above has only one joint
displacement variable, either 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 or 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 .
 And no row in the table above is without a joint

displacement variable.

 Any deviation from these conditions is an
indication of an error in the frame assignment
and/or joint-link parameters identification.
 Also out of the eight entries in the table six are

joint-link constants and remaining two are
displacement variables.
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Algorithm of Assignment of Frame
x0 x1 x2
𝜽𝟏 z1
Y0 O1
z2
d2
z0 O2
O0 Y1 Y2
Displacement
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊
Variable 𝒒𝒊
1 0 𝟗𝟎𝟎 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 0 0 𝒅𝟐 0 𝒅𝟐
Here both the joints are revolute
x0 L1 x1 L2 x2
O
L0 z1 z2
z0

 Origin for frame {𝒊} is selected such that 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎.
Here both the joints are revolute

x2
x0 L1 x1 L2
O
L0 z1 O1 z2
z0
 With 𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏) and 𝒁𝒊 axes are parallel and for
Prismaticjoint, 𝑿𝒊 axis is chosen as any convenient
common normal.
 And origin is located at the distal end of link ‘𝒊’.

Case 2:
3-DOF RPP cylindrical manipulator arm

Joint Axis -3
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏) and 𝒁𝒊 axes
coincide. 𝒅𝟑
𝒛𝟏 Joint Axis -2
𝒅𝟐
 In this case the
origin lies along the Joint Axis -1
Common axis. 𝒛𝟎
𝜽𝟏

 If the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 joint is Revolute, origin is located at the
origin of frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}.
 And 𝑿𝒊 axis coincides with 𝑿(𝒊 − 𝟏)axis.

 Hence 𝒅𝒊 becomes zero.

Joint Axis -3
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝒅𝟑
𝒛𝟏 Joint Axis -2
𝒅𝟐
𝑶𝟏
𝑿𝟏
Origins coincide
𝒛𝟎
𝜽𝟏
𝑶𝟎
𝑿𝟎

 For Prismatic joint 𝑿𝒊 axis is chosen parallel to
𝑿(𝒊 − 𝟏) axis.
 And 𝒂𝒊 becomes zero.
 And origin is located at

the distal end of link ‘𝒊’.

Case 3: 𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏)and 𝒁𝒊 axes intersect.
 In this case 𝒁𝟎
Link 3
Link 2
the origin lies Tool
𝒁𝟏
at the point of Link 1 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
intersection.
Link 0 (Base)

 When 𝒁(𝒊 − 𝟏)and 𝒁𝒊 axes intersect 𝑿𝒊 axis will be
perpendicular to the plane containing 𝒁 (𝒊 −
𝒁𝟎
𝟏)and𝒁𝒊axes. Link 3
Link 2
Tool
 So that link 𝒁𝟏 𝑿𝟏
𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
length 𝒂𝒊 is zero. Link 1
Link 0
(Base)
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Algorithm of Assignment of Frame
Revolute joint
Prismatic joint
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎
𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎
𝑿𝟎 Origins coincide 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑶𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑶𝟎
𝑶𝟐
𝒁𝟎 𝒀𝟏 𝒁𝟎 𝟗𝟎
𝒀𝟐
 𝒁𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 are intersecting axes.
 Perpendicular distance (length of common normal)
between 𝒁𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 is zero.  Hence 𝒂𝟏 =
 𝒁 and 𝒁 are intersecting  𝟎.Hence 𝜶 = 𝟗𝟎.
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
axes.
 Joint 1 is revolute and 𝑿𝟎 and 𝑿𝟏 are
parallel.
 Hence 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 ≠  𝑿𝟎 and 𝑿𝟏 are  Or 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝟎. parallel. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐  𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝑶𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐  𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎.
𝒀𝟎 𝑶𝟎
𝑶𝟐  𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 .
𝒁𝟎 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐  𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.
Link 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒅𝒊
1 𝟎 𝟗𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝟎

𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑶𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑶𝟎
𝑶𝟐
𝒁𝟎 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐
 𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟐 are collinear

axes. of common normal between 𝒁 and 𝒁 is zero.
 Length 𝟏 𝟐
 Hence 𝒂𝟐 =
𝒁 𝟏 and 𝒁 𝟐 are  𝟎.
Hence 𝜶 = 𝟐
collinearaxes. 𝟎.
 Joint 2 is prismatic and 𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿𝟐 are
parallel.
 Hence 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 ≠  𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿𝟐 are  Or 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎.
𝟎. parallel. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐  𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝑶𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐  𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎.
𝒀𝟎 𝑶𝟎
𝑶𝟐  𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 .
𝒁𝟎 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐  𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.
 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎.
1 𝟎 𝟗𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎.
2 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟐  𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎.
 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 .

x0 x1 x2
𝜽𝟏 z1
Y0 O1
z2
d2
z0 O2
O0 Y1 Y2
Displacement
Variable 𝒒𝒊
1 0 𝟗𝟎𝟎 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 0 0 𝒅𝟐 0 𝒅𝟐
When both the joints are revolute
𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐
L0
𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐
L0
Z0 Z1 Z2
𝑶𝟐
X0 𝒍𝟏 𝑶𝟏 X1 𝒍𝟐 X2
𝑶𝟎
L0 Z1
Z0 Z2
X0 𝒍𝟏 𝑶𝟏 X1 𝒍𝟐 X2
𝑶𝟎
L0 Z1
Z0 Z2
1 𝒍𝟏 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝟎
2 𝒍𝟐 𝟎 𝜽𝟐 𝟎
 Origin for frame {𝒊} is selected such that 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎.

Joint 3,
Prismatic
Link
3 Tool
Joint 2, Pint
Link Prismatic
2
Link 𝜽𝟏
1
Joint 1,
Link Revolute
0 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Joint Axis - 𝒛𝟑
3𝒛𝟐
 At each joint, 𝒁𝒊axis is 𝒅𝟑
𝒛𝟏 𝒅𝟐
along the
corresponding joint
axis. Joint Axis -
2
𝒛𝟎
𝜽𝟏
Joint Axis -
1
 For the link 2 𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟐 Joint Axis -
3
are intersecting. 𝒁𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝒅𝟑
𝑿𝟐 𝒁
𝟏
 Hence for the
𝒅𝟐
link 2 𝑿𝟐 is
𝑿𝟏 Joint Axis -
perpendicular to 2
both 𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟐 .
𝒁𝟎
𝜽𝟏
𝑿𝟎 Joint Axis -
1
 For the link 3 𝒁𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 Joint Axis -
3
are collinear. 𝒁𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝒅𝟑
𝑿𝟐 𝒁 𝑿𝟑
𝟏
 Hence for the
𝒅𝟐
link 3 𝑿𝟑 is
𝑿𝟏 Joint Axis -
perpendicular to 2
both 𝒁𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 .
𝒁𝟎
𝜽𝟏
Joint Axis -
1
𝑶𝟐 𝑶𝟑 𝒛𝟑
𝑿𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝒅𝟑
𝑿𝟑
𝒁𝟏  Perpendicular distance (length of
common normal) between 𝒁𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 is
𝒅𝟐 zero.  Hence 𝒂𝟏 =
𝑶𝟏  𝒁𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 are  𝟎.
Hence 𝜶𝟏 =
𝑿𝟏 collinear.
 Joint 1 is 𝟎.
revolute and 𝑿𝟎
Origins
coincide and 𝑿𝟏 are parallel.
𝒁𝟎
 Hence 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 ≠ 𝟎.
𝜽𝟏  𝑿𝟎 and 𝑿𝟏 are  Or 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝑶𝟎 parallel.
1 0 0 𝜽𝟏 0
𝑿𝟎
𝒁𝟏
𝑶𝟐
−𝟗𝟎
𝑶𝟑 𝒛𝟑
𝑿𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝒅𝟑
𝑿𝟑
𝒁𝟏  Length of common normal between 𝒁𝟏
𝒅𝟐 and 𝒁𝟐 is zero.
 Hence 𝒂𝟐 =
𝑶𝟏  𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟐 are 𝟎.
𝑿𝟏 intersecting.  Hence 𝜶𝟐 =
 Joint 2 is prismatic and 𝑿𝟏 and
− 𝟗𝟎.
Origins
𝑿𝟐 are parallel.  Hence 𝒒 = 𝒅 ≠
𝒁𝟎 coincid 𝟐 𝟐
e  𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿𝟐 𝟎. are  Or 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎.
𝜽𝟏
𝑶𝟎 parallel.
1 0 0 𝜽𝟏 0
𝟎 −𝟗𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟐
𝑿𝟎 2

𝑶𝟐 𝑶𝟑 𝒛𝟑
𝑿𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝒅𝟑
𝑿𝟑
𝒁𝟏  Length of common normal between 𝒁𝟐
𝒅𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 is zero.
 Hence 𝒂𝟑 =
𝑶𝟏  𝒁𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 are collinear. 𝟎.
𝑿𝟏  Hence
 Joint 3 is prismatic 𝜶 𝟑 =𝑿
and 𝟎.𝟐 and
Origins
𝑿𝟑 are parallel.  Hence 𝒒 = 𝒅 ≠
𝒁𝟎 coincid 𝟑 𝟑
e  𝑿𝟐 and 𝑿𝟑 𝟎. are  Or 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎.
𝜽𝟏
𝑶𝟎 parallel.
1 0 0 𝜽𝟏 0
2 𝟎 −𝟗𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟐
𝑿𝟎
3 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟑
Link 2 Link 3
Tool point
Link 1
Link 0

Revolute
Joint 2, Link 2 Link 3
Joint 3,Revolute
Tool point
Link 1
Joint 1,Revolute
Link 0

J2 L L3
𝒁𝟏 2𝒁𝟐 J3 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟎 Tool point
L1
J1
L0
 𝒁𝟏 is along joint axis
 2.
𝒁𝟐 is along joint axis
3.
 𝒁𝟎 is along joint axis
1.
 𝒁𝟑 is parallel to
𝒁𝟐 .
J2 L L3
𝑿2𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
J3 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎 Tool point
L1 𝑿𝟎
J1
L0
 𝒁𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 are
𝑿 𝟏 is perpendicular to 𝒁𝟎 and
intersecting.
 𝒁𝒁𝟏 .𝟏 and 𝒁 are 𝟐
RRR articulated Manipulator parallel.
 𝑿𝟐 is perpendicular to 𝒁𝟏 and
 𝒁𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 are parallel. 𝒁𝟐 .
 𝑿𝟎 is parallel to
 𝑿𝟑 is perpendicular to 𝒁𝟐 and
𝑿𝟏 .
𝒁𝟑 . BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝒁𝟎
𝑶𝟏 L 𝑶𝟐 L3 𝑶𝟑
J2
𝑿2𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
J3 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎 Tool point
𝑶𝟎
Origins coincide
L1 𝑿𝟎
J1
L0
 𝒁𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 are  𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎.
 intersecting.
𝒁 𝟎 and 𝒁𝟏 are  𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎.
intersecting.
 𝑿𝟎 and 𝑿𝟏 are parallel and revolute  𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 .
𝑿joint.
𝟎 and 𝑿𝟏 are parallel and revolute  𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎.
joint. Link 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒅𝒊
1 0 90 𝜽𝟏 0
𝑶𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝑶𝟑
J2
𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
J3 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎 Tool point
𝑶𝟎
Origins coincide
J1 𝑿𝟎  𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟐 are  𝒂𝟐 = 𝒍𝟐 .
parallel.
L0  𝒁𝟏 and 𝒁𝟐 are  𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎.
parallel.
 𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿𝟐 are collinear and revolute  𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐 .
joint.
 𝑿𝟏 and 𝑿𝟐 are collinear and revolute  𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎.
joint.
1 0 90 𝜽𝟏 0
2 𝒍𝟐 0 𝜽𝟐 0

𝑶𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝒍𝟑 𝑶𝟑
J2
𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
J3 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎 Tool point
𝑶𝟎
Origins coincide
J1 𝑿𝟎  𝒁𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 are  𝒂𝟑 = 𝒍𝟑 .
parallel.
L0  𝒁𝟐 and 𝒁𝟑 are  𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎.
parallel.
 𝑿𝟐 and 𝑿𝟑 are collinear and revolute  𝒒𝟑 = 𝜽𝟑 .
joint.
 𝑿𝟐 and 𝑿𝟑 are collinear and revolute  𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎.
joint.
1 0 90 𝜽𝟏 0
2 𝒍𝟐 0 𝜽𝟐 0
3 𝒍𝟑 0 𝜽𝟑 0
THANK YOU
DE ZG /ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Transformation Matrix
Transformation Matrix
 Once frames are assigned to all the links of the
manipulator starting from the base link to the end
effector, Transformation Matrix relating the two
frames of adjacent links can be obtained.
 Consider for illustration two frames {𝒊 − 𝟏} and

{𝒊} attached to adjacent links as shown.

𝜶𝒊 𝒁𝒊
𝒂𝒊 𝒀𝒊
𝒁′ 𝒊
𝑿𝒊
D 𝜶𝒊
𝒀′
𝒊′
𝑿′
C
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝒅𝒊
𝜽𝒊 𝒀𝒊−𝟏
𝜽𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 B
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
 These two frames are attached to links 𝒊 − 𝟏
and 𝒊 .
 Kinematic Joint-Link parameters for these two

frames are 𝜶𝒊 , 𝒂𝒊 , 𝜽𝒊 & 𝒅𝒊 .
 Transformation between frames 𝒊 − 𝟏 and

𝒊 consists of four basic transformations as
shown .
𝑍𝑖
𝑖
𝑍𝑖 ′ 𝑋𝑖
D
𝑖′
C
 Rotation about 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏
axis by an axle 𝜽𝒊 .
𝑍𝑖−1
𝜃𝑖
𝑖−1 B
𝑋𝑖−1

𝒁𝒊
𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′ 𝑿𝒊
D
𝒊′
C
𝒅𝒊
𝜽𝒊 𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝒊−𝟏 B 𝜽𝒊
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
1. Rotation about 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by an axle 𝜽𝒊 as

shown to make 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 coincide with 𝑿𝒊 axis.
𝑍𝑖
𝒂𝒊
𝛼𝑖
𝑖
D
𝑖′
C
𝑑𝑖  Rotation about 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by an axle 𝜽𝒊 .
𝑍𝑖−1
𝜃𝑖
𝑖−1 B
𝑋𝑖−1
 Translation along 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by distance 𝒅𝒊 .

𝒁𝒊
𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′ 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝑿𝒊
D
𝒊′
C
𝒅𝒊
𝜽𝒊 𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝜃𝑖
𝒊−𝟏 B
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
2. Translation along 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by distance 𝒅𝒊 to
make 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 axis coincide with 𝑿𝒊 axis.
𝒁𝒊
𝒂𝒊
𝜶𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′ 𝒊
𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝑿𝒊
𝒊′ D
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
C
𝒅𝒊
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝒊−𝟏 𝜃𝑖
B
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝑿𝒊−𝟏 axis coincide with 𝑿𝒊 axis due to translation
along 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by distance 𝒅𝒊 .
𝑍𝑖
𝒂𝒊
𝛼𝑖
𝑖
D
𝑖′
C
 Rotation about 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by an axle 𝜽𝒊 .
𝑑𝑖  Translation along 𝒁 axis by distance 𝒅𝒊 .
𝒊−𝟏
𝑍𝑖−1
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝜃𝑖
𝑖−1 B
𝑋𝑖−1
 Translation along 𝑿𝒊 axis by distance 𝒂𝒊 .

𝒁𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′ 𝒂𝒊
𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝑿𝒊−𝟏 D
𝒊′ 𝒂𝒊
C
𝒅𝒊
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝒊−𝟏 B 𝜃𝑖
𝑿𝒊−𝟏
3. Translation along 𝑿𝒊 axis by distance 𝒂𝒊 causes
origin 𝑪to coincide with origin D.
𝒁𝒊
𝒂𝒊 𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′ 𝑿𝒊
D 𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝒊′ 𝒂𝒊
C
𝒅𝒊
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝒊−𝟏 B 𝜃𝑖
 Translation along 𝑿𝒊 axis by distance 𝒂𝒊 causes

origin 𝑪to coincide with origin D.
𝑍𝑖
𝒂𝒊
𝛼𝑖
𝑖
D
𝑖′
C
 Rotation about 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏 axis by an axle 𝜽𝒊 .
𝑑𝑖  Translation along 𝒁 axis by distance 𝒅𝒊 .
𝒊−𝟏
𝑍𝑖−1  Translation along 𝑿𝒊 axis by distance 𝒂𝒊 .
𝜃𝑖
𝑖−1 B
𝑋𝑖−1
 Rotation about 𝑿𝒊 axis by an axle 𝜶𝒊 .

𝒁𝒊
𝒂𝒊 𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝜶𝒊
𝒊 𝑿𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′
D 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝜶𝒊
𝒊′ 𝒂𝒊
C
𝑑𝑖
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
B
4. Rotation about 𝑿𝒊 axis by an axle 𝜶𝒊 causes 𝒁𝒊−𝟏

axis to coincide with 𝒁𝒊 axis.
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝒁𝒊
𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒂𝒊 𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝜶𝒊
𝒊 𝑿𝒊
𝒁𝒊 ′
D 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝜶𝒊
𝒊′ 𝒂𝒊
C
𝑑𝑖
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
B
 Rotation about 𝑿𝒊 axis by an axle 𝜶𝒊 causes 𝒁𝒊−𝟏
axis to coincide with 𝒁𝒊 axis.
 Hence the composite Transformation matrix that
describes frame 𝒊 with respect to frame 𝒊 − 𝟏 is
given by
i-1𝑻 = 𝑻𝒛 𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒛 𝒅𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝒂𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝒊
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
i′𝑻 = 𝑻𝒙 𝒂𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
i'𝑻 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i'𝑻 = 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊
𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
i-1𝑻 ′ = 𝑻𝒛 𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒛 𝒅𝒊
𝒊
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊′ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊′ 𝒅𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 i'𝑻 = 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊′ 𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i-1𝑻 = i-1𝑻 i′𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊 𝒊′ 𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊
𝒊
𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 The above Matrix is known as Link
Transformation Matrix.
𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
Or i-1𝑻 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
𝒊 𝒓𝟑𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
= 𝒓 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝒓 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
𝒊 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Let 𝜽𝒊 = 𝟑𝟎 𝜶𝒊 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒂𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎 And 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟕
𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊
= 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟕
𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒓𝟑𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒 =
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Changing the order of rotation and translation
i-1𝑻 = 𝑻𝒛 𝒅𝒊 𝑻𝒛 𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝜶𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝒂𝒊
𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i-1𝑻 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
i′𝑻 = 𝑻𝒙 𝜶𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝒂𝒊
𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i'𝑻 = 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i'𝑻 = 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
i-1𝑻 = 𝑻𝒛 𝒅𝒊 𝑻𝒛 𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝜶𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝒂𝒊
𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i-1𝑻 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
i-1𝑻 ′ = 𝑻𝒛 𝒅𝒊 𝑻𝒛 𝜽𝒊
𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊′ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎
𝒊′ 𝒅𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i-1𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 i'𝑻 = 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊′ 𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜽𝒊 −𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒊
i-1𝑻 = i-1𝑻 i′𝑻 = 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝟎
𝒊 𝒊′ 𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Though the order of rotation and translation is
changed the Link Transformation Matrix is same.
Manipulator Transformation Matrix
 An n-DOF manipulator consists of 𝒏 + 𝟏 links

from the base to tool point, with a frame assigned
to each link.
 The position and orientation of the tool frame

relative to the base frame can be determined by
multiplying the 𝒏 consecutive link transformation
matrices.

 Thus
0𝑻
𝒏 = 0𝑻𝟏 1𝑻𝟐 2𝑻𝟑 …………n−𝟐𝑻𝒏−𝟏 n−𝟏𝑻𝒏
 This is also equal to the end effector

transformation matrix 𝑻 in terms of the tool
frame 𝒏 orientation 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒂 and its
displacement 𝒅 from the base frame 𝟎 .

𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙
0𝑻 =
𝒏 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
And 0𝑻 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
𝒏 𝒓𝟑𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
0𝑻 =
𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
𝒏 = 𝒓 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Knowing the joint displacements 𝒒𝒊 end effector

orientation 𝒏, 𝒐, 𝒂 and its position 𝒅 can be
determined as shown above.
THANK YOU
DE ZG /ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Examples on Forward Kinematics
Examples on Forward Kinematics
 Consider a 2-DOF Planar Manipulator shown

above.
Revolute joint
Prismatic joint

Revolute joint
Prismatic joint
𝑿𝟎 Origins coincide 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑶𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒀𝟎 𝑶 𝟎
𝑶𝟐
𝒁𝟎 𝒀𝟏 𝒁𝟎 𝟗𝟎
𝒀𝟐
 The joint link parameters for the two links are
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 and 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 .

𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎 .
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒌 𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒒𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝒅𝟐

 The displacement variables for the links 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐
are respectively 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 .
 Therefore, the Forward Kinematics Model of this

manipulator is obtained by combining the
transformation Matrices from frame 𝟐 to
frame 𝟏 .

 i-1𝑻 = 𝑻𝒛 𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒛 𝒅𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝒂𝒊 𝑻𝒙 𝜶𝒊
𝒊
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟏 −sin 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟏 cos 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝒊
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟐 −sin 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟐 cos 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 and 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 .
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 1𝑻 𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 0𝑻𝟐 = 0𝑻𝟏 ∗ 1𝑻𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎  0𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏
𝟎
𝟎
𝟏
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎
∗ 𝟎
𝟎
𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏
𝟎
𝒅𝟐
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 0𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 ∗ 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏
−𝑪𝟏 −𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏
 0𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 This overall Transformation Matrix must be equal to the

Transformation Matrix for the End effector.

 And Transformation Matrix for the End effector is
0𝑻 =
𝟐 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Hence End effector Transformation Matrix 𝑻𝑬 is
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅 𝒙
−𝑪𝟏 −𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅 𝒚
 0𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 =
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅 𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 This Kinematic Model is expressed by 12 equations as
shown below.
𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏
𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚 −𝑪𝟏 −𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏
 𝑻𝟐 =
0 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Let 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎 And 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎
𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
 𝑻𝟐 =
0 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟔
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏
𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚 −𝑪𝟏 −𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏
 𝑻𝟐 =
0 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒏𝒙 = 𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒏𝒚 = 𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒏𝒛 = 𝟎;
𝒐𝒙 = 𝟎; 𝒐𝒚 = 𝟎; 𝒐𝒛 = 𝟏;
𝒂𝒙 = 𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒂𝒚 = −𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒂𝒛 = 𝟎;
𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒅𝒚 = −𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟎;
 For the given values of 𝜽𝟏 and 𝒅𝟐 the end effector
transformation matrix can be written and thereby
the position and orientation of the tool point can be
computed as described below.

 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 and 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏
 we get 𝑻𝑬 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 −𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Or 𝑪𝟏 = cos 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟓; 𝑺𝟏 = sin 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔;
𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎;
𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 𝒎;

𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝑻𝑬 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅 𝒙 −𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐

𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅 𝒚
 𝑻𝟐 =
0 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅 𝒛 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 −𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐
𝒏 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 0𝑻𝟐 = 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 This T.M. 𝑻𝑬 obviously gives orientation of the

end effector by
−𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝑹𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
 And position of the end effector is given by

𝑫𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎
 As another example consider a 3-DOF RPP
Manipulator shown below.

Joint 3,
Prismatic
Link
3 Tool
Joint 2, Pint
Link Prismatic
2
Link 𝜽𝟏
1
Joint 1,
Link Revolute
𝒁𝟏
−𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒛𝟑
𝑿𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝒅𝟑  The joint link
𝑿𝟑 parameters for these
𝒁𝟏
three links are
𝒅𝟐  Link 1
𝑶𝟏 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑿𝟏  Link 2
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝒁𝟎 Origins coincide
𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎
𝜽𝟏  Link 3
𝑶𝟎 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎
𝒒𝟑 = 𝒅𝟑 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎
𝑿𝟎
 The joint link parameters for these three links are
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟐 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒒𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 and 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎
𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒒𝟑 = 𝒅𝟑 and 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒌 𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒒𝒊
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
𝟐 𝟎 -900 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝒅𝟐
𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟑 𝟎 𝒅𝟑

𝒊
 For this manipulator individual Transformation

Matrices for the three frames 𝒂𝒓𝒆.
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟏 −sin 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟏 cos 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
 For link 2.
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟐 −sin 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟐 cos 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
 For link 3.
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟑 −sin 𝜶𝟑 𝟎
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟑 cos 𝜶𝟑 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎 𝒅𝟑 = 𝒅𝟑 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 2𝑻𝟑 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Over all Transformation Matrix for the three
frames together is. 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
0𝑻𝟐 = 0𝑻𝟏 ∗ 1𝑻𝟐 ∗ 2𝑻𝟑  0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 1𝑻 𝟐 =  2𝑻 𝟑 =
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 ∗ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
∗
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 −𝒅𝟑 𝑺𝟏
𝑺
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 ∗ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝑪𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Overall Transformation Matrix and hence
Transformation Matrix for the End effector is
given by.
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 −𝒅𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑪𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 =
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Hence the 12 equations of the kinematic model

are given as

 The 12 equations of the kinematic model are
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 −𝒅𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑪𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝒏 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 0𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 = 𝒚
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒏𝒙 = 𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒏𝒚 = 𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒏𝒛 = 𝟎;
 𝒐𝒙 = 𝟎; 𝒐𝒚 = 𝟎; 𝒐𝒛 = −𝟏;
 𝒂𝒙 = −𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒂𝒚 = −𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒂𝒛 = 𝟎;
 𝒅𝒙 = −𝒅𝟑 𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒅𝒚 = 𝒅𝟑 𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒅𝒛 = 𝒅𝟐 ;
 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎and 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 −𝒅𝟑 𝑺𝟏
𝑺 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝑪𝟏
 we get 𝑻𝑬 = 𝟏
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒅𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑪𝟏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟓; −𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟏

𝑻𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐
 𝑺𝟏 = sin 𝟏𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔;
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒅𝟑 𝑪𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎;
 𝒅𝟑 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 𝒎;

 AS third example let us consider RRR
articulated Manipulator.

 Link 1
𝟎 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎
𝜶
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎
 Link 2
𝒁𝟎 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒍𝟐 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑶𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝒍𝟑 𝑶𝟑 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎
J2
𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
J3
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑  Link 3
𝒁𝟎
𝒂𝟑 = 𝒍𝟑 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎 𝒒𝟑 = 𝜽𝟑
Origins coincide
𝑶𝟎
J1 𝑿𝟎 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎
L0
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒒𝒊
1 0 90 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 𝒍𝟐 0 0 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐
3 𝒍𝟑 0 0 𝜽 𝟑 𝜽𝟑
𝑶𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝒍𝟑 𝑶𝟑 Tool point
J2
𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
J3 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎
Origins coincide
𝑶𝟎
𝑿𝟎
J1
L0
𝒊
 For this manipulator individual Transformation

Matrices for the three frames 𝒂𝒓𝒆.
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟏 −sin 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟏 cos 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽 𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
 For link 2.
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟐 −sin 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟐 cos 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒍𝟐 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺
 1𝑻 𝟐 = 𝟐
𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝑺
 1𝑻 𝟐 = 𝟐
𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 = 𝑺𝟐 𝑪 𝟐 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑺 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
 For link 3.
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟑 −sin 𝜶𝟑 𝟎
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟑 cos 𝜶𝟑 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝜽𝟑 = 𝜽𝟑 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟑 = 𝒍𝟑 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺
 2𝑻 𝟑 = 𝟑
𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟑
𝑺
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟑
𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 = 𝑺𝟑 𝑪 𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

frames together is.  0𝑻 𝟏 =
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
 𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝑻𝟐 ∗ 𝑻𝟑
0 0 1 2
𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟎−𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟑𝟏
𝑪𝟑
𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟐
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟑
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑪 𝟐 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑺 𝟐 ∗ 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺 𝟑
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 ∗ 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟑
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Overall transformation matrix for the endpoint
of the arm is
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Where 𝑪𝟐𝟑 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 and 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑

 Overall Transformation Matrix and hence
Transformation Matrix for the End effector is given by.
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙

−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒏 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = 𝒚
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Hence the 12 equations of the kinematic model are

given as

 The 12 equations of the kinematic model are
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙

−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒏 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = 𝒚
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒏𝒙 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 ; 𝒏𝒚 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 ; 𝒏𝒛 = 𝑺𝟐𝟑 ;
 𝒐𝒙 = −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 ; 𝒐𝒚 = −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 ; 𝒐𝒛 = −𝑪𝟏 ;
 𝒂𝒙 = −𝑺𝟏 ; 𝒂𝒚 = 𝑪𝟏 ; 𝒂𝒛 = 𝟎;
 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 ; 𝒅𝒚 = 𝑺𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐 ; 𝒅𝒛 = 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐 ;

 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 ,𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 , 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎and 𝑳𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐

−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝒍𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟐
 we get 𝑻𝑬 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝒍𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑪𝟐 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟓
 𝑪𝟑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑺𝟏 = sin 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔

𝑺𝟐 = sin 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
 𝑪𝟐𝟑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗
 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = sin 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖

𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗 = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟓  𝑳𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎and 𝑳𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟏
𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐

𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗 = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟏
𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟑𝟏𝟖

𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟔
 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟑𝟏𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟏𝟖
 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟗𝟔

𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟏𝟖 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟗
 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟏𝟖 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟗
𝒏𝒙 𝒐𝒙 𝒂 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 −𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟒 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟓𝟗

𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒚 𝒂 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
0𝑻 =
𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟔𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟏 −𝟎. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟗
𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟗𝟔
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

Fourth example is RPY Wrist

X
(R) Y
(P) (Y)

𝒁X𝟐 𝒁𝟑
Z𝒁
𝟎
Y
𝒁𝟏
(R) (P) (Y)

Alternative
𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟎
X
𝒁𝟏
Z

𝒁X𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏
𝑿𝟑
𝒁𝟎
Z
𝑿𝟐
Y 𝒁
𝟏
(R) (P) (Y)

𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒁𝟏
𝒁
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
𝑶𝟎 𝒁𝟎 𝑶𝟏 𝒁𝟎 𝑶𝟐 𝑶𝟑
Origins coincide
 Link 1 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎
 Link 2 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟗𝟎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎
 Link 3 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒒𝟑 = 𝜽𝟑 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎
Joint-Link Parameters for RPY wrist
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒒𝒊
1 0 900 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 0 900 0 𝜽𝟐 + 900 𝜽𝟐
3 0 0 0 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟑
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒒𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊
1 𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
2 𝟎 900 𝟎 𝜽𝟐 + 900 𝜽𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
3 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟑 𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟑 𝟏 𝟎
𝒊
 Transformation Matrices for the three frames 𝒂𝒓𝒆,
 For link 1.
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟏 −sin 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟏 cos 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽 𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎
 0𝑻 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
 For link 2.
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟐 −sin 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟐 cos 𝜶𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎
 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟗𝟎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎
−𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 1𝑻 𝟐 =
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝟎

 1𝑻 𝟐 =
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 = 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊
 For link 3.
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 cos 𝜶𝟑 −sin 𝜶𝟑 𝟎
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜶𝟑 cos 𝜶𝟑 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝜽𝟑 = 𝜽𝟑 𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟑
𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 ∗𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 ∗ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 ∗ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
 2𝑻𝟑 = 𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

frames together is.  0𝑻 𝟏 =
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
 𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝑻𝟐 ∗ 𝑻𝟑
0 0 1 2
𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
−𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟑 𝟎−𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝑺𝟐 𝟎
 1𝑻𝟐 = 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑺
 2𝑻 𝟑 = 𝟑
𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑺 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 ∗ 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 ∗ 𝟑
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 −𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 ∗
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 −𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
 0𝑻𝟑 = 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 ∗
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Overall transformation matrix for RPY wrist is
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
−𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟑 =
𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 −𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
−𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟑 =
𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 −𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎 ,𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 and 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟑 = 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
−𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟑 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟑 =
𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 −𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟑 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 When 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 ,𝜽𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 and 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟔 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟗 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝟎
𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟐 −𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Since its is a RPY wrist position matrix is zero.

Kinematics of 3-DOF polar arm

 For the 3-DOF(RRP) Manipulator arm if joint
𝑻
vector is 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , −𝟒𝟓𝟎 ,𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 with 𝒙𝟏 =
𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎 and 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒎 obtain the orientation
and position of the tool point 𝑷.
 This 3-DOF (RRP) Manipulator arm is obtained

by fixing a 2-DOF Manipulator on a rotary
table.

𝒅𝟐
𝒙𝟏
𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝒙𝟐

𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝟑
𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝟏
𝒙𝟐

𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝜽𝟐
𝒁𝟏
𝒁𝟎
𝒙𝟐 𝜽𝟏

𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
𝒙𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐
𝑶𝟑
𝜽𝟐 𝑿𝟏
𝒁𝟏
𝒁𝟎
𝒙𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝑶𝟎 𝑿𝟎

𝒁𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑 𝑿𝟐
𝒙𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝑶𝟏 𝑶𝟐
𝑶𝟑
𝑿𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟏
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟏
𝒁𝟎 𝑿𝟐
𝒙𝟐
Origins coincide
𝑶𝟎 𝑿𝟎
𝑿𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟏
 Link 1 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒙𝟏 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐
 Link 2 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟗𝟎 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎
 Link 3 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎 𝒒𝟑 = 𝒅𝟑
𝒅𝟑
𝒙𝟏
𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝟏
𝒙𝟐

𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝟐
𝒅𝟑
𝒙𝟏
𝒁𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝒁𝟎 𝜽𝟏
𝒙𝟐

𝒁𝟑
𝑿𝟑
𝑶𝟑
𝒁𝟐
𝒅𝟑
𝑶𝟐 𝑿𝟐
𝒙𝟏
𝑶𝟏
𝒁𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑿𝟏
𝒁𝟎 𝜽𝟏
𝒙𝟐
𝑶𝟎
𝑿𝟎

𝒁𝟑
 Link 1
𝑶𝟑
𝑿𝟑
𝒂𝟏 = 𝒙𝟏 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒒𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝒅𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐
𝒁𝟐  Link 2
𝒁𝟎 𝟎
𝑶𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟐 = −𝟗𝟎 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐
𝒙𝟏
𝒁𝟏 𝑶𝟏 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎
𝒁𝟏 𝑿𝟏  Link 3
𝒙𝟐
𝒁𝟎
Origins 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎 𝜶𝟑 = 𝟎 𝜽𝟑 = 𝟎
coincide 𝒒𝟑 = 𝒅𝟑
𝑶𝟎
𝑿𝟎

Joint-Link Parameters for 3-DOF Polar arm
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 Displacement Variable 𝒒𝒊
1 𝒙𝟏 900 𝒙𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 0 -900 0 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐
3 0 0 𝒅𝟑 0 𝒅𝟑
Link i 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝒅𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒒𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊
1 𝒙𝟏 900 𝒙𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
2 0 -900 0 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
3 0 0 𝒅𝟑 0 𝒅𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
 Transformation matrices are as
given below
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝑪𝟏
𝑺𝟏 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝑺𝟏
𝟎𝑻𝟏 =
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒙𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟐 𝟎 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎
𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
𝟏𝑻𝟐 =
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝑻𝟑 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝒅𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Overall transformation matrix for 3-
DOF Polar arm is
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟏 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝒅𝟑 + 𝒙𝟏 𝑪𝟏
𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝒅𝟑 + 𝒙𝟏 𝑺𝟏
𝟎𝑻𝟑 =
𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒅𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

 Given that 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎 and 𝒙𝟐 =
𝟎 𝟎
𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒎 ; 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎 , 𝜽𝟐 = −𝟒𝟓 , 𝒅𝟑 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎.
𝑪𝟏 = cos 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝑪𝟐 = cos 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕

𝑺𝟏 = sin 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝑺𝟐 = sin 𝜽𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝒅𝟑 + 𝒙𝟏 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝟎 = 𝟎
 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝒅𝟑 + 𝒙𝟏 𝒔𝟏 = −𝟏 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 ∗ 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟕
 𝑪𝟐 𝒅𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟕

𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟕
−𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟕
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
−𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕
𝟎
𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟕
𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟕
𝑳𝟐
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒁𝟎 𝑿𝟐
𝑶𝟐
𝑳𝟏𝟐 𝑳𝟏𝟏 𝑶𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟑
𝑶𝟑
𝑶𝟎 𝑿𝟎
𝑳𝟒 𝒁𝟑
𝑶𝟒 𝑿𝟒
𝒁𝟒
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝒅𝟑
𝑳𝟐
𝒁𝟎
𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝑿𝟐
𝑶𝟏 𝑿𝟏
𝑳𝟏𝟐 𝑳𝟏𝟏
𝑶𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑶𝟎 𝑿𝟎
𝜽𝟒
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑖 𝒂𝒊 𝜶𝒊 𝜽𝒊 𝒅𝒊
𝑳𝟒
𝒁𝟑
1 𝑳𝟏𝟏 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 𝑳𝟏𝟐
𝑶𝟒 𝑿𝟒
2 𝑳𝟐 𝟎 𝜽𝟐 𝟎
3 𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟎 𝒅𝟑
4 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟒 𝑳𝟒 𝒁𝟒
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝟐𝑻𝟑 𝒅𝟑 =
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝒅𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑺𝟏𝟐𝟒 denotes
𝑪𝟒 −𝑺𝟒 𝟎 𝟎 sin 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟒
𝑺 𝑪𝟒 𝟎 𝟎  𝑪𝟏𝟐𝟒 denotes
 𝟑𝑻𝟒 𝜽𝟒 = 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝒍𝟒
 𝑪𝟏𝟐 denotes
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝑺 denotes
𝟏𝟐
sin 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝑪𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝑺𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 + 𝒍𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝟏
𝑺 −𝑪𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝟎 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝒍𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝟏
 𝟎𝑻𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐𝟒
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝒍𝟏𝟐 + 𝒅𝟑 − 𝒍𝟒
Lecture 11
𝟎 𝟎 DE ZG/ES ZG561
𝟎 Mechanisms and Robotics
𝟏 BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
THANK YOU
DE ZG /ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Inverse kinematics
Inverse kinematics
 A robotic manipulator control requires knowledge of the
end effector position and orientation for the
instantaneous location of each joint as well as
knowledge of the joint displacements required to place
the end effector in a desired location.
 Thus for position control of a robotic manipulator,

Direct and Reverse kinematics problems are very
important.
 In Direct Kinematics, Position and Orientation of the

End effector are determined for the given values of joint-
link displacements.
 That is in Direct Kinematics Model end effector frame
𝒏 is defined relative to base frame 𝟎 .
𝒏 𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 Thus 𝑻 = 𝒚
𝒏𝒛 𝒐𝒛 𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Where as in Reverse Kinematics model the joint

displacements which give the end effector certain
desired position and orientation are found by solving the
kinematic model.
 In applications like welding and certain assembly
operations, which are path dependent operations, the end
effector path is specified and joint displacements are
determined.
 However, it may happen that no solution exists or many

solutions are possible.
 If the desired point 𝑷 lies out side the reachable work

space then nosolution exists.
 Even when the point 𝑷 is within reachable workspace,
not all orientations are possible, unless that point lies with
in the dexterous workspace.
 When the point 𝑷 is within reachable workspace, but not

lies with in the dexterous workspace.
Link 2
Link 3
Link 1 Tool
Target
Link 0
Link 1
Link 2
Tool
𝑷
Link 3
Link 0
Link 1 Link 2
Tool
𝑷
Link 3
Link 0

 Thus Inverse Kinematics is determination of all possible
and feasible sets of joint variables which would achieve
the specified position and orientation of the end effector
with respect to the base frame.
 The position and orientation of the end effector is

collectively referred to as configuration of the end
effector.
 Configuration of the end effector is represented by three

position components along the three orthogonal axes of
the base frame and three rotations about the base frame
axes.
 These six components can be represented by a six
dimensional space called Configuration space or
Cartesian space.
 The configuration (Position and Orientation) of the end

effector is a function of joint displacement
variables𝒒𝟏, 𝒒𝟐, 𝒒𝟑 … 𝒒𝒏 .
𝒒𝒏
𝑿𝒏
𝒒𝟐
 The configuration of the 𝒀𝟎
end effector is a function 𝒀𝒏 Tool
of joint displacement 𝒒𝟏 𝒁𝒏
𝑿𝟎
variables𝒒𝟏, 𝒒𝟐, 𝒒𝟑 … 𝒒𝒏 . 𝒁𝟎

 For an 𝒏 − 𝑫𝑶𝑭 manipulator, set of 𝒏 − 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
displacement variables is represented by an 𝒏𝑿𝟏 vector.
 This set of 𝒏𝑿𝟏 joint displacement vectors generates

the joint vector spaceor joint space.
 Relating the Joint space and Cartesian space

representations of a manipulator end effector is known
as mapping.
 Mapping of Joint space into Cartesian space is direct

kinematics.
 And mapping from Cartesian space to Joint space is
inverse kinematics.
 Inverse kinematics problem is more difficult than direct

one.
 This is so because no systematic procedure exists for
its solution.
 Further, inverse problem direct kinematics
of each manipulator has

Joint space Cartesian space
to be worked out
inverse kinematics
separately.
Workspace
 Manipulator workspace is defined as the volume of

space with in which the manipulator is able to locate its
end effector.
 Manipulator workspace is specified by the existence of

or non-existence of solution to the inverse problem.
 The region that can be reached by the origin of the end

effector frame with at least one orientation is called the
reachable work space (RWS).
 The space where the end effector can reach every point
from all orientations is known as Dexterous Work Space
(DWS).
 If a point in the work space can be reached only in one
orientation, it is not possible to do any practical work
satisfactorily with just one orientation and
manipulatability of the robot is considered to be very
poor.
 Hence designer has to locate the points in the

reachable work space, which can be reached in more
than one orientation.
 Thus the Dexterous work space is subset of the

reachable work space.
 2-DOF two link planar manipulator with link lengths 𝑳𝟏
and 𝑳𝟐 is having a planar annular space with radii
𝒓𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏 − 𝑳𝟐 and 𝒓𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 as shown in figure.
𝒓𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 +𝑳𝟐
𝒓𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏 −𝑳𝟐
L1 L2

 In side the RWS there are two possible orientations of
the end effector, where as on the boundary of RWS end
effector has only one possible orientation.
 Hence DWS is null.

 If 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟐 = 𝑳RWS is a circular area of radius 𝒓 = 𝟐𝑳.
𝑫𝑾𝑺 = ∅
𝒓𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 +𝑳𝟐 𝒓 = 𝟐𝑳
𝒓𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏 −𝑳𝟐 𝑫𝑾𝑺
RWS RWS

 RWS of an n-DOF manipulator is the geometric locus of
all the points those can be reached by the end effector as
defined by the transformation matrix of the Direct
Kinematic Model.
 RWS of a manipulator depends on the restrictions

imposed by the mechanical joints, type of configuration
and number of joints in the manipulator.

 RWS is also influenced by the limitations on the range
of motion in two types of joints, Prismatic and revolute.
 Like range of motion for a revolute joint in most of the

cases is far less than 3600.
 And translation of Prismatic joint is limited by mechanical

constraints.
 Considering a 2-DOF L1 L2
manipulator with 𝑳𝟏 > 𝑳𝟐
and joint displacements
ranges as −𝟔𝟎𝟎 ≤ 𝜽𝟏 ≤ 𝟔𝟎𝟎
and −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 ≤ 𝜽𝟐 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 .
𝒓𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 +𝑳𝟐
𝒓𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏 −𝑳𝟐

 With home position as
𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎 RWS is as shown 𝑳𝟐
below.
𝑳𝟏
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐
 When 𝜽𝟏 = ±𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎

as shown above.
 When 𝜽𝟏 = ±𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽𝟐 = ±𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 as shown below.

 Thus the factors which influence RWS of a Manipulator
apart from its DOF are its configuration ( type of Joints),
link lengths and range of motion of the joints.
Solvability of the Inverse Kinematic Model
 Solution for inverse kinematic problem is complex as
 Nonlinear simultaneous equations involving

transcendental functions (harmonic sine and cosine) are
to be solved.
 Number of simultaneous equations available is also
more than number of unknowns, making some of the
equations mutually dependent.
 Hence no solution or multiple solutions is the
possibility.
Existence of Solutions
 It is obvious that if the desired point P lies outside the

RWS then no solution exists.
 Also even when point P is with in RWS, not all

orientations are possible, thus the point is not in the
DWS.

 Transformation matrix 0 𝑻𝒏 yields 12 simultaneous
equations, which are nonlinear algebraic equations in 𝒏
unknowns – the joint variables.
 These nonlinear algebraic equations in 𝒏 unknowns

involve transcendental functions.
 Out of 12 simultaneous equations 9 equations are from

rotation matrix and remaining 3 are from displacement
vector.
 Further in 9 equations from rotation matrix has only 3

unknowns corresponding to the roll-pitch-yaw angles.
 Thus, though there are 𝒏 unknowns, the number of
constraints are only 6 (3 from orientation and 3 from
displacement).
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 Transformation matrix 0 𝑻𝒏 yields 12 simultaneous

equations, which are nonlinear algebraic equations in 𝒏
unknowns which are the joint variables.
 Out of 12 simultaneous equations 9 equations are from

rotation matrix and remaining 3 are from displacement
vector.
 Further out of these 9 equations in rotation matrix, there

are only 3 unknowns corresponding to the roll-pitch-yaw
angles.

 Thus, though there are 𝒏 unknowns, the number of
constraints are only 6 (3 from orientation and 3 from
displacement).
 For a manipulator to have all position and orientation

solutions, DOF of the manipulator 𝒏 must at least be equal
to number of independent constraints.
 That is for a manipulator to be dexterous, 𝒏 ≥ 𝟔.

 However this is not a sufficient, but only a necessary
condition for a solution to an inverse kinematic problem
to exist.
 For a manipulator with more than or less than 6-DOF, the
solutions are complex.
 When DOF of the manipulator is less than 6, the

manipulator cannot attain the goal position and
orientation in 3-D space.
 A manipulator is having less than 6-DOF, the number of

independent nonlinear equations is in terms of less than 6
unknowns.
 A manipulator is having less than 6-DOF is
mathematically an over-determined case.
 A manipulator with more than 6-DOF is an under-

determinate case, as there are only 6 independent
nonlinear equations in more than 6 unknowns.
 Thus direct kinematic model of a 6-DOF manipulator

yields 6 independent equations in 6 unknowns.
 However, while formulating the direct kinematic model,

the frames are so assigned in order to make as many
joint-link parameters as possible zero.
 And if all joint-link parameters are non-zero, even the
direct kinematic equations will become much more
complex and accordingly the inverse kinematic
problem.
Multiple solutions
 In case of inverse kinematics problems multiple

solutions is a common case.
 With multiple solutions, Robot should have the

capability to choose one solution which is the best.
 Multiple solutions arise because of different factors.

 For a 2-DOF planar manipulator with two revolute joints,
the joint variables are 𝜽𝟏 , 𝜽𝟐 .
 For the same end
effector position
and orientation, 𝜽𝟐
two sets of joint
Link 1
variables are Link 2
𝜽𝟏 Tool
𝜽𝟏 , 𝜽 𝟐 and
𝜽𝟏 ′ , 𝜽𝟐 ′ possible Link 3
𝑷
′
as shown. 𝜽 𝟏
Link 0
𝜽′ 𝟐
 In configuration space both the solutions are identical as
they result in the same position and orientation of the end
effector.
 But in case of joint space it is not same.
 The solution 𝜽𝟏 , 𝜽𝟐 is known as elbow-up position and

solution 𝜽𝟏 ′ , 𝜽𝟐 ′ is called as elbow-down position.
 However, elbow up solution is preferred to elbow down

solution as joint-link may collide with objects lying on
the work surface or work table.
 These two solutions are obtained because the axes of
two consecutive revolute joints of the manipulator are
parallel.
 If more than two axes are parallel, the number of

possible multiple solutions increases.
 Another reason for multiple solutions is trigonometric

terms in the equations.
 Harmonic terms sine and cosine give same magnitude

for angles in multiples of 𝝅 radians.

 That is 𝜽′ 𝟏 = 𝝅 + 𝜽𝟏 or 𝜽′ 𝟐 = −𝜽𝟐 etc. will result in the
same orientation of the wrist.
𝜽𝟐
Link 1
Link 2
Tool
𝜽𝟏
Link 3
𝑷
𝜽′ 𝟏
Link 0
𝜽′ 𝟐
 Number of solutions also depend on the number of

nonzero link parameters.
 For a 6-DOF manipulator with all 6 𝒂𝒊 ≠ 𝟎, up to 16
solutions are possible.
 Multiple solutions also depend on the range of motion

possible at various joints.
 A manipulator is said to be solvable if it is possible to

find all solutions to its inverse kinematic problem.
 Multiple solutions are due to number of DOF.
 A manipulator with more than 6-DOF may have more

number of solutions.
 And manipulators with DOF more than necessary are
called kinematically Redundant.
 SCARA Robot is a kinematically Redundant

configuration.
 SCARA Robot has one redundant DOF in horizontal

plane because only 2 joints are needed to establish any
horizontal position.
 Redundant manipulators however, have added

flexibility, which is useful in avoiding obstacles or
reaching inaccessible regions as shown in figure.
Link 2
Tool
Link 1
Link 0

Link 2
Link 1
Link 3
Link 0
(Base) Tool

Solution Techniques
 There are two approaches to the solutions to the

inverse kinematic problem.
 They are Closed form solutions and Numerical

solutions.
 In Numerical solutions iterative methods like Newton-

Raphson method are used.
 Numerical methods are computationally intensive and

slower compared to closed form techniques.

 Also numerical methods do not guarantee convergence
to correct solution in singular and degenerate cases.
 Closed form solutions are based on analytical algebraic

approach for solving the joint displacements.
 Closed form solutions may not be possible for all kinds of

structures.
 A sufficient but not necessary condition for 6-DOF

manipulator to have a closed form solution is that either its
three consecutive axes intersect or parallel.
 Under either of these conditions the kinematic equations
can be reduced to algebraic equations of degree less than
or equal to four for which closed form solutions exist.
Closed form Solutions
 Several approaches such as inverse transform, screw

algebra, kinematic approach and so on can be used for
solving the set of independent equations.

 But none of these is general, so that can be adopted for
every kind of manipulator.
 Hence a composite approach based on direct

inspection, algebra and inverse transform is used to
solve the inverse kinematic equations for simple
manipulators.
 Another useful technique is to reduce the complexity by

dividing the problem into two smaller parts.
 One for the arm part and the second one for the wrist,
each with 3-DOF separately.

 Solutions for the arm and wrist are obtained separately
and combined by coinciding the arm end frame with that
of the wrist to get the total manipulator solution .
Guidelines for Closed form solutions
 To find solution for n joint displacement variables from

the 12 equations obtained by equating the joint space to
Cartesian space the following guidelines.
 Solve first the equations involving only one joint

variable.

 Next solve the equations which can be reduced to
single variable equations by algebraic manipulations or
application of trigonometric identities.
 Arc tangent (Atan2) function is used instead of arc

cosine or arc sine functions as Atan2 function returns
accurate angle in the range −𝝅 ≤ 𝜽 ≪ 𝝅.
 Solutions in terms of the elements of the position vector

components of 𝟎𝑻𝒏 are more efficient than those in terms
of elements of the rotation matrix, as latter may involve
solving more complex equations.

 In the inverse kinematic model, the right hand side of
the equation 𝟎𝑻𝒏 = 𝑻 is known, while left hand side has 𝒏
unknowns 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , … … . 𝒒𝒏 .
 Left hand side of the equation 𝟎𝑻𝒏 = 𝑻is a product of 𝒏
link transformation matrices.
−𝟏
𝟎𝑻 𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻 𝟏𝑻 𝟐𝑻
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 ……. 𝒏 𝑻 𝒏 = 𝑻.
 It is known that each of the transformation matrices

𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻 is a function of only one unknown 𝒒 .
𝒊 𝒊
 Premultiplying both the sides of

−
𝟎𝑻 = 𝟎𝑻 𝟏𝑻 𝟐𝑻 … … . 𝒏 𝟏𝑻 = 𝑻 by inverse of 𝟎𝑻
𝒏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏 𝟏 yields
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏𝑻𝒏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 … … . 𝒏 𝑻 𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻
𝟏 𝑻.
−
 The left hand side of equation 𝟏𝑻𝒏 = 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 … … . 𝒏 𝟏𝑻𝒏 =
𝟎𝑻 −𝟏 𝑻 has now 𝒏 − 𝟏 unknowns 𝒒 , 𝒒 , 𝒒 … . 𝒒
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝒏 and
the right hand side has only one unknown 𝒒𝟏 .
 Elements in the right hand side matrix are zero, constant

or functions of the joint variable 𝒒𝟏 .
 Using these new set of 12 equations it is possible to

determine the joint variable 𝒒𝟏 using the guidelines
already given.
 Similarly by post multiplying both the sides of the
−
equation 𝟎𝑻𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 … … . 𝒏 𝟏𝑻𝒏 = 𝑻 by inverse of ,
the unknown 𝒒𝒏 can be determined.
 This method is repeated to solve for the all other

unknowns one at a time, sequentially from 𝒒𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝒒𝒏 .
 This is known as inverse transform approach.
Examples on Inverse Kinematics
Inverse Kinematics of 2 DOF Manipulator

 For the 2-DOF manipulator shown in figure, determine
the joint displacements for the given position and
orientation of the end of the arm point.
 The joint link parameters for both the links are
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎 .
Displacement
Variable 𝒒𝒊
1 0 𝟗𝟎𝟎 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 0 0 𝒅𝟐 0 𝒅𝟐

 From the position vector components
𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐 and 𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎
𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝟏𝟕𝟑.𝟐
 = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Or 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐
Hence 𝜽𝟏 = tan−𝟏 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎
 𝒅𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒅𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎

𝜽𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 and 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎

orientation of the end of the arm point. Take 𝒍𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟐𝒎and𝒍𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎.
−0.259 −0.966 0 0.061
𝑇𝐸 = 0.966 −0.259 0 0.318
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
𝑶𝟎 𝒍𝟏 𝑶𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟐
𝑿𝟎 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝒁𝟎 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
 The joint link parameters for both the links are
−0.259 −0.966 0 0.061
𝒂𝟏 = 𝒍𝟏 , 𝜶𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎and 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏
𝑇𝐸 = 0.966 −0.259 0 0.318
0 0 1 0
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒍𝟐 , 𝜶𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 , 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎 and 𝜽𝟐 = 𝜽𝟐 . 0 0 0 1
Displacement
Variable 𝒒𝒊
1 𝒍𝟏 𝟎𝟎 0 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏
2 𝒍𝟐 𝟎𝟎 0 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐

𝐶1 −𝑆1 0 𝑙1 𝐶1 𝐶2 −𝑆2 0 𝑙2 𝐶2
0 𝑙1 𝑆1
0𝑇1 = 𝑆1 𝐶1
1𝑇2 = 𝑆2 𝐶2 0 𝑙2 𝑆2
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝐶1 𝐶2 − 𝑆1 𝑆2 −𝑆1 𝐶2 −𝐶1 𝑆2 0 𝑙2 𝐶1 𝐶2 − 𝑙2 𝑆1 𝑆2 + 𝑙1 𝐶1
0𝑇2 = 𝑆1 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑆2 𝐶1 𝐶2 − 𝑆1 𝑆2 0 𝑙2 𝑆1 𝐶2 + 𝑙2 𝐶1 𝑆2 + 𝑙1 𝑆1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
𝐶1 𝐶2 − 𝑆1 𝑆2 −𝑆1 𝐶2 −𝐶1 𝑆2 0 𝑙2 𝐶1 𝐶2 − 𝑙2 𝑆1 𝑆2 + 𝑙1 𝐶1 −0.259 −0.966 0 0.061

𝑆1 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑆2 𝐶1 𝐶2 − 𝑆1 𝑆2 0 𝑙2 𝑆1 𝐶2 + 𝑙2 𝐶1 𝑆2 + 𝑙1 𝑆1 = 0.966 −0.259 0 0.318
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐 0 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 + 𝑙1 𝐶1 −0.259 −0.966 0 0.061

𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 0 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝑙1 𝑆1 = 0.966 −0.259 0 0.318
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
 From the position vector components

𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 + 𝒍𝟏 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏and 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝒍𝟏 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖
from 1st element, 𝒆𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝟏𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟗
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏
Or 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓
 from 2st element, 𝒆𝟐𝟏 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔
𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐 0 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 + 𝑙1 𝐶1 −0.259 −0.966 0 0.061

𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 0 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝑙1 𝑆1 = 0.966 −0.259 0 0.318
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

 Therefore, 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝒍𝟏 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖 becomes
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖
𝐒𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝑺𝟏 𝟎.𝟖𝟔𝟔
𝑻𝟏 = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐  Or 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑪𝟏 𝟎.𝟓

𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐 0 𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 + 𝑙1 𝐶1 −0.259 −0.966 0 0.061

𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 0 𝒍𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝑙1 𝑆1 = 0.966 −0.259 0 0.318
𝑪𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
𝜽𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

 from 1st element, 𝒆𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝟏𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟗
𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝟎.𝟗𝟔𝟔
𝑻𝟏𝟐 = = = −𝟑. 𝟕𝟐𝟗
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟗
 Or 𝜽𝟏𝟐 = tan−𝟏 −𝟑. 𝟕𝟐𝟗 = −𝟕𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟎  𝜽𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎

 𝜽𝟏𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟎  𝜽𝟐 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎
 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 − 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎

orientation of the end of the arm point.
 Three DOF 3R articulated manipulator is shown in
figure.
Inverse Kinematics of Articulated arm.

 For the 3-DOF articulated arm determine the joint
displacements for the given position and orientation of
the end of the arm point.
 Three DOF 3R articulated manipulator is shown in
figure.
Frame Assignment for Articulated Arm
𝟐 𝒍 𝑱𝟑 𝟑 𝒍𝟑
𝑱𝟐 𝟐
𝒍𝟏 𝟏 Q4a
𝑱𝟏
 Next 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌 − 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕parameters are identified.
𝒁𝟎
𝑿𝟏 𝑱𝟑 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
𝑱𝟐
𝑶𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝒍𝟑 𝑶𝟑
𝒁𝟏 𝒍𝟏
𝑿𝟎 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑
𝑶𝟎
𝑱𝟏 Q4b-9
1 𝟎 𝟗𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏
2 𝒍𝟐 0 𝟎 𝜽𝟐
3 𝒍𝟑 0 𝟎 𝜽𝟑
 Overall transformation matrix for the endpoint of the arm
is
 Where 𝑪𝟐𝟑 and 𝑺𝟐𝟑 are 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 and

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 respectively
 Let the known position and orientation of the endpoint
of arm be given by
𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒

𝒓 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
𝑻 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Here each 𝒓𝒊𝒋 has a numerical value.
 To obtain the solutions for the joint variables 𝑻 is

equated to the overall transformation matrix.
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝟎𝑻𝟑 =
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒

𝒓 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
𝑻 = 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒

𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
= 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
= 𝒓 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Inspection of elements in both the matrices indicates

that 𝜽𝟏 can be obtained from 3rd element of 1st row,
element (𝟏, 𝟑).
 −𝑺𝟏 = 𝒓𝟏𝟑  𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 = −𝒓𝟏𝟑
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒
𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
= 𝒓 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 However, this is not a preferred one as correct

quadrant of angle is not known from this relation.
 Hence by dividing the element 𝒆𝟐𝟏 with element 𝒆𝟏𝟏 or

𝒆𝟐𝟐 by 𝒆𝟏𝟐 or 𝒆𝟏𝟑 by 𝒆𝟐𝟑 or 𝒆𝟐𝟒 by 𝒆𝟏𝟒 the desired 𝜽𝟏 is
obtained.
 Since solution in terms of elements of position vector
components are more efficient than those in terms of
elements of the rotation matrix, dividing 𝒆𝟐𝟒 by 𝒆𝟏𝟒 the
desired 𝜽𝟏 is obtained.
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟒

𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐𝟑 −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟒
= 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟒
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟑𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐𝟒
 𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = 𝒓𝟏𝟒
𝑺𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 +𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝑺𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟒
 =  =
𝑪𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟐𝟑 +𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝑪𝟏 𝒓𝟏𝟒
𝒓𝟐𝟒  𝜽𝟏 = 𝑨𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟒 , 𝒓𝟏𝟒

 𝜽𝟏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒓𝟏𝟒
 The other two unknowns 𝜽𝟐 and 𝜽𝟑 can not be

obtained directly.
 To get a solution for 𝜽𝟐 and 𝜽𝟑 inverse transform is used.
 To isolate 𝜽𝟑 both the sides of equation are post

multiplied by 𝟐𝑻𝟑 −𝟏 .
−𝟏
 This will give 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻 𝟐𝑻𝟑
𝑪𝟑 −𝑺𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑪𝟑
𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑺𝟑
𝟐𝑻𝟑 𝜽𝟑 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟑 𝑺𝟑 𝟎 −𝑳𝟑
𝟑 𝑻 𝑻
𝟐𝑻 𝟑 −𝟏
= 𝟐𝑹 − 𝟐𝑹 𝟐𝑫𝟑
𝟑
=
−𝑺𝟑 𝑪𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝑺 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝑺 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐
𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻 𝟐𝑻𝟑 −𝟏
𝐂𝟏 𝟎 𝐒𝟏 𝟎 𝐂𝟐 −𝐒𝟐 𝟎 𝐋𝟐 𝐂𝟐 𝐫𝟏𝟏 𝐫𝟏𝟐 𝐫𝟏𝟑 𝐫𝟏𝟒 𝐂𝟑 𝐒𝟑 𝟎 −𝐋𝟑

𝐒𝟏 𝟎 −𝐂𝟏 𝟎 𝐒𝟐 𝐂𝟐 𝟎 𝐋𝟐 𝐒𝟐 𝐫 𝐫𝟐𝟐 𝐫𝟐𝟑 𝐫𝟐𝟒 −𝐒𝟑 𝐂𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
= 𝐫𝟐𝟏 𝐫𝟑𝟐 𝐫𝟑𝟑 𝐫𝟑𝟒
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟑𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Left hand side in the above relation has only 𝛉𝟏 and 𝛉𝟐

terms and right hand side contains only 𝛉𝟑 terms.
 Obviously the elements 𝒆 𝟏, 𝟒 , 𝒆 𝟐, 𝟒 and 𝒆 𝟑, 𝟒 are
only functions of 𝛉𝟏 and 𝛉𝟐 .
 Equating the elements 𝒆 𝟏, 𝟒 , 𝒆 𝟐, 𝟒 and 𝒆 𝟑, 𝟒 of the

two matrices, the three equations are
 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒
 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒
 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟏 +𝒓𝟑𝟒
Squaring and adding the equations 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒
and 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 one gets
 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝟐 + 𝑺𝟏 𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐
 Or 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐
𝟐 −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐

 i.e. 𝑪𝟐 =
𝑳𝟐 𝟐
−𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐
 Hence 𝑪𝟐 = ±
𝑳𝟐 𝟐
 And 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 = ± −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐
Dividing the relation 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 = −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟏 + 𝒓𝟑𝟒 with 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 =

± −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐 one gets
𝑺𝟐 −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟏 +𝒓𝟑𝟒

 =
𝑪𝟐 ± −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐
Therefore 𝜽𝟐 = 𝑨𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟏 +𝒓𝟑𝟒 , ± −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟏𝟏 +𝒓𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝑳𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟏 +𝒓𝟐𝟒 𝟐
 To determine the value of 𝜽𝟑 divide the element 𝒆 𝟑, 𝟏 by

elememt 𝒆 𝟑, 𝟐 , thus
𝑺𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟏
 =
𝑪𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟐
 Or 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟑 = 𝑨𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟏 , 𝒓𝟑𝟐
 Hence 𝜽𝟑 = 𝑨𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒓𝟑𝟏 , 𝒓𝟑𝟐 − 𝜽𝟐
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ ES ZG 561
Manipulator Differential Motion
 In the preceding lectures, the direct and inverse

kinematic models were presented, which establish the
relationship between the manipulator’s joint
displacements and position and orientation of its end-
effector.
 These relationships permit the static control of the

manipulator to place the end-effector at a specified
location and make it traverse a specific path in space.
 However, for the manipulator, in addition to the final

location of the end-effector velocities at which the end-
effector would move to reach the final location is also
equally important.
 For this instantaneous end-effector velocity and joint
velocities coordination is required.
 This in turn requires the time derivative of kinematic

equations of the manipulator.
 The transformation from joint velocities to the end-

effector velocity is described by a matrix, called the
Jacobian.
 Jacobian matrix dependents on manipulator

configuration and is a linear mapping from velocities in
joint space to velocities in Cartesian space.
 For a given end-effector velocity determination of the
joint velocities is of practical importance and is known as
the inverse problem which requires the inverse of the
Jacobian.
 The Jacobian is one of the most important tools for

characterization of differential motions of the
manipulator.
 At certain locations in joint space, the Jacobian matrix

may lose rank and it may not be possible to find its
inverse.
 These locations are referred to as singular
configurations.
 Hence there is a necessity to discuss manipulator
singularities and these singularities are used to establish
some indices of merit to judge a manipulator design,
while it is still at the stage of design.
 Further the Jacobian is also useful for describing the

mapping between forces applied to the end-effector and
resulting torques or forces at joints.
 This is called as Manipulator statics.

 Before discussing the Jacobian, review of the concepts
of linear and angular velocities of a rigid body is required.
To review of the

concepts of linear and
angular velocity of a
robot, consider a link
𝒊 of the manipulator in
isolation, as shown in
figure.
 This link joins with two other links at points 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 and 𝑶𝒊 .
Time-variation of position and orientation of the link in

space produces linear and angular velocities 𝒗 and 𝛚,
respectively.
 Thus concepts of translation and rotation, discussed
earlier, can be extended to the time-variation of location,
that is, velocities.
 The motion of a link can be studied by attaching
coordinate frames to the link and studying the motion of
frames relative to one another.
It can be seen from
figure that frame {𝒊}is
attached to the link
𝒊 and it moves with the
link.
 Motion of a link 𝒊is, described relative to the fixed frame
{𝟎}.
The position vector 0𝑫𝒊 describes the location of frame

{𝒊} relative to frame {𝟎}.
 The rotation matrix 0 𝑹𝒊 describes the orientation of
frame {𝒊}relative to frame {𝟎}.
 And the homogenous transformation 0𝑻𝒊 combines both,
the translation and rotation of frame {𝒊}relative to frame
{𝟎}.
Linear velocity
Suppose the link 𝒊 is only
translating relative to
frame{𝟎}.
 Every point on the link will
have the same linear
velocity as each link is a
rigid body.
The linear velocity of link 𝒊 or that of any point 𝑸 on it,
relative to frame {𝟎} is given by
0𝒗 𝒅 𝟎𝑫 𝒊 𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝒕+∆𝒕 −𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝒕

 𝒊 =0𝒗𝑸 = = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝒅𝒕 ∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
For pure translation, link

linear velocity can be
obtained by taking the time
derivative of the
homogeneous transformation
matrix because rotation
matrix 0𝑹𝒊 is constant.
𝟎𝑹𝒊 𝟎𝑫𝒊
 It is known that 𝟎𝑻𝒊 =
𝟎 𝟏
 Hence, the link linearity velocity is thus given by
𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒕+∆𝒕 −𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒕

 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
 Note that in the above equation 𝟎𝒗𝒊 is
a 𝟑𝑿𝟏 vector with the components
𝑻
𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒙 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒛 , each of which can be
obtained by differentiating the
corresponding components of the 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒙
𝑻 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒚
position vector 𝟎𝑫𝒊 = 𝒅𝒊𝒙 𝒅𝒊𝒚 𝒅 𝒊𝒛 with 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒛
respect to time.
 As with any other vector, a velocity vector can be
mapped from one frame to another.
 But unlike position vectors, velocity vectors are free
vectors, because they do not depend on their line of
action and, hence, the mathematics of their mapping is
different from that already discussed and as explained
below.

Angular velocity
Consider now the rotation of the link in figure with an

angular velocity 𝝎 about some axis as shown in figure.
𝒁𝒊
𝟎𝝎𝒊
𝑲 𝒁𝟎
𝟎𝝎𝒊 𝒊 𝒁𝒊
𝑿𝒊 ∆𝜽
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝑶𝒊 𝟎
𝒀𝒊 𝒊
𝒀𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝟎
𝑿𝟎 ∆𝜽
∆𝜽
𝑶𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝟎
𝑿𝒊
𝒁𝟎 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝒊−𝟏
𝑿𝟎 𝑶𝟎
𝒀𝟎

 In general, the axis of rotation itself may be changing
with time.
 Therefore, there is an instantaneous axis of rotation and
every point on the body as it rotates also has an
instantaneous linear velocity, which is tangential to the
arc of rotation at that instant.
 Due to rotation
 angular velocity
 linear velocity

 The origins of the two frames are considered to be
coincident such that only relative rotation is possible.
The angular velocity of frame {𝒊}, 𝒁𝟎

𝟎𝝎𝒊
relative to frame {𝟎}, is represented by 𝒁𝒊

∆𝜽
angular velocity vector 𝟎𝝎𝒊 directed 𝒊
𝟎
along the instantaneous axis of 𝒀𝒊
rotation of frame {𝒊}, the axis 𝒌. 𝑿𝟎

∆𝜽
𝑶𝟎 ∆𝜽
𝒀𝟎
𝑿𝒊
 The magnitude of angular velocity is equal to the speed

of rotation.
∆𝜽 𝒅𝜽
 𝟎𝝎𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = =𝜽
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Linear velocity due to angular motion
To find the linear velocity due to angularmotion, consider

frames {𝒊 − 𝟏}and {𝒊}and a point 𝑸 on the link as shown.
The frame {𝒊} along with the

point 𝑸 is rotating about axis
𝒌 with an instantaneous 𝒁𝒊
angular velocity 𝝎. 𝑸′
𝑲 𝒊
∆𝑸
𝟎𝝎𝒊
In small time interval ∆𝒕, 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝑿𝒊
𝑶𝒊 𝑸
the point 𝑸 describes an 𝒓 𝒀𝒊

∆𝜽
arc with the radius 𝒊−𝟏
𝒊 − 𝟏𝑫𝒊
𝒓 = 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 𝑸 and moves 𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝑶𝒊−𝟏
𝒀𝒊−𝟏
through an angle ∆𝜽, with
∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽
respect to frame {i-1}.
 The linear distance translated in this time is ∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽
therefore, the linear velocity of 𝑸 is 𝒁 𝒊
𝒊 𝑸′
∆𝑸 𝒓∆𝜽 𝑲 ∆𝑸
 𝒗 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = = 𝒓𝜽 = 𝒓𝝎 𝟎𝝎𝒊
𝑶𝒊 𝑸
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝑿𝒊
𝒓 𝒀𝒊
 The direction of this ∆𝜽
𝒊−𝟏
velocity is tangential to the 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑫𝒊
arc described by 𝑸. 𝑿𝒊−𝟏
𝑶𝒊−𝟏
𝒀𝒊−𝟏
∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽

Combined linear and angular motion
 let us consider simultaneous rotation and translation of

a link.
Consider two frames, frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} and frame {𝒊}and a
point 𝑸 in space, as shown in figure.
 The frame {𝒊}is described

with reference to frame
{𝒊 − 𝟏} by the
transformation matrix
𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 , having
components as the
translation vector 𝐢 − 𝟏𝑫𝒊
and rotation matrix
𝒊 − 𝟏𝑹𝒊 . BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Small motion of frame {𝒊}along with point 𝑸, relative to
frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}, results in small displacement ∆𝑸of point 𝑸
along a circular arc of radius 𝒓in time ∆𝒕, subtending
small angle ∆𝜽. 𝒁 𝒊
Initially assume that the 𝒊 𝑸′

𝑲
orientation of frame {𝒊}is not 𝟎𝝎
𝑶 (𝑷)
𝒊
∆𝑸
𝑸 𝒊
𝑿 𝒊
changing with time, that is 𝒁 𝒊−𝟏
𝒊 − 𝟏𝑹𝒊 is constant. ∆𝜽
𝒓 𝒀 𝒊
𝒊−𝟏
Then, the motion of point 𝑸 𝑶𝒊−𝟏

relative to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}can be 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝒊−𝟏
due to translation of origin of ∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽
frame {𝒊}(point 𝑷 or origin 𝑶𝒊 )

and/or translation of point 𝑸
relative to frame {𝒊}.
The linear velocity of point 𝑸 with respect to frame {𝒊 −
𝟏}is, therefore.
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 (𝑷)
where 𝒊𝒗𝑸 is the velocity of

point 𝑸 with respect to frame
{𝒊}and 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 is the velocity
of frame {𝒊} , with origin
𝑷(𝑶𝒊 ), with respect to frame
{𝒊 − 𝟏}.

Consider now the rotation of frame {𝒊} about 𝒌-axis with
an angular velocity 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 .
Let 𝑸 be a fixed point in frame {𝒊}, as shown in figure.

Assume that frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} is
translated to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏’} such 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
that its origin coincides with
origin of frame {𝒊} and the axis
of rotation ( 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 ) is fixed 𝒁𝒊
𝒓 ∆𝜶
∆𝑸
with respect to frame{𝒊 − 𝟏’}. 𝑸
𝑸′
𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒊
𝑿𝒊 𝑶𝒊 (𝑷) 𝒀𝒊

It means that vector 𝑷𝑸 rotates about 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 at a fixed
angular velocity𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 .
The figure shows the vector 𝑷𝑸 at any instant of time 𝒕.

𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
The rotation causes the tip 𝑸 of
the vector 𝑷𝑸 to trace a circle in
a plane perpendicular to the 𝒌- 𝒁𝒊
𝒓 ∆𝜶
∆𝑸
axis and line 𝑷𝑸 describes the 𝑸
𝑸′
slanting surface of a cone. 𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒊

The radius of the circular path of  𝒓 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑸 is
 In time ∆𝒕, point 𝑸 turns by 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
an angle ∆𝜶along the circle

traversing a distance 𝒓 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒓 ∆𝜶
∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜶. 𝒁 𝒊
∆𝑸
𝑸
 Or ∆𝑸 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 ∆𝜶 𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝑸′
𝒊
Thus, the magnitude of ∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜶

linear velocity of 𝑸 in frame
𝒊 − 𝟏 is
∆𝑸 ∆𝜶
 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒍𝒊𝒎
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
∆𝑸 ∆𝜶
 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
∆𝜶
 as 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝒓 ∆𝜶
𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒁𝒊
∆𝑸
𝑸
𝑸′
Therefore, 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒊
𝜽 ∆𝜽
 Or 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝟐 X𝒊 − 𝟏𝑸
 The direction of the linear velocity of 𝑸is tangential to

the circle in the instantaneous direction of motion.

The liner velocity direction at 𝑸 is, therefore, at 𝟗𝟎𝟎 to
both 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and 𝑷𝑸 in right-handed direction.
By virtue of these two reasons, the
linear velocity vector of point 𝑸 due
to rotation about the 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔,𝑷𝑸,is 𝒁𝒊
𝒓 ∆𝜶
∆𝑸
the cross product 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝑸
𝑸′
𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝟐 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑸. 𝒊
 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝟐 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑸 𝑿𝒊 𝑶𝒊 (𝑷) 𝒀𝒊
Since the point 𝑸 is known in

frame {𝒊}, it can also be written
as
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 X𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
 Now, if frame {𝒊}is also translating with respect to frame
{𝒊 − 𝟏}, the total linear velocity of 𝑸, which is fixed in frame
𝒊 , is
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
If the point 𝑸 is also moving in the frame {𝒊}, then, total
linear velocity of 𝑸 is obtained by combining equations
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 and
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸
 as 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
In equation
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸 , if
point 𝑸 is located on the rigid body (as shown in figure),
it cannot have a velocity relative to frame {𝒊}, that is 𝒊𝒗𝑸
will be zero.
The instantaneous motion of a link has both linear and
angular velocity components, (𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 , 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 ).
 It can be written in the form of a 𝟔 − 𝑫 vector, called

Cartesian velocityvector𝑽.
𝒅𝒙
 The Cartesian 𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝒚 𝒅𝒚
velocity vector
comprises of 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒗 𝒗𝒛 𝒅𝒛
=𝒊−𝟏 𝝎 =𝒊−𝟏
three 𝝎 𝑸 𝒙 𝜽𝒙
𝝎𝒚
components of 𝜽𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝑸
linear velocity 𝜽𝒛 𝑸
vector and three
components of
angular velocity THANK YOU
vector.
DE ZG/ ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ ES ZG 561
 Consider a link 𝒊 of the manipulator in isolation, as
shown in figure.
 This link joins with two other links at points 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 and 𝑶𝒊 .
 That frame {𝒊}is attached to the link 𝒊 and it moves with

the link.
 Motion of a link 𝒊is, described relative to the fixed
frame {𝟎}.
 The rotation matrix 0 𝑹𝒊
describes the orientation of
frame {𝒊}relative to frame {𝟎}.
The position vector 0𝑫𝒊

describes the location
of frame {𝒊} relative to
frame {𝟎}.
 Homogenous transformation 0 𝑻𝒊 combines both, the

translation and rotation of frame {𝒊}relative to frame {𝟎}.
Linear velocity
 Considering that link 𝒊 has only translationrelative to

frame{𝟎}.
 Every point on the link will

have the same linear velocity
as each link is a rigid body.
The linear velocity of link 𝒊 or that of any point 𝑸 on it,

relative to frame {𝟎} is given by
0𝒗 𝒅 𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝒕+∆𝒕 −𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝒕
 𝒊 =0𝒗
𝑸 = = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝒅𝒕 ∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝟎𝑹𝒊 𝟎𝑫𝒊
 Since 𝟎𝑻𝒊 =
𝟎 𝟏
𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒕+∆𝒕 −𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒕
 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝟎𝒗𝒊 is a 𝟑𝑿𝟏 vector with the

𝑻
components 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒙 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒛 .
 Each of these components are 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒙

obtained by differentiating the 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒚
𝟎𝒗𝒊𝒛
corresponding components of the
𝑻
position vector 𝟎𝑫𝒊 = 𝒅𝒊𝒙 𝒅𝒊𝒚 𝒅 𝒊𝒛
with respect to time. 𝟎𝑫𝒊𝒙
𝟎𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎𝑫𝒊𝒚
For pure translation, rotation 𝟎𝑫𝒊𝒛
matrix 0𝑹𝒊 is constant.
Angular velocity
Consider now the rotation of the link in figure with an

angular velocity 𝝎 about some axis as shown in figure.
𝒁𝒊
𝟎𝝎𝒊
𝑲 𝒁𝟎
𝟎𝝎𝒊 𝒊 𝒁𝒊
𝑿𝒊 ∆𝜽
𝒁𝒊−𝟏
𝑶𝒊 𝟎
𝒀𝒊 𝒊
𝒀𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝟎
𝑿𝟎 ∆𝜽
∆𝜽
𝑶𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝟎
𝑿𝒊
𝒁𝟎 𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝒊−𝟏
𝟎  Due to rotation
 angular velocity
𝑿𝟎 𝑶𝟎
𝒀𝟎  linear velocity

The angular velocity of frame {𝒊}, relative to frame {𝟎}, is
𝟎𝝎𝒊 about the axis 𝒌.
 The magnitude of angular velocity is 𝒁𝟎

𝟎𝝎𝒊
𝒁𝒊
equal to the speed of rotation. ∆𝜽
𝟎
𝒊
∆𝜽 𝒅𝜽
 𝟎𝝎𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = =𝜽 𝒀𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑿𝟎 𝑶𝟎 ∆𝜽
∆𝜽
𝒀𝟎
𝑿𝒊

Linear velocity due to angular motion
The frame {𝒊} along with the point 𝑸 is rotating about axis
𝒌 with an instantaneous angular velocity 𝝎.
In small time interval ∆𝒕, the 𝒁𝒊
point 𝑸 describes an arc with 𝑲 𝒊 𝑸′

∆𝑸
𝟎𝝎𝒊
the radius 𝒓 = 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 𝑸 and 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝑿𝒊
𝑶𝒊 𝑸
moves through an angle ∆𝜽, 𝒓 𝒀𝒊

∆𝜽
with respect to frame {i-1}. 𝒊−𝟏
𝑶𝒊−𝟏
𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝒊−𝟏
∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽
 The distance translated in ∆𝒕 is ∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽 therefore, the

linear velocity of 𝑸 is
∆𝑸 𝒓∆𝜽
 𝒗 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = = 𝒓𝜽 = 𝒓𝝎
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
Combined linear and angular motion
 let us consider simultaneous rotation and translation of

a link.
 The transformation matrix 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 , has components the

translation vector 𝐢 − 𝟏𝑫𝒊 and rotation matrix 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑹𝒊 .
Initially assume that the orientation of frame {𝒊} is not
changing with time, that is 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑹𝒊 is constant.
 Motion of point 𝑸 relative to frame
{𝒊 − 𝟏}is translation of origin of frame 𝒁𝒊
{𝒊}(point 𝑷 or 𝑶𝒊 ) and/or translation of 𝑸′

𝒊
point 𝑸 relative to frame {𝒊}. 𝟎𝝎𝒊
𝑲
𝑶𝒊(𝑷)
∆𝑸
𝑸
𝒓 𝒀𝒊
Translation of origin of frame ∆𝜽
𝒊−𝟏
{𝒊}(point 𝑷 or 𝑶𝒊 ) is 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 . 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑫𝒊
𝑶𝒊−𝟏
𝑿𝒊−𝟏 𝒀𝒊−𝟏
Translation of point 𝑸 ∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜽
relative to frame {𝒊}is 𝒊𝒗𝑸 .

𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸
Consider now the rotation of frame {𝒊} about 𝒌-axis with
an angular velocity 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 .
Let 𝑸 be a fixed point in frame {𝒊}, as shown in figure.
Assume that frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} is translated to

frame {𝒊 − 𝟏’} such that its origin 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
coincides with origin of frame {𝒊} and the

axis of rotation ( 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 ) is fixed with 𝒓 ∆𝜶
respect to frame{𝒊 − 𝟏’}. 𝒁 𝒊
∆𝑸
𝑸
𝑸′
𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒊

It means that vector 𝑷𝑸 rotates about 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 at a fixed
angular velocity𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 .
The figure shows the vector 𝑷𝑸 at any instant of time 𝒕.

The rotation causes the tip 𝑸 of
the vector 𝑷𝑸 to trace a circle in
a plane perpendicular to the 𝒌- 𝒁𝒊
𝒓 ∆𝜶
∆𝑸
axis and line 𝑷𝑸 describes the 𝑸
𝑸′
slanting surface of a cone. 𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒊

The radius of the circular path of  𝒓 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑸 is
 In time ∆𝒕, point 𝑸 turns by 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
an angle ∆𝜶along the circle

traversing a distance 𝒓 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒓 ∆𝜶
∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜶. 𝒁 𝒊
∆𝑸
𝑸
 Or ∆𝑸 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 ∆𝜶 𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝑸′
𝒊
Thus, the magnitude of ∆𝑸 = 𝒓∆𝜶

linear velocity of 𝑸 in frame
𝒊 − 𝟏 is
∆𝑸 ∆𝜶
 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒍𝒊𝒎
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸
 Magnitude of linear velocity of 𝑸 in 𝒊 − 𝟏 is

∆𝑸 ∆𝜶
 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
∆𝜶
 as 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝒓 ∆𝜶
𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒁𝒊
∆𝑸
𝑸
𝑸′
Therefore, 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑷𝑸 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒊
𝜽 ∆𝜽
 Or 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 X𝒊 − 𝟏𝑸
 The direction of the linear velocity of 𝑸is tangential to

the circle in the instantaneous direction of motion.

𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸
The liner velocity direction at 𝑸 is, therefore, at 𝟗𝟎𝟎 to

both 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and 𝑷𝑸 in right-handed direction.
 Linear velocity of point 𝑸 due to

rotation about the 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔,𝑷𝑸,is the
cross product
𝒓 ∆𝜶
𝒁𝒊
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑸. 𝑸
∆𝑸
𝑸′
𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒊
Since the point 𝑸 is in
frame {𝒊} , it can also be 𝑿𝒊 𝑶𝒊 (𝑷) 𝒀𝒊
written as
𝒊 − 𝟏𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 X𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.

𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 X𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
 Now, if frame {𝒊}is also translating with respect to frame

{𝒊 − 𝟏}, the total linear velocity of 𝑸, which is fixed in frame
𝒊 , is
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
If the point 𝑸 is also moving in the frame {𝒊}, then, total
linear velocity of 𝑸 is obtained by combining equations
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 for Translation alone
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸 for rotation alone
 as 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 X𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 for Translation alone
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸 for rotation alone
 For combined rotation and translation
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
 If point 𝑸 is located on the rigid body (as shown in
figure), it cannot have a velocity relative to frame {𝒊}, that
is 𝒊𝒗𝑸 will be zero.
𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 ∗ 𝒊𝒗𝑸 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸.
 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑷 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑸
 A link has both linear and angular velocity components,
(𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 , 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 ).
 It can be written in the form of a 𝟔 − 𝑫 vector, called

Cartesian velocityvector𝑽.
𝒅𝒙
 The Cartesian 𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝒚 𝒅𝒚
velocity vector
comprises of 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒗 𝒗𝒛 𝒅𝒛
=𝒊−𝟏 𝝎 =𝒊−𝟏
three 𝝎 𝑸 𝒙 𝜽𝒙
𝝎𝒚
components of 𝜽𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝑸
linear velocity 𝜽𝒛 𝑸
vector and three
components of
angular velocity THANK YOU
vector.
DE ZG/ES ZG 561

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Equivalent Axis Rotation
Sequences of Rotations
 Two different rotation sequences do not give
the same orientation and the resultant rotation
matrix depends on the order of rotations.
𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟐
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒙 𝜽𝟏 𝑹𝒚 𝜽𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒚 𝜽𝟐 𝑹𝒙 𝜽𝟏 𝑹 = 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏
−𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒚 𝜽𝟏 𝑹𝒙 𝜽𝟐 𝑹 = 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐
−𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
Principal axes Rotations
 Another important variation is how these

rotations about the principal axes are performed.
 There are two possible ways of rotation, they are
 Rotation of a body successively about the

principal axes of the fixed frame.
 Successive rotations of the body are performed
about the current principal axes of the moving
frame.
 These successive rotations about these two
different types of principal axes do not result in
the same orientation of the body.
 For example consider two successive rotations
of 𝟗𝟎𝟎 given to an object about the principal axes
of the fixed frame.
 First the body is rotated about 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔followed
by rotation about 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 as shown.
Z
Z’
Y’
Y
Y’’ 𝑹𝒁,𝟗𝟎𝟎 X’
X 𝑹𝒀,𝟗𝟎𝟎
X’’
Z’’
 And when the order of rotations is about the
principal axes of the moving frame in the same
sequence the result is different as shown.
Z
Z’ Y’
Y
X’
X
Y’’ 𝑹𝒁,𝟗𝟎𝟎
Z’’ 𝑹𝒀′,𝟗𝟎𝟎
 Similarly change in order of rotation

about the principal axes of moving
frame also produces different final
X’’ orientation of the body.
Fixed Angle Representation
 Let initially the fixed frame 𝑿, 𝒀, 𝒁 𝒐𝒓 𝟏 and the
moving frame 𝑼, 𝑽, 𝑾 𝒐𝒓 𝟐 be coincident.
Z
 And three different rotations W
are given to the body about the 𝜽𝟑
three axes of the fixed frame as 𝟏
shown in figure. 𝟐 V
𝜽𝟐
Y
𝜽𝟏
XU
First rotation is about 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔by an angle 𝜽𝟏 and
this is described by the rotation matrix 𝑹𝒙 𝜽𝟏 .
Z
W’
𝟏
𝜽𝟏 V’
𝟐′
𝜽𝟏
Y
𝜽𝟏
XU
’

Next this new frame 𝟐′ is rotated by 𝜽𝟐 about
𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔to get the third frame 𝟐′′ .
Z
W’
 This rotation matrix for W’’ V’’
this rotation is 𝑹𝒚 𝜽𝟐 . 𝟐′
𝜽𝟐 𝟏 V’
𝟐′′
Y
𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝟐
X U’’
 The final and third rotation is about the 𝒛 −
𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔by 𝜽𝟑 to obtain the final frame 𝟐 .
 This is described by the matrix 𝑹𝒛 𝜽𝟑 .
Z
W 𝜽𝟑
V
𝟏
𝟐
Y
X U
Z
W’
𝟏
𝜽𝟏 V’ W’ Z
W’’ V’’
𝟐′ 𝟐′
𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏
Y V’
𝜽𝟏 𝟐′′
Y
Z
XU W 𝜽𝟐
’ 𝜽𝟑 𝜽𝟐
V
𝟏 X U’’
𝟐
Y  All these rotations
are shown in figures
above.
X U
Equivalent Axis Rotation
A third representation of orientation is by a single
rotation about an arbitrary axis.
 A coordinate frame can be rotated about an
arbitrary 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌passing through the origin of fixed
reference frame 𝟏 .
 The rotation matrix for this case is obtained by
viewing the rotation as a sequence of rotations of
frame 𝟐 (along with 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔) about the principal
axes of frame 𝟏 .
 Consider frame 𝟐 , initially coincident with
frame 𝟏 .
 Frame 𝟐 is rotated by an angle 𝜽 about
𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, in frame 𝟏 .
W Z
𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
𝜽
𝟏
V
𝟐′
X
U
 The rotation of frame 𝟐 is decomposed into
rotations about the principal axes of frame 𝟏 .
 First, suitable rotations are made about the

principal axes of frame 𝟏 so as to align the
𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌with 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

Z
K
P 𝜽
𝑲𝒁
1
O 𝑲𝒀 Y
𝑲𝑿
𝑲𝑿 𝟐 + 𝑲𝒀 𝟐
X
Z
K
𝜶 P 𝜽
𝑲𝒛
1
𝑲𝒚 Y
𝑲𝒙 O𝜶
X
 First, rotate the vector𝑷by an angle −𝜶 about 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔such that this
rotation causes the 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑶𝑷 to lie in 𝒙𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆of frame 𝟏 .
Z
𝜶 K
𝜶 P 𝜽
P’
𝑲𝒛
1 𝜶
𝑲𝒚 Y
𝑲𝒙 O
𝜶
X
 First, rotate the vector𝑷by an angle −𝜶 about 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔such that this
rotation causes the 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑶𝑷 to lie in 𝒙𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆of frame 𝟏 .
Z
𝜶 K
𝜶 P 𝜽
P’
Kz
K
1 𝜶
Ky Y
Kx
𝜶
X This rotation is 𝑹𝒛 −𝜶
 Next, vector 𝑷 (along with rotated 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌) is rotated
about 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔by an angle 𝜷so that 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌 aligns with
𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
Z
𝜶 K
𝜶 P 𝜽
P’
K Kz
1
𝜷 Ky Y
Kx
𝜶
X
 Next, vector 𝑷 (along with rotated 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌) is rotated
about 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔by an angle 𝜷so that 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌 aligns with
𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
Z
𝜶
K
𝜶 P
P’
Kz
K
1
Ky Y
𝜷 𝜷 Kx
𝜶 𝜷
X  This rotation is 𝑹𝒚 𝜷
KP”
 The third rotation is by an angle 𝜽 about the rotated
𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌, which is rotation about 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, is made.
Z
𝜶
K
𝜶 P
P’
Kz
1
𝜷 Ky Y
Kx
𝜶 𝜷
𝜽
P”  This rotation is then 𝑹𝒙 𝜽
X
 𝑹𝒙 𝜽 𝑹𝒚 𝜷 𝑹𝒛 −𝜶
 Finally, the next two rotations are made about

𝒚 − and 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 , respectively, in the opposite
sense and reverse order so as to restore the
𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔to its original position leaving frame 𝟐 in
that rotated position.
 This gives
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝒌 𝜽 = 𝑹𝒛 𝜶 𝑹𝒚 −𝜷 𝑹𝒙 𝜽 𝑹𝒚 𝜷 𝑹𝒛 −𝜶

 Next two rotations are made about 𝒚 − and
𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔, respectively, in the opposite sense and
reverse order.
Z
𝜶
K
𝜶 P
P’
Kz
𝜷
Kx 1 Ky Y
𝜶
𝜽
P”
X
 𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝒌 𝜽 = 𝑹𝒛 𝜶 𝑹𝒚 −𝜷 𝑹𝒙 𝜽 𝑹𝒚 𝜷 𝑹𝒛 −𝜶
 Using the corresponding fundamental rotation
matrices one gets
 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽) =
𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜶 𝟎 𝑪𝜷 𝟎 −𝑺𝜷 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜷 𝟎 𝑺𝜷 𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎
𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜽 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝑺𝜷 𝟎 𝑪𝜷 𝟎 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜷 𝟎 𝑪𝜷 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜶𝑪𝜷 −𝑺𝜶 −𝑪𝜶𝑺𝜷 𝑪𝜷 𝟎 𝑺𝜷 𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎

 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽) = 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜷 𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝑺𝜷 𝑺𝜽𝑺𝜷 𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜽𝑪𝜷 −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝑺𝜷 𝟎 𝑪𝜷 −𝑪𝜽𝑺𝜷 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽𝑪𝜷 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽) =
𝑪𝜶𝑪𝜷 −𝑺𝜶 −𝑪𝜶𝑺𝜷 𝑪𝜶𝑪𝜷 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜷 𝑺𝜷
𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜷 𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝑺𝜷 𝑺𝜽𝑪𝜶𝑺𝜷 − 𝑪𝜽𝑺𝜶 𝑺𝜽𝑺𝜶𝑺𝜷 + 𝑪𝜽𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜽𝑪𝜷
𝑺𝜷 𝟎 𝑪𝜷 −𝑪𝜽𝑪𝜶𝑺𝜷 − 𝑺𝜽𝑺𝜶 −𝑪𝜽𝑺𝜶𝑺𝜷 + 𝑺𝜽𝑪𝜶 𝑪𝜽𝑪𝜷
 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽) =
 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽) =
𝒌𝟐𝒙 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒛 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒚 𝑺𝜽
𝑹𝒌 𝜽 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒛 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒚 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽
𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒚 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽
 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽) = 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜷 𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝑺𝜷 𝑺𝜽𝑪𝜶𝑺𝜷 − 𝑪𝜽𝑺𝜶 𝑺𝜽𝑺𝜶𝑺𝜷 + 𝑪𝜽𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜽𝑪𝜷
 The angles 𝜶 and 𝜷 can be eliminated from the

resulting final rotation matrix using the geometry.
 From the figure below it can be written for the
unit vector 𝒌 = 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑻 as 𝑲𝒚
𝒌𝒚 𝑲𝒙 𝜶
 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 = ; 𝑲𝒛 𝟏 Z
𝟐 𝟐 𝒌𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒌𝒚 𝟐
𝒌𝒙 +𝒌𝒚 𝜷 K
𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒌𝒚 𝟐
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 =
P
;
𝟐 𝟐 P’
𝒌𝒙 +𝒌𝒚 Kz
1
𝜷 Ky Y
 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝒌𝒛 ; Kx
𝜶
𝒌𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒌𝒚 𝟐
 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 = 𝒌𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒌𝟐 𝒚 X
P”
𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙
 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 = ;𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 = ;
𝒌𝒙 𝟐 +𝒌𝒚 𝟐 𝒌𝒙 𝟐 +𝒌𝒚 𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝒌𝒛 ; 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 = 𝒌𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒌𝟐 𝒚
 Substituting these in the expression for 𝑹𝑲 (𝜽)

and simplifying one gets
𝑹𝒌 𝜽 =
𝒌𝟐𝒙 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒛 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒚 𝑺𝜽
𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒛 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒚 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽
𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒚 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽
 Where 𝒌𝒙 , 𝒌𝒚 , 𝒌𝒛 are the projections of a unit
vector 𝒌 on frame 𝒙𝒚𝒛 , and
𝑽𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 .
 This is an important rotation matrix and needs

thorough understanding.
 The principal axes fundamental rotations can be

obtained from the above equation.
 For example, if 𝒌 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔is aligned with 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔,
𝑹𝒌 𝜽 becomes𝑹𝒛 𝜽 with 𝒌𝒙 = 𝒌𝒚 = 𝟎and 𝒌𝒛 = 𝟏 .
 Substituting these values one
gets 𝑪𝜽 −𝑺𝜽 𝟎
𝑹𝒌 𝜽 = 𝑹𝒛 𝜽 = 𝑺𝜽 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 This is same as that obtained earlier for rotation
about 𝒛 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
 Note that any combination of rotations about the
principal axes of a coordinate frame is always
equivalent to a single rotation by some angle 𝜽
about some arbitrary 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒌.
 To find the direction 𝑲, consider the general
rotational transformation matrix 𝑹.
 It is required to determine 𝜽 and 𝒌.

 Analysis of robotic manipulators for various
aspects is done using the transformation
matrices explained here.
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
64
Hyderabad Campus 4
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Linear and angular velocities
Relationship between transformation matrix and angular
velocity
 Already it was stated that finite rotations between two

coordinate frames could be represented using a rotation
matrix.
 The angular velocity vector also represents the

rotational motion between frames.
Hence the homogeneous transformation matrix 𝑻 and the

angular velocity vector 𝝎are related.

To analyze this relation consider frame {𝒊} attached to
rigid body as it rotates with respect to frame {𝒊’} , as
shown in figure, in time 𝒕 to (𝒕 + ∆𝒕). 𝑲
𝒁𝒊
𝒁𝒊′
𝝎
𝑖
𝜽
𝑖′
𝑂𝑖′ 𝒀𝒊′
𝑶𝒊 (𝑷)
𝑍𝑖−1 𝜽
𝒀𝒊
𝑿𝒊 𝜽
𝑿𝒊′
𝑖−1
𝑂𝑖−1 𝑌𝑖−1
𝑋𝑖−1

Let 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 and 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊′ represent the homogeneous
transformation matrices describing frame {𝒊} and frame
{𝒊’} with respect to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} at time instant 𝒕 and
(𝒕 + ∆𝒕)respectively.
The derivative of the transformation

matrix 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 (𝐭) with respect to time
𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊′ −𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊
is 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 .
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
Frame {𝒊’}is obtained by rotating

frame {𝒊}about an axis 𝒌 in the
fixed reference frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}by a
small angle 𝜽 during the time
interval ∆𝒕.

For equivalent angle axis representation, rotation of
frame {𝒊}to frame {𝒊’}by angle 𝜽 about axis 𝒌 is given by
𝒌𝟐𝒙 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒛 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒚 𝑺𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒛 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒚 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝟎
 𝑻𝒌 𝜽 = 𝒌 𝒌 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝒙 𝒛 𝒚
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 where 𝒌 = [𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 ]𝑻 , 𝑪𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝑺𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝜽 =

𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

 𝑪𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝑺𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
 𝑻𝒌 𝜽 = 𝒌 𝒌 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝒙 𝒛 𝒚
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
When ∆𝜽 is very small, 𝑪∆𝜽 ≈ 𝟏, 𝑺∆𝜽 ≈ ∆𝜽, and 𝑽∆𝜽 = 𝟎,

such that the above relation for 𝑻𝟐 𝜽 reduces to.
𝟏 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟏 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 = −𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 The description of frame {𝒊’} can be obtained by two

successive transformations relative to the fixed frame
{𝒊 − 𝟏} as
𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊 (𝒕) 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽
𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆{𝒊 − 𝟏} 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆 {𝒊} 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆 {𝒊’}
That is 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ = 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊

Equation 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 is simplified using
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ = 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊 − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊

 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 −𝑰
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝟐 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
 where 𝑰 is 𝟒𝑿𝟒 identity

matrix BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝟏 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟏 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎
Substituting𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 = −𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟏 𝟎 in
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊

 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 .
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ = 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝟐 (𝒕)
 Hence 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)becoms
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 − 𝑰
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝟏 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟏 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
−𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟏 𝟎 − 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒕
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎
−𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕

 That is
∆𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 𝟎
∆𝜽 ∆𝜽
𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝟎
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕);
∆𝒕=𝟎 −𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙
∆𝜽
𝟎
𝒚 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 𝜽 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽 𝟎
Or 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕);
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚 𝟎
Therefore, 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
where 𝜽is the speed of angular rotation of frame {𝒊} about

axis 𝒌.
The angular rotation at speed 𝜽 about axis 𝒌 gives

angular velocity of frame {𝒊} relative {𝒊 − 𝟏}as a vector
𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 directed along axis 𝒌.

This is equivalent to three rotations of 𝝎𝒙 ,𝝎𝒚 and𝝎𝒛 made
about the 𝒙, 𝒚and𝒛axes, respectively.
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝎𝒙 𝒌𝒙
 Where 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚 𝜽.
𝝎𝒛 𝒌𝒛
 Or 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕), is
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
rewritten as
𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝟎
𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 𝟎
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝎𝒙 𝒌𝒙
 Equations 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚 𝜽 and
𝝎𝒛 𝒌𝒛
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 give the relationship between the angular velocity of the

link and the transformation matrix.

 If a link undergoes only angular motion with
notranslation of the origin of frame {𝒊} , in place of
transformation matrix 𝑻 the rotation matrix 𝑹 may be
used in therotation,
For pure above derivation.
the relation between angular velocity
of the link and rotation matrix follows from equations…..
𝝎𝒙 𝒌𝒙
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚 𝜽 and
𝝎𝒛 𝒌𝒛
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)as
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚
 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽𝑹 𝒕
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎
 The superscript and subscript are dropped for simplicity.
 The derivative of the orthonormal rotation matrix has a

very interesting property.
 Post multiplying both sides of
equation 𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚
𝑹 𝒕 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽𝑹 𝒕
−𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎
by 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹−𝟏 one
gets BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 Post multiplying by 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹−𝟏 one

gets
 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡
 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽 𝑰
 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽
 It is known that
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹−𝟏 .
 Denoting the left-hand term in the above equation
𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 by a matrix 𝑺(𝒕) and thus,
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚 𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 .
−𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎
𝟎 𝝎𝒛 −𝝎𝒚
 Clearly 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = −𝝎𝒛 𝟎 𝝎𝒙
𝝎𝒚 −𝝎𝒙 𝟎

 Thereby
𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝟎 𝝎𝒛 −𝝎𝒚
𝑺 𝒕 + 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 + −𝝎𝒛 𝟎 𝝎𝒙
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝝎𝒚 −𝝎𝒙 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑺 𝒕 + 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 ;
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Hence 𝑺(𝒕)is a skew-symmetric matrix since it is known
that if the sum a matrix and its transpose is a null
matrixthen the matrix is a skew symmetric matrix.

 That is 𝑺 𝒕 + 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = 𝟎.
 Equation 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 reveals an important property

of the rotation matrix.
That is, the product of derivative of the orthonormal

rotation matrix with its transpose or inverse yields a
skew-symmetric matrix.
𝝎𝒙
 It is concluded from equations 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 =
𝝎𝒛
𝒌𝒙
𝒌𝒚 𝜽 𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙
𝒌𝒛 𝑺 𝒕 =
and
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎
 that at any instant the elements of the skew-symmetric
matrix 𝑺 𝒕 are the components of the angular velocity
vector 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 .
 Therefore, a change in orientation of a rotating frame can
be viewed as rotation about some axis 𝒌.
 It follows from equation 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 ,

that
𝑺 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 −𝟏 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 −𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝑺 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 =𝑹 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 ;
𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑰 = 𝑹 𝒕
Examples
Example1. Angular Velocity of a

Frame: A moving frame 𝟏 is
represented by the following rotation
matrix 𝑹 , where 𝜶 is the angle of
rotation of frame 𝟏 with respect to
the base frame 𝟎 and if 𝜶 is a
function of time, find the angular
𝑪𝜶 𝟏 −𝑺𝜶
velocity 0of frame . 𝟎
 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜶 −𝑺𝜶 𝟎
 0𝑹𝟏 = 𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Solution: The given matrix is the

fundamental rotation matrix of frame
𝟏 about z-axis of frame 𝟎 .
 From the equation 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 ,
−𝜶𝑺𝜶 −𝜶𝑪𝜶 𝟎 𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎
𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶𝑪𝜶 −𝜶𝑺𝜶 𝟎 −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 −𝜶 𝟎
 Or 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Comparing the
equation𝟎 −𝜶 𝟎
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝟎 𝟎 with the
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 equation
𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 gives
𝝎𝒛 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝜶 𝑻 , as the angular velocity of
the frame about 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, 𝝎𝒙 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝟎.

 Hence 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕
Consider a constant vector 𝒊𝑷 undergoing
rotation.
Then 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷.
 The time derivative of

𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷(𝒕)is
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷
 from equation 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 it can be written as
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷.

𝝎𝒙
 The vector 𝝎(𝒕)of equation 𝐢 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 denotes the
𝝎𝒛
angular velocity of frame {𝒊}with respect to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}at
any time 𝒕.
 Using the equations for 𝝎(𝒕)and 𝑺(𝒕)it can be easily

verified that𝑺 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎 𝒕 X 𝑷.
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 .

𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒙 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒛 − 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒚
 𝑺 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒚 = 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒙 − 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒛 .
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝒑𝒛 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒚 − 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒙
𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒙
 𝝎 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒚 𝑷 = 𝒑𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒛
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒛 − 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒚
 𝝎 𝒕 𝐗 𝑷 = 𝝎𝒙 𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒛 = 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒙 − 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒛
𝒑𝒙 𝒑𝒚 𝒑𝒛 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒚 − 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒙

 Hence, comparing the equations
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷 and
𝑺 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎 𝒕 X 𝑷one gets
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎 𝒕 X 𝑷 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝝎 𝒕 X𝑹 𝒕 𝑷
 where ′X′ is the vector cross product and superscripts

have been dropped for generalization.

Mapping velocity vectors
 Velocity vectors belong to a class of vectors called free

vectors.
 In the case of free vectors, all that needs to be preserved
is the magnitude and direction.
 Thus, free vectors could be displaced anywhere in space

without changing their meaning.
 A moment vector is another example of a free vector.
 The mapping of the linear or angular velocity vector,

from frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}to frame {𝒊}, can have reference to two
frames, the frame of description and the frame of
differentiation. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 In the study of motion of links of manipulators, the frame
of differentiation for velocity vectors is always the base
frame, that is, frame {𝟎}.
 Hence the leading superscript for the frame of
differentiation can be dropped and a single leading
superscript in velocity vector will denote the frame of
description.
 Further, the absence of a superscript will indicate that
the base frame serves as both the frame of description
and the frame of differentiation.

 At any instant, each link of the manipulator in motion has
both linear and angular velocities.
 The subscript describes the link or the link’s frame.
 For example, for link 𝒊, 𝒗𝒊 , linear velocity (of origin) of

frame {𝒊},𝑶𝒊 ,
 And 𝝎𝒊 the angular velocity of frame {𝒊},
 Are defined with base frame {𝟎} as the frame of

description as well as the frame of differentiation.
Velocity propagation along links
 Having discussed the concepts of linear and angular

velocities of a rigid body, let us now determine the linear
and angular velocities of any link of a given manipulator.
 The 𝒏 − 𝒅𝒐𝒇manipulator is an open kinematic chain with

𝒏 − 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔 , each one capable of motion relative to its
neighbor.
 The base link 𝟎, is the stationary reference and velocity
of all other links is defined with respect to this base link.

 Therefore, the velocity of each link can be computed
starting from the base.
 The velocity of link (𝒊)will be the velocity of link (𝒊 −
𝟏)plus velocity component added by joint (𝒊).
 To determine the
velocity of link 𝒊 of a
given 𝒏−
𝒅𝒐𝒇 manipulator,
consider link 𝒊 with
frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} and frame
{𝒊}attached to two ends
of link 𝒊 , a shown in
figure.
The origin of frame {𝒊} ,
which is attached to the
distal end of link will
specify the velocity of link
𝒊.

Linear velocity of a link
To find the linear velocity of link 𝒊 with respect to base,
consider any point 𝑷 on the link.
 The kinematic relationship between link 𝒊and link 𝟎(base)

is given by 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 .
 The position vector 𝒊𝑫𝒊 of this point 𝑷 referred to frame

{𝒊}, can be referred to the base frame {𝟎} using equation
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 = 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑷.

Thus 𝟎𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 .
 The linear velocity of 𝑷 and so of the link 𝒊 , using

𝒅 𝟎𝑫𝒊
equation 0𝒗𝒊 = is given as
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝒊 ∗𝒊𝑫𝒊

 0𝒗 𝒊 = = .
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 As the frame {𝟎} is the frame of differentiation as well as

𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝒊 ∗𝒊𝑫𝒊
description, the equation 𝒊 = 0𝒗
can be written 0𝒗𝒊
𝒅𝒕
as 𝒗𝒊 dropping the leading superscript 0.
 Also note that in each of the matrices j-1 𝑻𝒊 only one
variable exists, that is, the 𝒋𝒕𝒉 joint displacement variable
𝒒𝒋 .
 It is useful to recall that
𝜽𝒋 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒋 𝐢𝐬 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
 𝒒𝒋 =
𝒅𝒋 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒋 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜

 Substitution of equation 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 in
0𝒗 𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝒊 ∗𝒊𝑫𝒊
equation 𝒊 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗𝟏𝑻𝟐 .…∗(𝒊−𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊

𝒗𝒊 = .
𝒅𝒕
 Or
𝒗𝒊 =
𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 + 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 +
⋯ . 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 +
𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊

 Or
𝒗𝒊 =
⋯It. is
𝟎𝑻𝟏seen
∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . …that
∗ 𝒊 − each
𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊term
+ 𝟎𝑻𝟏 on
∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐the
. … ∗ (𝒊
side of this − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊
right-hand
equation has only one homogeneous transformation
matrix derivative.
 Let us first obtain the derivative of homogenous
transformation matrix of link 𝒋.
(j-1)𝑻 𝒅
The derivative is 𝒋 = 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 .
𝒅𝒕
 Since (j-1)𝑻𝒋 is function of 𝒒𝒋 only, using partial derivatives

gives
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
(j-1)𝑻 𝒋 = = = 𝒒𝒋 .
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒋

 Now consider the 𝒋𝒕𝒉 term in equation
𝒗𝒊 =
⋯ . 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 + 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊
containing term j-1𝑻𝒋 .
𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 𝐢𝐬 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 … .∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 .
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝝏𝒒𝒋
 and substitute result of equation j-1 𝑻 = =
𝒋 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
𝒒𝒋 in it.
𝝏𝒕
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
 This gives 𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 𝐚𝐬 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒒𝒋 … .∗ (𝒊 −
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝟏)𝑻𝒊
𝒗𝒊 =
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
𝒒𝒋 in it.
𝝏𝒕
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝟏)𝑻𝒊
 In the above equation, the partial derivative can be taken
out because no other transformation matrix except j-1𝑻𝒋 is
a function of 𝒒𝒋 .
𝝏 −𝟏
 Thus, 𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 .… 𝒋 𝑻 𝒋 … . (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋
𝝏𝒒𝒋
 Combing transformation matrices with in brackets, from

the above equation,
𝒕𝒉 𝝏 −𝟏
𝒋 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … 𝒋 𝑻𝒋 … . (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 reduces to ,
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 = 𝒒𝒋 , where 𝒒𝒋 is the time-rate of change of
𝝏𝒒𝒋
joint displacement 𝒒𝒋 .
 The last term in the equation
𝒗𝒊 =
involves a derivative of 𝒊𝑫𝒊 .
 Because the link is rigid body, 𝒊𝑫𝒊 will be constant and,
hence, its derivative𝒊𝑫𝒊 will  zero.is 𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎
beThat
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
 Substituting equations 𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 = 𝒒𝒋 and 𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎in
𝝏𝒒𝒋
the equation
𝒗𝒊 =
⋯ . 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 +
𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 one gets BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝒊 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝒋
 The result of the equation 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊 may be
𝒋
extended to obtain the linear velocity of the end-effector
of an 𝒏 − 𝒅𝒐𝒇 manipulator as
𝒏 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒏
𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒅−𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝒗𝒏 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒏𝑫𝒏 .
𝒋
 Only the first three elements of 𝟒X𝟏 column vector are

meaningful.
Angular velocity of a link
 The angular velocity of link 𝒊= angular velocity of link

(𝒊 − 𝟏)+ the component generated by joint (𝒊).
 For prismatic joint 𝒊, 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 .
 For revolute joint 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 .
 When 𝜽𝒊 referred to frame {𝟎}

 i-1𝝎𝒊 =0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊
 Or 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
 Finally 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 .
 From equation 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 0 𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊 rotaryjoint 𝒊

contributes to the angular velocities of all links from link
𝒊 to 𝒏.

 The angular velocities of the manipulator links and the
joint velocity are defined relative to the base frame {𝟎}.
 Linear velocities are obtained using the equation
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝒋
 Angular velocities are obtained using equations
𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 and
𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊 .

THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
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Hyderabad Campus 3
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Linear and angular velocities
Relationship between transformation matrix and angular
velocity
 Already it was stated that finite rotations between two

coordinate frames could be represented using a rotation
matrix.
 The angular velocity vector also represents the

rotational motion between frames.
Hence the homogeneous transformation matrix 𝑻 and the

angular velocity vector 𝝎are related.

To analyze this relation consider frame {𝒊} attached to
rigid body as it rotates with respect to frame {𝒊’} , as
shown in figure, in time 𝒕 to (𝒕 + ∆𝒕). 𝑲
𝒁𝒊
𝒁𝒊′
𝝎
𝑖
𝜽
𝑖′
𝑂𝑖′ 𝒀𝒊′
𝑶𝒊 (𝑷)
𝑍𝑖−1 𝜽
𝒀𝒊
𝑿𝒊 𝜽
𝑿𝒊′
𝑖−1
𝑂𝑖−1 𝑌𝑖−1
𝑋𝑖−1

Let 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 and 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊′ represent the homogeneous
transformation matrices describing frame {𝒊} and frame
{𝒊’} with respect to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} at time instant 𝒕 and
(𝒕 + ∆𝒕)respectively.
The derivative of the transformation

matrix 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 (𝐭) with respect to time
𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊′ −𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊
is 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 .
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
Frame {𝒊’}is obtained by rotating

frame {𝒊}about an axis 𝒌 in the
fixed reference frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}by a
small angle 𝜽 during the time
interval ∆𝒕.

For equivalent angle axis representation, rotation of
frame {𝒊}to frame {𝒊’}by angle 𝜽 about axis 𝒌 is given by
 𝑻𝒌 𝜽 = 𝒌 𝒌 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝒙 𝒛 𝒚
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 where 𝒌 = [𝒌𝒙 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 ]𝑻 , 𝑪𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝑺𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝜽 =

𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

 𝑪𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝑺𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
 𝑻𝒌 𝜽 = 𝒌 𝒌 𝑽𝜽 − 𝒌 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 𝑺𝜽 𝒌𝟐𝒛 𝑽𝜽 + 𝑪𝜽 𝟎
𝒙 𝒛 𝒚
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
When ∆𝜽 is very small, 𝑪∆𝜽 ≈ 𝟏, 𝑺∆𝜽 ≈ ∆𝜽, and 𝑽∆𝜽 = 𝟎,

such that the above relation for 𝑻𝟐 𝜽 reduces to.
𝟏 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟏 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 = −𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 The description of frame {𝒊’} can be obtained by two

successive transformations relative to the fixed frame
{𝒊 − 𝟏} as
𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊 (𝒕) 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽
𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆{𝒊 − 𝟏} 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆 {𝒊} 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆 {𝒊’}
That is 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ = 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊

Equation 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 is simplified using
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ = 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊 − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊

 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝟐 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
 where 𝑰 is 𝟒𝑿𝟒 identity

matrix BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝟏 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟏 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎
Substituting𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 = −𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟏 𝟎 in
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ − 𝒊−𝟏 𝑻𝒊

 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 .
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊′ = 𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝟐 (𝒕)
 Hence 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)becoms
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝑻𝒌 ∆𝜽 − 𝑰
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝟏 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟏 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
−𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟏 𝟎 − 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒕
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 ∆𝜽 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎
−𝒌𝒚 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙 ∆𝜽 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
∆𝒕=𝟎 ∆𝒕

 That is
∆𝜽 ∆𝜽
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 𝟎
∆𝜽 ∆𝜽
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕);
∆𝒕=𝟎 −𝒌 ∆𝜽 𝒌𝒙
∆𝜽
𝟎
𝒚 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝜽 𝒌𝒚 𝜽 𝟎
𝒌𝒛 𝜽 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽 𝟎
Or 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝜽 𝒌𝒙 𝜽 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕);
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Therefore, 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
where 𝜽is the speed of angular rotation of frame {𝒊} about

axis 𝒌.
The angular rotation at speed 𝜽 about axis 𝒌 gives

angular velocity of frame {𝒊} relative {𝒊 − 𝟏}as a vector
𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 directed along axis 𝒌.

This is equivalent to three rotations of 𝝎𝒙 ,𝝎𝒚 and𝝎𝒛 made
about the 𝒙, 𝒚and𝒛axes, respectively.
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝎𝒙 𝒌𝒙
 Where 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚 𝜽.
𝝎𝒛 𝒌𝒛
 Or 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕), is
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
rewritten as
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝎𝒙 𝒌𝒙
 Equations 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚 𝜽 and
𝝎𝒛 𝒌𝒛
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 give the relationship between the angular velocity of the

link and the transformation matrix.

 If a link undergoes only angular motion with
notranslation of the origin of frame {𝒊} , in place of
transformation matrix 𝑻 the rotation matrix 𝑹 may be
used in therotation,
For pure above derivation.
the relation between angular velocity
of the link and rotation matrix follows from equations…..
𝝎𝒙 𝒌𝒙
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝒌𝒚 𝜽 and
𝝎𝒛 𝒌𝒛
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 = −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 (𝒕)as
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚
 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽𝑹 𝒕
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 −𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎
 The superscript and subscript are dropped for simplicity.
 The derivative of the orthonormal rotation matrix has a

very interesting property.
 Post multiplying both sides of
equation 𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚
by 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹−𝟏 one
gets BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 Post multiplying by 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹−𝟏 one

gets
 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡
 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝑡 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽 𝑰
 It is known that
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹−𝟏 .
 Denoting the left-hand term in the above equation
𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 by a matrix 𝑺(𝒕) and thus,
𝟎 −𝒌𝒛 𝒌𝒚 𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝒌𝒛 𝟎 −𝒌𝒙 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 .
−𝒌𝒚 𝒌𝒙 𝟎 −𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎
𝟎 𝝎𝒛 −𝝎𝒚
 Clearly 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = −𝝎𝒛 𝟎 𝝎𝒙
𝝎𝒚 −𝝎𝒙 𝟎

 Thereby
𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝟎 𝝎𝒛 −𝝎𝒚
𝑺 𝒕 + 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 + −𝝎𝒛 𝟎 𝝎𝒙
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝝎𝒚 −𝝎𝒙 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑺 𝒕 + 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 ;
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Hence 𝑺(𝒕)is a skew-symmetric matrix since it is known
that if the sum a matrix and its transpose is a null
matrixthen the matrix is a skew symmetric matrix.

 That is 𝑺 𝒕 + 𝑺𝑻 𝒕 = 𝟎.
 Equation 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 reveals an important property

of the rotation matrix.
That is, the product of derivative of the orthonormal

rotation matrix with its transpose or inverse yields a
skew-symmetric matrix.
𝝎𝒙
 It is concluded from equations 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 =
𝝎𝒛
𝒌𝒙
𝒌𝒚 𝜽 𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙
𝒌𝒛 𝑺 𝒕 =
and
 that at any instant the elements of the skew-symmetric
matrix 𝑺 𝒕 are the components of the angular velocity
vector 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 .
 Therefore, a change in orientation of a rotating frame can
be viewed as rotation about some axis 𝒌.
 It follows from equation 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 ,

that
𝑺 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 −𝟏 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 −𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝑺 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 =𝑹 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 ;
𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑹−𝟏 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝑰 = 𝑹 𝒕
 Hence 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕
𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕
Example1. Angular Velocity of a Frame: A

moving frame 𝟏 is represented by the
following rotation matrix 𝑹, where 𝜶 is the
angle of rotation of frame 𝟏 with respect
to the base frame 𝟎 and if 𝜶 is a function
of time, find the angular velocity of frame
𝟏.
 0𝑹𝟏 = 𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

0𝑹 =
𝟏 𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Solution: The given matrix is the
fundamental rotation matrix of frame 𝟏
about z-axis of frame 𝟎 .
𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎
𝑹𝑻 𝒕 = −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑺𝜶𝜶 −𝑪𝜶𝜶 𝟎
𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑪𝜶𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

0𝑹 =
𝟏 𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎 −𝑺𝜶𝜶 −𝑪𝜶𝜶 𝟎
𝑹𝑻 𝒕 = −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑪𝜶𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 From the equation 𝑺 𝒕 =

𝑹 𝒕 𝑹𝑻 𝒕 ,
−𝑺𝜶𝜶 −𝑪𝜶𝜶 𝟎 𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎
𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑪𝜶𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝜶 𝟎 −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

−𝑺𝜶𝜶 −𝑪𝜶𝜶 𝟎 𝑪𝜶 𝑺𝜶 𝟎
𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑪𝜶𝜶 −𝑺𝜶𝜶 𝟎 −𝑺𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
−𝜶 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜶 − 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜶 −𝜶 𝑺𝜶 + 𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝑪𝜶 𝟐
+ 𝑺𝜶 𝟐
𝜶 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜶 − 𝑺𝜶𝑪𝜶 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝜶 𝟎
 Or 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 −𝜶 𝟎
 Or 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Comparing the
equation𝟎 −𝜶 𝟎
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝟎 𝟎 with the equation
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 gives
𝟎𝝎𝟏 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝜶 𝑻 , as the angular velocity

of the frame about 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, 𝝎𝒙 = 𝝎𝒚 = 𝟎.
Consider a constant vector 𝒊𝑷 undergoing
rotation.
Then 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷.
 The time derivative of

𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷(𝒕)is
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷
 from equation 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 it can be written as
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷.

𝝎𝒙
 The vector 𝝎(𝒕)of equation 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒚 denotes the
𝝎𝒛
angular velocity of frame {𝒊}with respect to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}at
any time 𝒕.
 Using the equations for 𝝎(𝒕)and 𝑺(𝒕)it can be easily

verified that𝑺 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎 𝒕 X 𝑷.
 We know that 𝑺 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 .

𝟎 −𝝎𝒛 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒙 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒛 − 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒚
 𝑺 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎𝒛 𝟎 −𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒚 = 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒙 − 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒛 .
−𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒙 𝟎 𝒑𝒛 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒚 − 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒙
𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒙
 𝝎 𝒕 = 𝝎𝒚 𝑷 = 𝒑𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒛
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒛 − 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒚
 𝝎 𝒕 𝐗 𝑷 = 𝝎𝒙 𝝎𝒚 𝝎𝒛 = 𝝎𝒛 𝒑𝒙 − 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒛
𝒑𝒙 𝒑𝒚 𝒑𝒛 𝝎𝒙 𝒑𝒚 − 𝝎𝒚 𝒑𝒙

 Hence, comparing the two
equations
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 𝒊𝑷 and
𝑺 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎 𝒕 X 𝑷one gets
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑺 𝒕 𝑹 𝒕 𝑷 = 𝝎 𝒕 X 𝑷 𝑹 𝒕 = 𝝎 𝒕 X𝑹 𝒕 𝑷
 where ′X′ is the vector cross product and superscripts

have been dropped for generalization.

Mapping velocity vectors
 Velocity vectors belong to a class of vectors called free

vectors.
 In the case of free vectors, all that needs to be preserved
is the magnitude and direction.
 Thus, free vectors could be displaced anywhere in space

without changing their meaning.
 A moment vector is another example of a free vector.
 The mapping of the linear or angular velocity vector,

from frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}to frame {𝒊}, can have reference to two
frames, the frame of description and the frame of
differentiation. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 In the study of motion of links of manipulators, the frame
of differentiation for velocity vectors is always the base
frame, that is, frame {𝟎}.
 Hence the leading superscript for the frame of
differentiation can be dropped and a single leading
superscript in velocity vector will denote the frame of
description.
 Further, the absence of a superscript will indicate that
the base frame serves as both the frame of description
and the frame of differentiation.

 At any instant, each link of the manipulator in motion has
both linear and angular velocities.
 The subscript describes the link or the link’s frame.
 For example, for link 𝒊, 𝒗𝒊 , linear velocity (of origin) of

frame {𝒊},𝑶𝒊 ,
 And 𝝎𝒊 the angular velocity of frame {𝒊},
 Are defined with base frame {𝟎} as the frame of

description as well as the frame of differentiation.
Velocity propagation along links
 Having discussed the concepts of linear and angular

velocities of a rigid body, let us now determine the linear
and angular velocities of any link of a given manipulator.
 The 𝒏 − 𝒅𝒐𝒇manipulator is an open kinematic chain with

𝒏 − 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔 , each one capable of motion relative to its
neighbor.
 The base link 𝟎, is the stationary reference and velocity
of all other links is defined with respect to this base link.

 Therefore, the velocity of each link can be computed
starting from the base.
 The velocity of link (𝒊)will be the velocity of link (𝒊 −
𝟏)plus velocity component added by joint (𝒊).
 To determine the
velocity of link 𝒊 of a
given 𝒏−
𝒅𝒐𝒇 manipulator,
consider link 𝒊 with
frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} and frame
{𝒊}attached to two ends
of link 𝒊 , a shown in
figure.
𝑷
The origin of frame {𝒊}, which is attached to the distal end

of link will specify the velocity of link 𝒊.
Linear velocity of a link
To find the linear velocity of link 𝒊 with respect to base,
consider any point 𝑷 on the link.
𝟎
𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎
𝟎 𝑷
𝟏
 This is so because
point 𝑷 is on rigid link
𝒊.

Linearvelocity of 𝑷 and hence of the link 𝒊, is given by the
equation
𝒅 𝟎𝑫𝒊  But 𝟎𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 .
 0𝒗𝒊 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝟎𝑫𝒊 𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝒊 ∗𝒊𝑫𝒊
Hence 0𝒗 𝒊 = = .
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Transformation Matrix between link 𝒊and link 𝟎(base) is

given by 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 .
 The position vector 𝒊𝑫𝒊 of this point 𝑷 referred to frame

{𝒊}, can be referred to the base frame {𝟎} using equation
 𝐢 − 𝟏 𝑷 = 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑷.
 As the frame {𝟎} is the frame of differentiation as well as
𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝒊 ∗𝒊𝑫𝒊
description, the equation 𝒊 =
0𝒗 can be written 0𝒗𝒊
𝒅𝒕
as 𝒗𝒊 dropping the leading superscript 0.
 Also note that in each of the matrices j-1 𝑻𝒊 only one

variable exists, that is, the 𝒋𝒕𝒉 joint displacement variable
𝒒𝒋 .
𝜽𝒋 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒋 𝐢𝐬 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
 𝒒𝒋 =
𝒅𝒋 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒋 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜
 Hence each term of 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 , is

function of only one joint variable, 𝒒𝒋 .

 Substitution of equation 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 in
0𝒗 𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝒊 ∗𝒊𝑫𝒊
equation 𝒊 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗𝟏𝑻𝟐 .…∗(𝒊−𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊

𝒗𝒊 = .
𝒅𝒕
 Or
𝒗𝒊 =
⋯ . 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 +
𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊

 Or
𝒗𝒊 =
 It is seen that each term on the right-hand side of this

equation has only one homogeneous transformation
matrix derivative.
 Let us first obtain the derivative of homogenous
transformation matrix of link 𝒋.
(j-1)𝑻 𝒅
The derivative is 𝒋 = 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 .
𝒅𝒕
 Since (j-1)𝑻𝒋 is function of 𝒒𝒋 only, using partial derivatives

gives
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
(j-1)𝑻 𝒋 = = = 𝒒𝒋 .
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒋

𝒗𝒊 =
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
𝒒𝒋 in it.
𝝏𝒕
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝟏)𝑻𝒊
 In the above equation, the partial derivative can be taken
out because no other transformation matrix except j-1𝑻𝒋 is
a function of 𝒒𝒋 .
𝝏 −𝟏
 Thus, 𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 .… 𝒋 𝑻 𝒋 … . (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋
𝝏𝒒𝒋
 Combing transformation matrices with in brackets, from

the above equation,
𝒕𝒉 𝝏 −𝟏
𝒋 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … 𝒋 𝑻𝒋 … . (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 reduces to ,
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 = 𝒒𝒋 , where 𝒒𝒋 is the time-rate of change of
𝝏𝒒𝒋
joint displacement 𝒒𝒋 .
 The last term in the equation
𝒗𝒊 =
involves a derivative of 𝒊𝑫𝒊 .
 Because the link is rigid body, 𝒊𝑫𝒊 will be constant and,
hence, its derivative𝒊𝑫𝒊 will  zero.is 𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎
beThat
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
 Substituting equations 𝒋𝒕𝒉 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 = 𝒒𝒋 and 𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝟎in
𝝏𝒒𝒋
the equation
𝒗𝒊 =
⋯ . 𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 +
𝟎𝑻𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝑻𝟐 . … ∗ (𝒊 − 𝟏)𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝑫𝒊 one gets BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝒋
 The result of the equation 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊 may be
𝒋
extended to obtain the linear velocity of the end-effector
of an 𝒏 − 𝒅𝒐𝒇 manipulator as
𝒏 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒏
𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒅−𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝒗𝒏 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒏𝑫𝒏 .
𝒋
 Only the first three elements of 𝟒X𝟏 column vector are

meaningful.
 The angular velocity of link 𝒊= angular velocity of link

(𝒊 − 𝟏)+ the component generated by joint (𝒊).
 For revolute joint 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊 .

 Or 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 𝒊 − 𝟏𝝎𝒊
 Finally 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 .
 From equation 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 0 𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 rotaryjoint 𝒊

contributes to the angular velocities of all links from link
𝒊 to 𝒏.

 The angular velocities of the manipulator links and the
joint velocity are defined relative to the base frame {𝟎}.
 Linear velocities are obtained using the equation
𝒋
 Angular velocities are obtained using equations
𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 .

 Example. Velocity of RR-Manipulator:
Calculate the velocity of the tip of the two-
link, planar, RR-manipulator arm shown in
figure.

 SOLUTION: The frame assignments
and joint-link parameters identification
is carried out as explained earlier and
are shown in figure and listed in table
1. Link 𝑖𝑖𝑎 𝛼
𝑖 𝜃 𝑖 𝑑 𝑖
1 𝐿1 0 𝜃1 0
2 𝐿2 0 𝜃2 0

 Assume length of each link as 1 unit,
that is 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟏.
 The link transformation matrices are:
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏
 𝟎𝑻𝟏 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐
 𝟏𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟐 𝑪 𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏
𝟎𝑻𝟏 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝟏

𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
𝟏 𝑺𝟐

𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
and
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐
 𝟎𝑻𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐

𝑺
𝟎𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏𝟐
Or 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Because both the joints of
manipulator are rotary, according to
equations
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝒋
 and 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊
 for endpoint of link 𝟏, that is origin of
frame 𝟏
these used for 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐 for the 2 DOF
manipulator. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 linear velocity is
𝝏 𝟎𝑻
computed 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒊𝒋=𝟏 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊 𝒊
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒋
 from 𝒗𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟏  and 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏𝒁𝒊−𝟏𝒒𝒊
𝝏𝜽𝟏
−𝑺𝟏 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏

 with
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏
= 𝑪 𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏
 and 𝟏𝑫𝟏 = 𝟎 . 𝟎𝑻𝟏 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝟎

 𝑺𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏
 from 𝒗𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟎
 and 𝟏𝑫𝟏 = 𝟎 .
𝟎
𝟏
−𝑺𝟏 −𝑪𝟏 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎

𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑫 = 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑺𝟏
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑫 = 𝑪𝟏
 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟎
𝟎
−𝑺𝟏
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟏
 𝟏𝑫 =
𝟏  And 𝒗𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 𝟏𝑫𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟎 𝝏𝜽𝟏
𝟎
 The linear velocity of link 𝟏 is, thus
−𝑺𝟏
𝑪𝟏
𝒗𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 = −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑻 𝜽𝟏
𝟎
𝟎
 The linear velocity of link 𝟏 is,
𝒗𝟏 = −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑻 𝜽𝟏
 And the angular velocity is computed
from 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 ;
 That is 𝝎𝟏 = 𝝎𝟎 +0𝑹𝟎 𝒁𝟎 𝜽𝟏
with
𝑻 𝑻
 𝝎𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎  𝒁𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 and0𝑹𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Using 𝝎𝟏 = 𝝎𝟎 +0𝑹𝟎 𝒁𝟎 𝜽𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝎𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝜽𝟏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝎𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝜽𝟏
 The angular velocity of link 𝟏 is

𝑻
𝝎𝟏 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏
 The linear velocity of the endpoint of

link 𝟐 relative to base frame is
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝒋
 and 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟐 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 𝟐𝑫
𝟐+ 𝜽𝟐 𝟐𝑫𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐

𝑺
𝟎𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐
 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐
𝑪𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐

𝟎𝑻𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝟎 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐

𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟐
= −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 and
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐
= 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 The position vector of endpoint of
link 𝟐 is origin of frame 𝟐 , that is
𝟐𝑫 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝑻
𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
 Substituting these in
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟐 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 𝟐𝑫
𝟐+ 𝜽𝟐 𝟐𝑫𝟐 gives,
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝝏𝜽𝟐

−𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 −𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎
 𝒗𝟐 = −𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝜽 𝟎 +
𝟏 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟎 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎
−𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟎 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
−𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 −𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏𝟐 −𝑺𝟏𝟐

𝑪𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

−𝑺𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 −𝑺𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
Or 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 ;
𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎
−𝑺𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
 Then 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 ;
𝟎
 And for the angular velocity of the

endpoint, 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎𝟏 +0𝑹𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝜽𝟐
 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎𝟏 +0𝑹𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝑪𝟏
𝟎
 But 𝟎𝑻𝟏 = 𝑺 𝑪 𝟎 𝑺𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝒁𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝑻
 and 𝝎𝟏 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟏
𝟎 𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝝎𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝜽𝟐
𝜽𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

𝟎
 This becomes 𝝎𝟐 = 𝟎 +
𝜽𝟏
𝑪𝟏 −𝑺𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝟎 𝟎𝟎 𝜽𝟐 ;𝟎
 𝟎Or 𝟎𝝎𝟐 =𝟏 𝟎𝟏 + 𝟎 𝜽𝟐 ;
𝜽𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Hence, 𝝎𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 ;
𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
−𝑺𝟏 𝟎
𝒗𝟏 = 𝑪𝟏 𝜽𝟏
𝝎𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟎
𝜽𝟏
−𝑺𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝟎
 𝒗𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑪𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟎
𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽 𝟐
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES ZG561
Prof. Y V D
Rao
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG561
Jacobian
 For revolute joint 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 .
 Or 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊
 Or
𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 .
 From equation 𝝎𝒊 =
𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 0 𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊 rotaryjoint 𝒊 contributes
to the angular velocities of all links from
link 𝒊 to 𝒏.
 The angular velocities of the manipulator
links and the joint velocity are defined
relative to the base frame {𝟎}.
 Angular velocities are obtained using

equations
𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 and 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊 .
 Linear velocities are obtained using the
equation
𝒋
 Angular velocities are obtained using

equations
𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 +0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊 .

Manipulator Jacobian
 Cartesian velocities (linear as well as

angular) of the end-effector are linearly
related to the joint velocities.
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝝏𝒒𝒋
 𝝎𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊−𝟏 + 0𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒁𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊

 The relationship between infinitesimal
(differential) joint motions with infinitesimal
(differential) changes in end-effector
position and orientation is to be
 As these changes take place in
infinitesimal (differential) time, a mapping
between instantaneous end-effector
velocity, 𝒗 (in Cartesian space) to
instantaneous joint velocities (in joint
space) is required.
 This mapping between differential
changes is linear and can be expressed as
𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝒒 , where 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 is a
𝟔X𝟏 Cartesian velocity vector as given by
the equation
 𝟔X𝟏 Cartesian velocity vector 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 =
𝑱 𝒒 𝒒, is given by the equation
𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝒚
𝒗 𝒗𝒛
𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝟏 =𝟏 𝝎
𝝎 𝑸 𝒙
𝝎𝒚
𝝎𝒛 𝑸

𝑱 𝒒 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝟔X𝒏 manipulator Jacobian or
Jacobian matrix,
 𝒒 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐧 𝒏 X 𝟏 vector of 𝒏 joint velocities.
 The equation 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝒒 can be written

in column vectors of Jacobian, that is,
 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑱𝟏 𝒒 𝑱𝟐 𝒒 … . . 𝑱𝒏 𝒒 𝒒 𝒕
 In the above equation 𝑱𝒊 𝒒 is the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 column of
the Jacobian matrix.
𝒗
 From the equations 𝟏𝒗𝑸 = 𝟏
𝝎𝑸
 and 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑱𝟏 𝒒 𝑱𝟐 𝒒 … . . 𝑱𝒏 𝒒 𝒒 𝒕 , one gets
𝒗
𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = = 𝒅 =𝑱 𝒒 𝒒 𝒕 .
𝝎 𝜽
 Equation 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝒒 𝒕 represents the

forward differential motion model or differential
kinematicsmodel, which is similar to the forward
kinematic model.
 Jacobian 𝑱 𝒒 is a function of the joint
variables.
 The firstthree rows of Jacobian 𝑱 𝒒 are
associated with the linear velocity of end-
effector 𝒗 , while the lastthree rows
correspond to the angular velocity 𝝎 of the
end-effector.
 Each joint of the manipulator generates

some linear velocity and/or some angular
velocity at the end-effector.
 Column 𝒊 , of Jacobian matrix 𝑱𝒊 𝒒 is, thus,
made up from threelinear velocity components 𝒋𝒗𝒊
and threeangular velocity components 𝒋𝝎𝒊 and
can be expressed as
𝒋𝒗𝒊𝒙
𝒋𝒗𝒊𝒚
𝒋𝒗𝒊 𝒋𝒗𝒊𝒛
 𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = =
𝒋𝝎𝒊 𝒋𝝎𝒊𝒙
𝒋𝝎𝒊𝒚
𝒋𝝎𝒊𝒛
 where 𝒋𝒗𝒊𝒌 and 𝒋𝝎𝒊𝒌 represent the
𝒌𝒕𝒉 component of linear and angular
velocities respectively, contributed by
joint 𝒊 with 𝒌 = 𝒙, 𝒚 𝒐𝒓𝒛 and 𝒊 =
𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … … 𝒏.
 The contribution of joint 𝒊 to the

column 𝑱𝒊 is computed depending on
whether joint 𝒊 is prismatic or rotary.
Jacobian computation
 The contribution of joint 𝒊 to linear

velocity of end-effector is 𝑱𝒗𝒊 𝒒𝒊 and to
angular velocity of end-effector is 𝑱𝝎𝒊 𝒒𝒊 .
 One simple method of computation of

Jacobian is to determine 𝑱𝒗𝒊 and 𝑱𝝎𝒊 for joint
𝒊.
 This is done as explained below both for

prismatic and revolute joints.
The prismatic joint Jacobian
 Consider the prismatic joint 𝒊 shown in

figure.

 The link 𝒊 translates along 𝒛𝒊−𝟏 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 with a
joint (scalar) velocity 𝒅𝒊 .
 To find the 𝒊𝒕𝒉 column 𝑱𝒊 (𝒒) of the

Jacobian matrix 𝑱 (𝒒) , assume that all
joints except joint 𝒊 are locked in position.
 In this situation, the translating prismatic

joint 𝒊 will produce a linear velocity at the
end-effector in same direction as the joint 𝒊
axis, that is 𝒛𝒊−𝟏 axis.
 If a vector pointing along the direction
𝒛𝒊−𝟏 , with respect to base frame is denoted
as 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 , the linear velocity produced at the
end-effector by translating link 𝒊 is
𝒗𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝒅𝒊 .
 Understand that for convenience 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 is

written in place of 0𝑷𝒊−𝟏 that is, the leading
superscript 𝟎 is dropped.
 The prismatic joint cannot contribute any
angular velocity at the end-effector, that is,
𝝎𝒊 = 𝟎.
𝑱𝒗𝒊
From the equations 𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = and
𝑱𝝎𝒊
𝒗𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝒅𝒊 , and 𝝎𝒊 = 𝟎 Jacobian𝑱𝒊 (𝒒) for a
prismatic joint is, therefore
𝑱𝒗𝒊 𝑷𝒊−𝟏
𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = = .
𝑱𝝎𝒊 𝟎
𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = = .
𝑱𝝎𝒊 𝟎
 Vector 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 in the above equation is

computed using the coordinate
transformations from base frame {𝟎} to
frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}.
 A unit vector in frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} along 𝒛 axis,
with respect to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏} is given by
𝒖 = [𝟎 𝟎 𝟏]𝑻 .
 𝒖 = 𝒛 = [𝟎 𝟎 𝟏]𝑻
 The vector 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 is the transformation of
this unit vector 𝒖 with respect to base
frame {𝟎}.
 The homogeneous transformation matrix

from frame {𝟎}to frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}is
𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝒒𝟐 … 𝒊 − 𝟐 𝑻𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊−𝟏 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊−𝟏

 This vector 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 is obtained as 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 =
𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒖 , where 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 is a 𝟑X𝟑 orientation
sub-matrix (the rotation matrix) of 𝟎𝑻𝒊−𝟏 .
 Note that 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 is the third column of the
rotation matrix 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 .
The rotary joint Jacobian
 Next, consider the joint 𝒊 to be a rotary
joint with angular velocity 𝜽𝒊 , about 𝒛 axis,
as shown in figure.
 With all joints, except joint 𝒊, locked in
position, the rotary joint rotates all the
distal links from link 𝒊 to link 𝒏 at an
angular velocity 𝝎𝒊 . BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 For a rotary joint, the angular velocity will
be given by 𝝎𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 , where 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 is the
vector in frame {𝟎} describing the axis of
rotation of joint 𝒊, that is 𝒛𝒊−𝟏 axis.
 The angular velocity of link 𝒊 also

produces a linear velocity at the end-
effector due to the rotation of all the distal
links along with the end-effector about the
origin 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 of frame {𝒊 − 𝟏}.
 From 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 , the end-effector frame, frame
{𝒏} is defined by a position vector 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏
as shown in figure.

 From equations
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒗𝑸 = 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝝎𝒊 X 𝑖 − 1 𝑸and
𝝎𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 ,
 the linear velocity generated by 𝝎𝒊 is
𝒗𝒊 = 𝝎𝒊 X 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 X 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 𝜽𝒊 .
 It follows from equations
𝝎𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝜽𝒊 and
𝒗𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝑿 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 𝜽𝒊 that for a rotary
joint, 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 𝐗 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏
𝑱𝒊 =
𝑷𝒊−𝟏
 For computing 𝑱𝒊 in the above equation, we
need vectors 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 and 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 .
 The vector 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 is
obtained from the
equation 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 = 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒖.
 While the vector
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 is found from
figure on right as
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎𝑷𝒏 −
𝟎𝑷 𝒊−𝟏 .
 The origin of frame 𝒏 at the end-effector is
𝑶𝒏 = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏]𝑻 .
 This applies for origin of any framei.e. for
any value of 𝒏.
 The above vector equation can then be
written as
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝒒𝟏 … . 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒏 𝒒𝒏 𝑶𝒏 −
𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝒒𝟏 … . 𝒊 − 𝟐 𝑻𝒊−𝟏 𝒒𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝒏 .
 Or 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻𝒏 𝑶𝒏 − 𝟎𝑻 𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝒏
 The computation of right-hand side of
equation 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻𝒏 𝑶𝒏 − 𝟎𝑻 𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝒏
would yield the three elements of position
vector and the fourth term will be unity, the
scale factor of 𝑻 matrix.
 The vector 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒊 can be in

homogeneous coordinates as 𝟒X𝟏 vector
or in physical coordinates as 𝟑X𝟏 vector.

 The manipulator Jacobian is obtained by
determining all the elements using
equations
𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = = ,
𝑱𝝎𝒊 𝟎
𝑷𝒊−𝟏 = 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒖,
𝑷𝒊−𝟏 X 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏
𝑱𝒊 = and
𝑷𝒊−𝟏
 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻𝒏 𝑶𝒏 − 𝟎𝑻 𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝒏 .
 In summary,
𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑱𝝎𝒊 𝟎
𝑱𝒗𝒊 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 X 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏
𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = = 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑱𝝎𝒊 𝑷𝒊−𝟏
 𝑷𝒊−𝟏 = 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒖, 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷𝒏 = 𝟎𝑻𝒏 𝑶𝒏 − 𝟎𝑻 𝒊−𝟏 𝑶𝒏

𝑷𝒊−𝟏
𝟎
𝑱𝒊 𝒒 = 𝑷 X 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑷 is a simple,
𝒊−𝟏 𝒏
𝑷𝒊−𝟏
systematic method of computing Jacobian
of a manipulator.
 If, for any joint, the displacement axis is

not 𝒛 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, the above equations have to be
appropriately modified.
Jacobian Inverse
 In practice, to make the manipulator’s

end-effector track a specified trajectory
with a given velocity profile, it is required to
coordinate individual joint motions.
In other words, for a given end-effector

velocity 𝑽𝒆 the corresponding joint
velocities 𝒒 must be found that will cause
the end-effector to move at the desired
velocity.
 It has been shown that the Jacobian of a
manipulator defines a linear mapping
between the vector 𝒒 of the joint velocities
and end-effector velocity 𝑽𝒆 from joint
space to Cartesian space as 𝑽𝒆 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝒒.
 From this, the reverse mapping from

Cartesian space to joint space is given by
𝒒 = 𝑱−𝟏 𝒒 𝑽𝒆 .
 It is known that for inverse of a matrix to
exist, it must be a square matrix.
 The Jacobian, in general, for an 𝒏 −dof

manipulator is a 6Xn matrix.
 Therefore, only for a 𝟔 −dof manipulator,

the Jacobian𝑱 is a 𝟔X𝟔square matrix.
 The inverse matrix 𝑱−𝟏 exists, if 𝑱 is
nonsingular at the current configuration, in
which case equation 𝒒=
𝑱−𝟏 𝒒 𝑽𝒆 determines the individual joint
velocities required to obtain desired end-
effector velocity.
 Consequently at a configuration, where
the Jacobian inverse exists, it is possible to
move the end-effector in an arbitrary
direction with an arbitrary velocity.
 For, a 𝟔-dof manipulator it means that all
the six components of end-effector linear
and angular velocities can be controlled by
varying the six joint rates.
 It has been already shown that a
manipulator must have at least 𝟔 -dof to
locate the end-effector in arbitrary location.
 Similarly, 𝟔-dof are necessary for moving
the end-effector in arbitrary direction with
an arbitrary speed.
 The above discussion is restricted to
manipulator to manipulator with exactly 𝟔-
dof.
 Nevertheless, there are manipulators with
less than 𝟔-dof for many applications.
 For example, to manipulate objects lying

within a cylindrical workspace, the 𝟒-dof
SCARA robot described earlier can be
used.
 It can be shown that only four end-
effector velocities 𝒗𝒙𝟒 , 𝒗𝒚𝟒 , 𝒗𝒛𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝎𝒛𝟒 can
be controlled by varying the four joint
velocities at any given configuration.
 Hence, the Cartesian velocity vector is

𝑻
𝒗𝒙𝟒 𝒗𝒚𝟒 𝒗𝒛𝟒 𝝎𝒛𝟒 and Jacobian𝑱 (𝒒)is a 𝟒X𝟒
matrix with 𝒒 = [𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝒅𝟑 𝜽𝟒 ]𝑻 and 𝒒 =
[𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝒅𝟑 𝜽𝟒 ]𝑻 .
 If a manipulator has less 𝟔-dof (𝒏 < 𝟔), it
has 𝒏 controllable joint rates.
 As a result, there will be 𝒏 controllable

Cartesian velocity components.
 If this is acceptable for the jobs to be
performed by the manipulator, its Jacobian
is 𝒏X𝒏square matrix, provided it is not in a
singularity configuration.
 Jacobian singularities are discussed

further.
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
BITS Pilani Prof. Y V D Rao

Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG 561
Jacobian singularities
Jacobian singularities
 The manipulator Jacobian𝑱, a function of the
configuration, may become rank-deficient or
singular (if the rank of the matrix is zero, matrix
is said to be singular) at certain configuration in
Cartesian space.
 In such cases, the inverse of the Jacobian does

not exist and equation 𝒒 = 𝑱−𝟏 𝒒 𝑽𝒆 is not valid.

 Those manipulator configurations at which 𝑱
become not invertible are termed as Jacobian
singularities and the configuration itself is called
singular.
 At a singular configuration, the Jacobian matrix
𝑱 is not full rank; hence, its column vectors are
linearly dependent.
 This means that there exists at least one

direction in which the end-effector cannot be
moved irrespective of values chosen for joint
velocities 𝒒𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝒒𝒏 .
 The study of manipulator singularities is of
great significance for the following reasons;
1. It is not possible to give an arbitrary motion to

end-effector, because singularities represent
configurations at which structural mobility of the
manipulator is reduced.
2. At a singularity, no solution may exist for the

inverse Jacobian problem.

3. In the neighborhood of a singularity, small
velocities in the Cartesian space require very high
velocities in the joint space.
 This causes problem when the manipulator is

required to track a trajectory that passes close to
the singularity.
 At a singular configuration, the manipulator

loses one or more degrees of freedom.
 The singular configurations are classified into
two categories based on the location of end-
effector in the work-space.
 Boundary singularities occur when the end-

effector is on the boundary of the workspace, that
is, the manipulator is either fully stretched out or
fully retracted.
 For example, consider the case of a two-link,

𝟐 − 𝒅𝒐𝒇 planar arm fully stretched out, as shown
in figure below.
 In this configuration, two links are in a straight
line and the end-effector can be moved only in a
direction perpendicular to the two links because
it cannot move out of the workspace.
 Thus, the manipulator loses one degree of
freedom.
 A similar situation will occur with 𝜽𝟐 equal

to 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 .
 Boundary singularities can be avoided by

ensuring that the manipulator is not driven
to boundaries of the reachable workspace
during its work cycle.
 Interior singularities occur when the end-
effector is located inside the reachable
workspace of the manipulator.
 These are caused when two or more joint

axes become collinear or at specific end-
effector configurations.
 For example, many spherical wrists cause

interior singularities due to the lining up of
two or more joint axes.
 These singularities cause serious
problems such as path planning and
control.
 They can occur anywhere in the reachable
workspace.
 For certain manipulator configurations,

the interior singularity points form a
volume within the workspace called void.
 In all the situations, it is essential that
singularities are avoided.
 Therefore, one important criterion for a

good design of manipulator configuration is
to minimize the singularities.
Computation of singularities
 The computation of internal singularities

can be carried out by analyzing the rank of
the Jacobian matrix.
 The Jacobian matrix loses its rank and

becomes ill conditioned at values of joint
variables 𝒒 at which its determinant
vanishes, that is, 𝑱 = 𝟎.
 The solution of equation 𝑱 = 𝟎 gives the
singular configurations of a manipulator.
 For manipulators that have 𝟑 −dof arm

and 𝟑-dof spherical wrists, it is possible to
simplify the problem of singularity
computation by dividing the problem into
two separate problems.

1. Computation of singularities resulting
from motion of first three joints called arm
singularities.
2. Computation of singularities resulting

from the motion of wrist joints called wrist
singularities.
 This is achieved by portioning the
Jacobian matrix into four 𝟑 X 𝟑 sub-
matrices as 𝑱𝟏𝟏 𝑱𝟏𝟐
 𝑱=
𝑱𝟐𝟏 𝑱𝟐𝟐
 As the singularities are typical of a
configuration and are independent of frame
chosen for kinematic analysis, the origin of
the end-effector frame can be chosen at the
end-of arm point.
 This will make 𝑱𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎.
 In such a situation computation of

determinant is greatly simplified, as
𝑱 = 𝑱𝟏𝟏 𝑱𝟐𝟐 .
 Hence, for manipulator with a spherical
wrist, the arm singularities are found from
𝑱𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎, and wrist singularities are found
from 𝑱𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎.
 Not that this form of Jacobian cannot be
used to relate joint velocities and end-
effector velocities.
 It is useful only for singularity

computations. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Wrist singularities
 Consider a spherical wrist shown in

figure with 𝜽𝟒 , 𝜽𝟓 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽𝟔 as joint variables.

 It is known that a singularity occurs
whenever two joint axes are aligned.
 The kinematic structure of the wrist

reveals that only axis 𝒛𝟑 and axis 𝒛𝟓 can be
aligned.
 For the configuration in figure 11 this

occurs whenever 𝜽𝟓 = 𝟎 or 𝜽𝟓 = 𝝅.
 The loss of mobility is caused by the fact
that rotations of equal magnitude but in
opposite direction about 𝒛𝟑 and 𝒛𝟓 axes do
not produce any end-effectorrotation.
 If axes 𝒛𝟑 and 𝒛𝟓 are aligned, it is not

possible to rotate the wrist about the axis
orthogonal to axes 𝒛𝟑 and 𝒛𝟒 .

 This singularity can occur anywhere
within the reachable workspace of the
manipulator and consequently requires
special care to be taken in programming
wrist motions.
Arm Singularities
Arm singularities are characteristics of the

manipulator’s arm configuration and can be
analyzed by considering the determinant of
the upper left-hand corner 𝟑X𝟑 sub-matrix
of Jacobian 𝑱.
 If arm singularities are identified in the
workspace, the mechanical design can be
modified in such a manner that arm
singularities are minimized.
 Alternately, they can be suitably avoided

in the end-effector path planning.
 The specific steps for computation of arm

singularities are illustrated through the
examples later.
STATIC ANALYSIS
 There are instances in the work cycle

when the manipulator is required to exert a
force and/or moment on the environment.
 The end-effector makes a contact with

the environment and all joints remain
static.
 The contact between the end-effector and
environment results in interactive forces
and moments at the end-effector and
environment interface
 The static problem of a manipulator is to
determine the relationship between joint
torques/forces and the force or moment
exerted by its environment on the end-
effector under static equilibrium
conditions.
 Clearly force is for prismatic joint and
torque is for rotary joint.

 The force or torque at each joint of the
manipulator is transmitted through the arm
linkages to the end-effector, where the
resultant force and moment acts on the
environment.
 A manipulator carrying an object at its
end point is equivalent to a force applied to
end-effector by the environmental contact
as discussed above.
 In both situations, the end point of the
manipulator deflects by a magnitude
determined by the stiffness of the
manipulator.
 The end-point stiffness is an important
characteristic of a manipulator that
determines the accuracy of the manipulator
and plays an important role in the control
of mechanical interaction with the
environment.
FORCE AND MOMENT BALANCE
 Consider an 𝒏 − DOF manipulator with
force and torque acting at each joint, which
determine the force or torque to be exerted
by the joint actuators, respectively.
 To find the force and torque acting on

each joint requires the force and moment
(torque) balance for the individual links.

 Let the vector 𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 denote the force
acting on link 𝒊 due to link (𝒊 − 𝟏), where the
first subscript denotes the link exerting the
force, which acts on the link of second
subscript.
 The vector 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 therefore, represents the

force applied by link 𝒊 on link (𝒊 + 𝟏).

 The force exerted by link (𝒊 + 𝟏)on link 𝒊
will be – 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 because it is equal and
opposite to force applied by link 𝒊 on link
(𝒊 + 𝟏).
 If 𝒎𝒊 denotes the mass of link 𝒊 and 𝒈 is

the 𝟑X𝟏 vector representing acceleration
due to gravity, the gravity force acting at
the centroid 𝑪𝒊 of link 𝒊, is denoted by 𝒎𝒊 𝒈.

 Because the manipulator is at rest, each
link is in static equilibrium, the force
equilibrium gives 𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 + 𝒎𝒊 𝒈 = 𝟎.
 All vectors in this equation

𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 + 𝒎𝒊 𝒈 = 𝟎 are with reference
to the base frame 𝟎 .

 Also, for a link in static equilibrium, the
vector sum of all moments acting on it
about any arbitrary point is zero.
 Let 𝜼𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 represents the moment applied

to link 𝒊 by link (𝒊 − 𝟏) with respect to
frame 𝟎 .
 Therefore, −𝜼𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 is the moment applied
to link 𝒊 by link (𝒊 + 𝟏).
 The moment balance about the centroid
𝑪𝒊 of link 𝒊, using figure 12 gives 𝜼𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 +
𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒓𝒊 + 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝑿𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝜼𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 +
𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 −𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝑿 − 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 = 𝟎, for 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … . 𝒏,
 where 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒓𝒊 is the position vector from

origin 𝑶𝒊−𝟏 to origin 𝑶𝒊 ,
𝒊𝒓𝒊 is the position vector from origin 𝑶𝒊 to

centroid 𝑪𝒊 and rotation matrix 𝑹 is used to
express all moment vectors in terms of
frame 𝟎 . BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 Equations 𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 + 𝒎𝒊 𝒈 = 𝟎 and
𝜼𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 + 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒓𝒊 + 𝒊𝒓𝒊 X𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝜼𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 + 𝟎𝑹
for each link give a set of 𝒏 equations.
 Thus, there are 𝟐𝒏 simultaneous

equations involving 𝟐(𝒏 + 𝟏) forces and
moments.

 To solve these equations one force and
one moment must be known.
 The force and moment applied by the

manipulator on the environment can be
specified to solve these equations.
 For 𝒊 = 𝒏 𝒇𝒏,𝒏+𝟏 and 𝜼𝒏,𝒏+𝟏 are the
independent endpoint force and moment,
respectively exerted by the manipulator on
the environment.
 The reaction force and moment from the
environment on the manipulator, at its end
point are −𝒇𝒏,𝒏+𝟏 and −𝜼𝒏,𝒏+𝟏
respectively.
 The endpoint force and moment are

combined into a 𝟔-D vector, called end-
𝒇𝒏,𝒏+𝟏
point force vector, as 𝓕 = 𝜼 .
𝒏,𝒏+𝟏

 Note that the negative sign has been
dropped and will be appropriately taken
care when used in a force/moment balance
equations.
 Thus, for any 𝒏 − DOF manipulator, the

interactive forces and moments between
links 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 and 𝜼𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 can be obtained

 from equations 𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝒇𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 + 𝒎𝒊 𝒈 = 𝟎 and
𝜼𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 + 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒊 − 𝟏𝒓𝒊 + 𝒊𝒓𝒊 X𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 − 𝜼𝒊,𝒊+𝟏 + 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 −𝒊
by performing inward iterations from 𝒊 = 𝒏down
to 𝟏.
 Next, to determine the joint forces or torques to

be exerted by the actuators to keep the
manipulator in static equilibrium, let 𝝉 denote the
𝒏X𝟏 vector of generalized joint torques or
forces 𝝉 = 𝝉𝟏 , 𝝉𝟐 , 𝝉𝟑 … . 𝝉𝒏 𝑻 , where 𝝉𝒊 is the
generalized driving torque or force applied by the
actuator 𝒊 driving joint 𝒊 and is defined as
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞, 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒊 𝐢𝐬 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄
𝝉𝒊 =
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐪𝐮𝐞, 𝐢𝐟 𝐣𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝒊 𝐢𝐬 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
 For a revolute joint 𝒊, the actuator at that

joint will bear only that component of the
moment 𝜼𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 which is in the direction of
joint axis 𝒛𝒊 , while the other components of
moment are borne by the joint structure.

 This gives, for a revolute joint, with
𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒛𝒊−𝟏 as the unit vector in the direction
of the joint axis
𝝉𝒊 = 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒛𝒊−𝟏 𝑻 𝜼𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 .
 Similarly, if the joint is prismatic, the

actuator will bear that component of 𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊
which is in the direction of joint axis, that is
𝝉𝒊 = 𝟎𝑹𝒊−𝟏 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝒛𝒊−𝟏 𝑻 𝒇𝒊−𝟏,𝒊 .

USE OF THE JACOBIAN IN STATICS
 The relationship between the joint torques

and the endpoint force or torque vector is
derived using the principle of virtual work.
 This is used to determine the joint

torques necessary to exert a given end-
effector force and moment.

 Consider an infinitesimal displacement of
𝜹𝒒𝒊 due to torque 𝝉𝒊 at joint 𝒊.
 Hence, 𝜹𝒒 is the 𝒏X𝟏 vector of

infinitesimal joint displacements.
 These displacements, also called virtual

displacements, of a mechanical system
need only satisfy the kinematic constraints.
 The end-point force and moment also act
on the mechanical system producing
infinitesimal endpoint displacement 𝜹𝒙𝒆
and rotation 𝜹𝝓𝒆 respectively.
 Thus, the virtual work 𝜹𝑾 done by the

forces and moments is given by
 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉𝟏 𝜹𝒒𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝜹𝒒𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝝉𝒏 𝜹𝒒𝒏 −

𝑻 𝑻
𝒇𝒏,𝒏+𝟏 𝜹𝒙𝒆 − 𝜼𝒏,𝒏+𝟏 𝜹𝝓𝒆 .
 Or 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 𝑻 𝜹𝒒 − 𝓕 𝑻 𝜹𝒑, where 𝜹𝒑 is the
𝒏X𝟏 vector of infinitesimal end-effector
displacements 𝜹𝒙𝒆 , 𝜹𝝓𝒆 caused by the
endpoint force 𝓕.
 In the above, it is assumed that the joints

of the mechanism are frictionless and the
joint torques are the net torques that
balance the endpoint force 𝓕.
 From equation 𝑽𝒆 𝒕 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝒒 , the
Jacobian 𝑱 relates infinitesimal joint
displacement 𝜹𝒒 at infinitesimal end-
effector displacement 𝜹𝒑 as 𝜹𝒑 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝜹𝒒.
 Substituting equation 𝜹𝒑 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝜹𝒒 into

equation 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 𝑻 𝜹𝒒 − 𝓕 𝑻 𝜹𝒑 , one gets
𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 𝑻 𝜹𝒒 − 𝓕 𝑻 𝑱 𝒒 𝜹𝒒.

𝑻
 That is 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 − 𝓕 𝑻 𝑱 𝒒 𝜹𝒒.
 Rearranging  𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 − 𝑱 𝒒 𝑻 𝓕 𝑻 𝜹𝒒.
gives
 According to the principle of virtual work
the manipulator mechanism is in the static
equilibrium, if and only if, the net virtual
work is zero for arbitrary virtual
displacements.
That is 𝜮𝜹𝑾𝒊 = 𝟎.
 Hence from the two equations 𝜮𝜹𝑾𝒊 =
𝟎and 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 − 𝑱 𝒒 𝑻 𝓕 𝑻 𝜹𝒒one gets
𝑻
𝜹𝑾 = 𝝉 − 𝑱 𝒒 𝓕 𝑻 𝜹𝒒 = 𝟎.
𝑻
 That is 𝝉 − 𝑱 𝒒 𝓕 𝑻 𝜹𝒒 = 𝟎.
𝑻 𝑻
 Or 𝝉 − 𝑱 𝒒 𝓕 = 𝟎.
𝑻
 Hence 𝝉 − 𝑱 𝒒 𝓕 = 𝟎.
𝑻
 This leads to𝝉 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝓕.
 This equation 𝝉 = 𝑱 𝒒 𝑻 𝓕 states that the
transpose of the Jacobian matrix
transforms the end-effector torque to the
corresponding joint torques.
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES
ZG561
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Y. V. D. Rao
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG561
DYNAMIC MODELING
 During the work cycle, a manipulator
must accelerate, move at constant
speed, and decelerate.
 This time-varying position and
orientation of the manipulator is
termed as its dynamic behaviour.
 Time-varying torques are applied at
the joints (by the joint actuators) to
balance the internal and external
forces. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 The internal forces are caused by
motion (velocity and acceleration) of
links.
 Inertial, Coriolis, and frictional
forces are some of the internal forces.
 The external forces are the forces
exerted by the environment.
 These include the “load” and
gravitational forces.
 As a result, links and joints have to
withstand stresses caused by force or
torque balance across them.
 Mathematical model for the dynamic
behaviour of the manipulator is to be
developed.
 The mathematical equations, often
referred as manipulator dynamics,
are a set of equations of motion
(EOM) that describe the dynamic
response of the manipulator to input
 The dynamic model of a manipulator
is useful for computation of torques
and forces required for execution of a
typical work cycle, which is a vital
information for the design of links,
joints, drives, and actuators.
 The dynamic behaviour of the
manipulator provides relationship
between joint actuator torques and
motion of links for simulation and
 The manipulator control maintains
the dynamic response of the
manipulator to obtain the desired
performance, which directly depends
on the accuracy of the dynamic model
and efficiency of the control
algorithms.
 The control problem requires
specifying the control strategies to
achieve the desired response and
performance. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 Simulations of manipulator motion
permits testing of control strategies,
motion planning, and performance
studies without a physical prototype of
the manipulator.
 A serial link manipulator represents
a complex dynamic system, which can
be modeled by systematically using
known physical laws of Lagrangian
mechanics or Newtonian mechanics.
 Approaches such as Lagrage-Euler
(LE), which is “energy-based”, and
Newton-Euler (NE), based on “force-
balance”, can be systematically
applied to develop the manipulator
EOM.
 Assuming rigid body motion, no
backlash, no friction and neglecting
effects of control component
dynamics, the resulting EOM are a set
of second order, coupled, nonlinear
 Also these EOM consist of inertia
loading and coupling reaction forces
between joints.
 Another method, the generalized
D’Alembert principle, provides an
‘equivalent’ dynamic model.
 The Newton-Euler and Lagrange-

Euler formulations of the dynamic
model provide a closed-form solution.
 The Newton-Euler and Lagrange-
Euler closed-form solutions are
computationally intensive making real
time control based on such a dynamic
model, inefficient, if not impossible.
 To improve the computational speed,

recursive methods and approximate
models based on simplifying
assumptions have been developed.
 These approximate models,
however, result in sub-optimal
dynamic performance and restrict
arm movement to low speeds.
 The LE and NE models provide a
symbolic solution to manipulator
dynamics and give insight into the
control problem.
LAGRANGIAN MECHANICS
 A scalar function called Lagrange
function or Lagrangian𝓛 is defined as
the difference between the total kinetic
energy 𝑻 and the total potential
energy𝑽 of a mechanical system.
 𝓛=𝑻−𝑽
 The Lagrange-Euler dynamic
formulation is based on a set of
generalized coordinates to describe
 In the generalized coordinates,
generalized displacement ‘𝒒’ is used as a
joint variable,
 which describes a linear displacement 𝒅
for a prismatic joint and
angulardisplacement 𝜽 for rotary joint
and 𝒒 describes linear velocity 𝒅 = 𝒗 for
prismaticjoint
 Similarly, generalized torque ‘ 𝝉 ’
required at the joint to produce
desired dynamicsis the force𝒇 for a
prismatic joint and torque 𝝉 for a
revolutejoint.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄
𝝉 = .
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒇 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
 Because kinetic and potential
energies are function of 𝒒𝒊 and
𝒒𝒊 (𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … . . 𝒏), so is the Lagrangian
 The dynamic model based on
Lagrange-Euler formulation is
obtained from the Lagrangian, as set
of equations.
𝒅 𝝏𝓛 𝝏𝓛
 𝝉𝒊 = − for 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … . . 𝒏
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒊
 The left-hand side of dynamic

equations can be interpreted as sum of
the torques or forces due to kinetic
and potential energy present in the
 The right-hand side 𝝉𝒊 is the
jointtorque for joint 𝒊 that is
provided by the actuator𝒊.
 If 𝝉𝒊 = 𝟎, means that joint 𝒊 does

not move and if 𝝉𝒊 ≠ 𝟎 , the
manipulator movement is modified
by the actuator at joint 𝒊.
 Example: Write equations of motion using
Lagrange’s equation and find the frequency of
vibration for the system given in the figure.
 Block can move along

horizontal by 𝒙 and pendulum
swings by 𝜽.
Hence generalised coordinates are (𝒙, 𝜽). m
 Displacement of the mass 𝒎 is𝐬 = (𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽).

 Velocity of the mass 𝒎 is𝒗 = (𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽).
 Kinetic energy of the system is.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑻 = 𝒎𝒗 = 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 .
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝑻 = 𝒎 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙𝒍𝜽 + 𝒍𝟐 𝜽𝟐 .
𝟐
 Potential energy of the system 𝑽 is.
𝒙 𝟏
𝑽𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 = − 𝟎
−𝒌𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
𝟏
𝐕 = 𝑽𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
𝟐
𝟏
𝑻 = 𝒎 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙𝒍𝜽 + 𝒍𝟐 𝜽𝟐 .
𝟐
𝟏
𝑽𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽

𝟏
𝐕 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
𝟐
 Lagrange,𝓛is given by
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝓛 = 𝑻 − 𝑽 = 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙𝒍𝜽 + 𝒍 𝜽 − 𝒌𝒙𝟐 −
𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
 Lagrange’s equation is
 𝝉𝒊 = − for 𝒊 = 𝒙, 𝜽  𝓛=𝑻−𝑽
𝒅 𝝏𝓛 𝝏𝓛 𝒅 𝝏𝓛 𝝏𝓛
 𝝉𝒙 = −  𝝉𝜽 = −
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽
𝟏 𝟏
 𝓛= 𝒎 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙𝒍𝜽 + 𝒍𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒌𝒙𝟐 − 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝓛 𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 = 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽  = 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽
𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙

𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
 𝓛= 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙𝒍𝜽 + 𝒍 𝜽 − 𝒌𝒙𝟐 − 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝓛 𝒅 𝝏𝓛 𝝏𝓛
 = −𝒌𝒙  𝝉𝒙 =
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙
−
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒙
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 = 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽  𝝉𝒙 = 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙
 Since no external force is applied 𝝉𝒙 = 𝟎.
 Hence the first equation of motion is
 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎
 From the second equation 𝝉𝜽 = −
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽
𝝉𝜽 = −
𝟏 𝟏
 𝓛 = 𝒎 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙𝒍𝜽 + 𝒍𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒌𝒙𝟐 − 𝒎𝒈𝒍 𝟏 − cos 𝜽
𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝓛 𝟐 𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 = 𝒎 𝒍𝒙 + 𝒍 𝜽  = 𝒎𝒍 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽
𝝏𝜽 𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽
𝝏𝓛
 = −𝒎𝒈𝒍 sin 𝜽 = −𝒎𝒈𝒍𝜽
𝝏𝜽
 𝝉𝜽 = −  𝝉𝜽 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈𝒍𝜽
 Since no external torque is applied 𝝉𝜽 = 𝟎.
 Hence the second equation of motion is

 𝒎𝒍 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈𝒍𝜽 = 𝟎  𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈𝜽 = 𝟎
 Hence the two equations of motion are
 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎  𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈𝜽 = 𝟎
 Comparing the above two equations
𝒎𝒈𝜽 𝒎𝒈𝜽
 𝒌𝒙 = 𝒎𝒈𝜽 𝒙= 𝒙=
𝒌 𝒌
 𝒎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒎𝒈𝜽 = 𝟎  𝒙 + 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒈𝜽 = 𝟎
𝒎𝒈

𝒎𝒈𝜽
+ 𝒍𝜽 + 𝒈𝜽 = 𝟎  + 𝒍 𝜽 + 𝒈𝜽 = 𝟎
𝒌
𝒌
𝒈
 𝜽+ 𝒎𝒈 𝜽=𝟎
+𝒍
𝒌
TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM MANIPULATOR-
DYNAMIC MODEL
 The dynamics of simple-manipulator
is worked out to illustrate the
Lagrange-Euler formulation and to
clarify the problem involved in the
dynamic modeling.
 A planar 𝟐-DOF manipulator with both
rotary joints, as shown in figure 1is
considered and its dynamic model is
obtained using direct geometric
approach before discussing the
𝑷
𝒀𝟐 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐
𝑳𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝑿𝟐
𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝒀𝟏
𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏
𝟎 𝑳𝟏 𝒈
𝒎𝟏
𝜽𝟏
𝑶 𝑿𝟏

 For the manipulator, coordinate
frames 𝟎 and 𝟏 , joint variables 𝜽𝟏
and 𝜽𝟐 link lengths 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 and
mass of links 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 ,
respectively,
The mass ofare shown
each in assumed
link is figure 1. to
be a point mass located at the center
of mass of each link and links are
assumed to be slender members.
 The linear and angular velocities are
𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , 𝜽𝟏 and 𝜽𝟐 respectively.
 The Lagrangian requires kinetic and
potential energies of the manipulator.
 The kinetic energy of a rigid body (a

link), can be expressed as : 𝑻 =
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝒗 + 𝑰𝝎 , where 𝒗 is the linear
𝟐 𝟐
velocity, 𝝎 is the angular velocity, 𝒎 is
the mass, and 𝑰 is the moment of
inertiaof the rigid body about its
 Thus, the kinetic energy for the link 𝟏
𝑳𝟏
with the linear velocity 𝒗𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 angular
𝟐
velocity 𝝎𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏 , mass 𝒎𝟏 and moment of
𝟏
inertia is 𝑰𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 . 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏
𝟏𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝟐
𝜽𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
 𝟐
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑰𝟏 𝝎𝟏 = 𝟐
𝒎𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟖
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 ;
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝟒 𝟔
 and its potential energy is 𝑽𝟏 =
𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 , where 𝒈 is the
𝟐
magnitude of acceleration due to
gravity in the negative 𝒚 − axis
direction. 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏
𝑳𝟏 𝟐
𝜽𝟏
𝒈

 For the second link, link 𝟐 , the
Cartesian position coordinates
(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 )of the center of mass of link
are: 𝟏
 𝒙 = 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝜽 and
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
 Differentiation of above two

equations gives the components of
velocity of link 𝟐as BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝟏
 𝒙𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 and
𝟐
𝟏
 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
 𝒙𝟐 = −𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑳𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
 From these components, the square

of the magnitude of velocity of the end
of link 𝟐is
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 .
𝟏
 𝒙𝟐 = −𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑳𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑳𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
 Or 𝒗𝟐 = −𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 − 𝑳𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝑺 𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟒
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 𝟐 𝑪 𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟒
 Simplifying
 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 =
𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 𝟐 𝑺 𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟒 𝟒
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 =
𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟏𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏𝟐 +
𝟒
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟏𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏𝟐

𝟏 𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟐
+
𝟒
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 =
𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟏
𝟒
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟏 𝑺𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑺𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 𝑺𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 +
𝟒
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟐

𝟏 𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟒
 Here 𝑺𝒊 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒊 ; 𝑪𝒊 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 ; 𝑺𝟏𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 ;

𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 ;
 Thus, the kinetic energy of link 2 with

𝟏
𝝎𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 and 𝑰𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 is
𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
 𝑻𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟐 =
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
∗ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 ∗ 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟏𝟐
 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟖
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 ∗ 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟐𝟒
 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟖 𝟐𝟒
 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐𝟒
 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟔
 The potential energy of link 𝟐 is 𝑽𝟐 =
𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 =
𝟐
𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟐

 Substituting the equations for
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 ,
𝟔
 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 ,
𝟔
𝟏
 𝑽𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 and
𝟐
𝟏
 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐 ,
 The Lagrangian 𝓛 𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐
is obtained as
𝓛=
𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟔
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 −
𝟐 𝟐 𝟔
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
 Rearranging and
𝟐 𝟐
simplifying, the
Lagrangian is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝓛= 𝒎𝟏 𝑳 𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝟏 𝜽 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎 𝑳𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
 𝓛= 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝟏 𝜽 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟔 𝟐 𝟐
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 Applying the Lagrange-Euler equation −
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒊
𝝏𝓛
= 𝝉𝒊 for link 𝟏, the torque 𝝉𝟏 at joint 𝟏 is given
𝝏𝒒𝒊
by 𝒅 𝝏𝓛 𝝏𝓛
𝝉𝟏 = −
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝝏𝜽𝟏
 Hence
𝝏𝓛
 =
𝝏𝜽𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝜽 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟑
𝝏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎 𝑳 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟔 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝝏𝓛 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟐𝜽𝟐
𝟔
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝝏𝓛 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏
+ 𝒎 𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟑
𝝏𝓛
 =
𝝏𝜽𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝝏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏
𝟔 𝟐
𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝝏𝓛 𝝏 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏
𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝝏𝜽𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝝏𝓛 − 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏
𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝝏𝓛 𝟏 𝟏
 = − 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟏
𝟑
𝒅 𝝏𝓛 𝒅 𝟏
 And = + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝟐
𝟏
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟑
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 =
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 =
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟏 +
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟑
𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 =
𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
+𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
 Substituting these results in
𝝉𝟏 = − the torque at joint 𝟏
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽𝟏 𝝏𝜽𝟏
is obtained as
𝝉𝟏 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
+𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑 −
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝝉𝟏 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 +
𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 −
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐
 Similarly, the derivatives of

Lagrangian equation for joint 𝟐 are

𝝏𝓛
 =
𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 𝜽 𝟏+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝝏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟐
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟔
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝓛
 =
𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝝏 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟔
𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝟏
𝟐

𝝏𝓛 𝟏 𝟏
 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝟐 𝟔
𝝏𝓛 𝟏 𝟏
 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 and
𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
𝝏𝓛
 =
𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝜽𝟐 𝟏+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝝏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝏𝜽𝟐
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 + 𝟐𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟔
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑺𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏
𝝏𝓛 𝝏 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝝏𝓛 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟐
− 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝝏𝓛 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐
 = 𝟏
𝝏𝜽𝟐
− 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 Hence =
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝒅 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝟑
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝜽𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
+ 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐
𝟑
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
 Finally 𝝉𝟐 = − =
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝜽𝟐 𝝏𝜽𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
−
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
− 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 𝝉𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 −
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 𝝉𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 −
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
 𝝉𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟐
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
 Because both the joints are

revolute, the generalized torques 𝝉𝟏
and 𝝉𝟐 represent the actual joint
torques. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Therefore EOM (dynamic model) of the
2−link planar manipulator are
 𝝉𝟏 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 +
𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 −
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
 And
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝝉𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟐 𝟐 𝜽 𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
 Torque equations
 𝝉𝟏 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 +
𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 −
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
 and
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝝉𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐 𝜽𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝜽𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽 𝟏+𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐
 can be written in the generalized form as
𝝉𝟏 = 𝑴𝟏𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑴𝟏𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑮𝟏 and
𝝉𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 𝜽𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 + 𝑮𝟐

 Where
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑴𝟏𝟏 = 𝒎 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑳 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝟏
 𝑴𝟐𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟐
𝟑
𝟏
𝑯𝟏 = − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑮𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
 𝑯𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
 𝑮𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝟏𝟐
𝟐
 These coefficients are defined as
 𝑴𝒊𝒊 = effective inertia,
 𝑴𝒊𝒋 = effective coupling inertia,
 𝑯𝒊 = centrifugal and Coriolis
acceleration forces
 This direct formulation approach
becomes quite cumbersome when a
manipulator with more than 𝟐 − 𝑫𝑶𝑭 is
analyzed.
 Hence the derivation of EOM for an
𝒏 − 𝑫𝑶𝑭 manipulator, based on
homogeneous coordinate
transformation matrices is required.
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES ZG561
BITS Pilani Dr. Y.V.D. Rao
Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG561
Equations of Motion
 The Lagrange-Euler (LE) formulation is a systematic procedure to
obtain the dynamic model of an n-DOF manipulator.
 Displacement variables are 𝒒 where 𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟐 , 𝒒𝟑 , … 𝒒𝒏 𝑻 are the

joint parameters for an n-link manipulator.
 LE formulation establishes the relationship between the joint

displacements, velocities, accelerations, forces and torques applied
to the manipulator.
 These torques, known as generalised torques, are contributed by the

actuators at the joints and induced torques plus joint friction torques.
 Induced torques are the torques at the joints due to contact or

interaction of the end-effector with the object to be handled.
 Let us consider joint torques alone neglecting other effects for

simplifying the theory.
𝟏 𝟏
 Since kinetic energy is given by 𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝑰𝝎𝟐 ,first link velocity
𝟐 𝟐
vector is computed and then a vector known as inertia tensor is
evaluated to represent the mass and inertia of the link.
 Using these two vectors kinetic energy 𝑻 for each link is defined.
 Using the inertia tensor and displacement vector (displacement

matrix or transformation matrix) potential energy 𝑽 is determined.
 Using kinetic energy 𝑻and potential energy 𝑽, Lagrange function

𝓛 = 𝑻 − 𝑽 is defined.
 Using the Lagrange’s equation 𝝉𝒊 = − , dynamic model is
obtained.

 Consider a link 𝒊 in an n-DOF manipulator as shown in figure below
Velocity of a point on a manipulator.
𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑃
𝒊
𝑍 𝑖
𝑍 𝑖−1
0𝑟𝑖 𝒅𝒎𝒊
𝑍0
 Vector 𝒊𝒓𝒊 describes a point 𝑷 on the link with respect to frame 𝒊 .
 That is 𝒊𝒓𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 , 𝒚𝒊 , 𝒛𝒊 , 𝟏 𝑻
 Position of 𝑷 with respect to base frame 𝟎 is 𝟎𝒓𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊

 In this 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 … . . 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 .
𝑪𝒊 −𝑺𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑺𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑪𝒊

𝑺 𝑪𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 𝑪𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑺𝒊
 And 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 = 𝒊 .
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Hence velocity of point 𝑷 w.r.t 𝟎 is given by
 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊
𝒋
 Here 𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝒊𝒓𝒊
 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒓𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊
𝒋
 𝒊𝑫𝒊 = 𝒊𝒓𝒊 = 𝟎

𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
Determination of
𝝏𝒒𝒋
 Consider the transformation matrix 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 for a link 𝒋 as
𝑪𝒋 −𝑺𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑺𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑪𝒋

𝑺 𝑪𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑪𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑺𝒋
 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 = 𝒋 .
𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝒅𝒋
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Here 𝒒 = 𝜽
−𝑺𝒋 −𝑪𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑪𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 −𝒂𝒋 𝑺𝒋

𝝏 𝒋−𝟏𝑻𝒋 𝑺𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑪𝒋
 Hence = 𝑪𝒋 −𝑺𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋
𝝏𝜽𝒋
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏𝑻𝒋
 From the above two matrices it is clear that is obtained by
𝝏𝜽𝒋
changing the sign of the second row and exchanging the first and
second rows. Make the elements in third and fourth rows zero
 The same result is also obtained by premultiplying 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 with a
matrix 𝑸𝒋 .
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 Where 𝑸𝒋 = 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏𝑻𝒋 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏𝑻𝒋
 Hence it can be written as = = 𝑸𝒋 ∗ 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 .
𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝝏𝜽𝒋
 Similarly for prismatic joints since 𝜽 = 𝟎
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒋
𝟎 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝟎
 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒋
𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Here 𝒒 = 𝒅
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
= 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏𝑻𝒋
 Hence
𝝏𝒅𝒋 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Hence for prismatic joint, 𝑸𝒋 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝒂𝒋 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝒅𝒋 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

 Since 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 … … . . 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏𝑻𝒋
 Hence = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 𝟐𝑻𝟑 … . . … 𝒋 − 𝟐 𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝒋 𝑻𝒋+𝟏 … . . 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝝏𝒒𝒊 𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
 = 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 ∗ 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒋 𝒋𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 ∗ 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊
𝝏𝒒𝒊
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
 Or = 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 ∗ 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊
𝝏𝒒𝒋
 This equation is valid for 𝒋 ≤ 𝒊 and 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … . 𝒏

𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
 Note that = 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 ∗ 𝒋 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 for 𝒋 ≤ 𝒊
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
 and = 𝟎 for 𝒋 > 𝒊.
𝝏𝒒𝒋

𝝏 𝒊−𝟏𝑻𝒊
 Also it is to be noted that represents
𝝏𝒒𝒋
effect of motion at joint 𝒋 on link 𝒊.
𝒊
 Hence 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊
Inertia Tensor
 Mass of any link contributes inertia forces
during its motion.
 Mass properties of links which cause inertia
loads due to motion with respect to frame of
interest are represented by moment of inertia
Tensor.
 Moment of inertia tensor is defined as
𝒙𝒊 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊

𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
 𝑰𝒊 =
𝒙𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
 Where 𝒅𝒎𝒊 is the mass of the element on link

(𝒊)at 𝒊𝒓𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 , 𝒚𝒊 , 𝒛𝒊 , 𝟏 𝑻 .

𝒁
𝒅𝒎
𝑿 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒀
𝒚 𝒙

𝒁
 𝑰𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒎
𝒅𝒎
 𝑰𝒚𝒚 = 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒎 𝒓
𝒛
 𝑰𝒙𝒙 = 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 𝒅𝒎 𝑿 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒙
𝒚 𝒀
𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 𝒚𝟐 +𝒛𝟐

 𝒅𝒎 + 𝒅𝒎 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝒎 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒚𝟐 +𝒛𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒎 + 𝒅𝒎
𝟐

𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 𝒚𝟐 +𝒛𝟐
 𝒙 𝒅𝒎 = 𝒅𝒎 + 𝒅𝒎 − 𝒅𝒎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑰𝒚𝒚 𝑰 𝑰 𝟏
 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒎 = + 𝒛𝒛 − 𝒙𝒙 = −𝑰𝒙𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚𝒚 + 𝑰𝒛𝒛
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒎 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒚𝒚 + 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝒛𝟐 𝒅𝒎 =
𝟐 𝒙𝒙
𝟏
𝑰𝒙𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚𝒚 − 𝑰𝒛𝒛
𝟐
 𝑰𝒊 =
𝟏
−𝑰𝒙𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚𝒚 + 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝑰𝒙𝒚 𝑰𝒙𝒛 𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊
𝟐
𝟏
𝑰𝒙𝒚 𝑰𝒙𝒙 − 𝑰𝒚𝒚 + 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝑰𝒚𝒛 𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊
𝟐
𝟏
𝑰𝒙𝒛 𝑰𝒚𝒛 𝑰𝒙𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚𝒚 − 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊
𝟐
𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒎 𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒎𝒊

 Where 𝒎𝒊 is the mass of the link 𝒊 and
𝒊𝒓𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝟏 𝑻 is its centre of mass.
 Clearly moment of Inertia Tensor 𝑰𝒊 depends on the
mass distribution of the link (𝒊) and not on its motion.
Kinetic energy
 Consider an elemental mass 𝒅𝒎𝒊 on link located at 𝟎𝒓𝒊
from base frame 𝟎 .
 Let the velocity of this mass be 𝟎𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 with respect to
𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 , then 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒗𝒊
𝟐

Trace of a square Matrix
 The trace of a square matrix [𝑨] of size 𝒏 ∗ 𝒏

is the sum of its principal diagonal elements.
𝒏
 𝑻𝒓 𝑨 = 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 = 𝒊=𝟏 𝒂𝒊𝒊
 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊 . 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒓𝒊 . 𝟎𝒓𝒊 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 = 𝑻𝒓 𝟎𝒓𝒊 . 𝟎𝒓𝒊 𝑻 =

𝑻𝒓 𝒗𝒊 𝒗𝒊 𝑻
𝒊
 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊

𝟏 𝟐
 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒗𝒊 =
𝟐
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊
𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒌 𝒊𝒓
𝟐
 𝒅𝒌𝒊 =
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊
𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝑻 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏
𝟐
 𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒌𝒊 =
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊
𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝑻 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 −
𝟐

 The term 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝑻 𝒅𝒎𝒊 is the moment of inertia tensor
𝑰𝒊 for link 𝒊 .
 𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒌𝒊 =
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊
𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑻 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌
𝟐
 For an n-DOF manipulator
𝒏
𝒌 = 𝒊=𝟏 𝒌𝒊 =
𝟏 𝒏 𝒊 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑻 𝒒
𝟐
𝒌 =
𝟏 𝒏 𝒊 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝑻𝒓 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑻 𝒒
𝟐

Potential energy
 Potential energy 𝑽𝒊 of link 𝒊 is given by
 𝑽𝒊 = −𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝟎𝒓𝒊 = −𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 .
 Here 𝟎𝒓𝒊 is the centre of mass of link 𝒊 with respect to base
frame 𝟎 and
 𝒊𝒓𝒊 is the centre of mass of link (𝒊) with respect to frame {𝒊}.
 Also 𝒈 = 𝒈𝒙 𝒈𝒚 𝒈𝒛 𝟏 𝑻 with respect to base frame 𝟎 .
 Total potential energy of the manipulator is
𝒏 𝒏
𝑽 = 𝒊=𝟏 𝑽𝒊 =− 𝒊=𝟏 𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 .
 It is already known that 𝟎𝒓𝒊 is a function of 𝒒𝒊 .

 Equation of motion is obtained by using Lagrange
function
 Lagrangian or Lagrange function 𝓛 = 𝑲 − 𝑷
 Hence
𝓛=
𝟏 𝒏 𝒊 𝒊
𝒊=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝑻𝒓 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑻 𝒒
𝟐
𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊
𝒅 𝝏𝓛
 Generalise torque 𝝉𝒊 at joint 𝒊 is given by 𝝉𝒊 = −
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒒𝒊
𝝏𝓛
𝝏𝒒𝒊
 𝝉𝒊 = 𝒏𝒋=𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒋 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒋 + 𝒏𝒋=𝟏 𝒏𝒌=𝟏 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌 + 𝑮𝒊 for 𝒊=
𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … . . 𝒏
 Where 𝒎𝒊𝒋 = 𝒑 𝑻𝒓 𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒋 𝑰𝒑 𝒅𝒑𝒊 𝑻 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝝏𝒅𝒑𝒌
 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 = 𝒑𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒊,𝒋,𝒌 𝑻𝒓 𝑰𝒑 𝒅𝒑𝒊 𝑻
𝝏𝒒𝒑
𝒏
 𝑮𝒊 = − 𝒑=𝟏 𝒎𝒑 𝒈𝒅𝒑𝒊 𝒑𝒓𝒑
 𝒅𝒊𝒋 = 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 for 𝒋 ≤ 𝒊 and 𝒅𝒊𝒋 = 𝟎 for 𝒋 > 𝒊

𝝏𝒅𝒊𝒋
 = 𝟎𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 for 𝒊 ≥ 𝒌 ≥ 𝒋
𝝏𝒒𝒌
𝝏𝒅𝒊𝒋
 = 𝟎𝑻𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 for 𝒊 ≥ 𝒋 ≥ 𝒌
𝝏𝒒𝒌
𝝏𝒅𝒊𝒋
 =𝟎 for 𝒊 < 𝒋 or 𝒋 < 𝒌
𝝏𝒒𝒌
 𝝉𝒊 given above gives the dynamic model of the
manipulator.
 It is a set of 𝒏 - non-linear, coupled second order
differential equation for 𝒏-dof manipulator.
 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 represents velocity induced reaction torque at joint 𝒊,
due to velocities at joints 𝒋 and 𝒌.
 If 𝒋 = 𝒌, 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌 = 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝒒𝒋 𝟐 and is the centrifugal force at
joint 𝒊 due to velocity at joint 𝒋.
 If 𝒋 ≠ 𝒌, thus 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌 is the Coriolis force at joint 𝒊 due
to velocity at joints 𝒋 and 𝒌.
 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 is the force coefficient at joint 𝒊 due to velocity at
joints 𝒋 and 𝒌.
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES
ZG561
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Y. V. D. Rao
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG561
LAGRANGE-EULER FORMULATION
 The Lagrange-Euler formulation is a

systematic procedure for obtaining
the dynamic model of an 𝒏 − DOF
manipulator.
 The 𝒏 -DOF open kinematic chain
serial link manipulator has 𝒏 joint
position or displacement variables,
𝑻
𝒒 = [𝒒𝟏 … . . 𝒒𝒏 ] .
 The LE formulation − = 𝝉𝒊
establishes the relation between the
jointpositions, velocities,
accelerations, and the generalized
torques applied to the manipulator.
 The generalized torques are the

non-conservative torques contributed
by joint actuators, joint friction
forces, and induced joint torques.
 The induced joint torques are the
torques at the joints due to contact or
interaction of the end-effector with
the environment.
 In the present discussion only joint
actuator torques are considered.
 The derivation of EOM using LE

formulation makes use of link
transformation matrices 𝑻, which are
obtained from the kinematic
 First, the link velocity is computed
and next the link inertia tensor is
obtained.
 These are used to compute kinetic
energy.
 The potential energy is calculated
and the Lagrangianis formed, which is
substituted in equation − =
𝝉𝒊 to get the dynamic model.
VELOCITY OF A POINT ON THE MANIPUL
 For computing the kinetic energy of
a link of an 𝒏 −DOF manipulator, link
velocity is required.
 Consider a point 𝑷 on line 𝒊 of an n-
link (𝒏 − 𝑫𝑶𝑭) manipulator as shown
in figure 𝟐.
 The coordinate frames, frame 𝟎 ,
frame 𝒊 − 𝟏 , and frame 𝒊 are chosen
as per convention.
𝒊
𝒊−𝟏 𝑃
𝒊
𝑍 𝑖
𝑍 𝑖−1
0𝑟𝑖 𝒅𝒎𝒊
𝑍0

 The position vector i𝒓𝒊 describes the
point 𝑷 on the link with respect to
frame {𝒊}.
 Using homogeneous coordinate
notation i𝒓𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝟏 𝑻 .
 The position of point 𝑷 with respect

to absolute coordinate is 0𝒓𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 =
𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 … . 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊 , where 𝒊 − 𝟏𝑻𝒊 , is
given by equation
𝑺𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑪𝜶𝒊 −𝑪𝜽𝒊 𝑺𝜶𝒊 𝒂𝒊 𝑺𝜽𝒊
 𝑻𝒊 =
i-1
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 with 𝒒𝒊 = 𝜽𝒊 , for a rotary joint or

𝒒𝒊 = 𝒅𝒊 for prismatic joint.

 The velocity of point 𝑷 with respect
to base coordinates, frame {𝟎} is
obtained from equation 𝒗𝒊 =
𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝑫𝒊 as 0 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒓𝒊 =
𝒋
𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊 where i𝒓𝒊 = 𝟎.
𝒋
 The transformation matrix 𝟎𝑻𝒊 involves

complex trigonometric terms and its partial
derivative with respect to 𝒒𝒋 required in
0𝒗 𝒊 𝝏 𝟎𝑻𝒊
equation 𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊 involves complex
𝒋
 The following steps simplify the
computation of partial derivative of the
homogeneous transformation matrix.
Consider the transformation matrix
𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 , for link 𝒋 given by equation
for a rotary joint, that is,
𝑪𝜽𝒋 −𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋
𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 −𝑪𝜽𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑺𝜽𝒋
 𝑻𝒋 =
j-1
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 Where 𝜶𝒋 ,𝒂𝒋 , 𝜽𝒋 and 𝒅𝒋 have the usual
meaning of link and joint parameters
in order.
The partial derivative of above
equation with respect to 𝜽𝒋 is
−𝑺𝜽𝒋 −𝑪𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 −𝒂𝒋 𝑺𝜽𝒋

𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋 −𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋
 =
𝝏𝜽𝒋 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Comparison of above two equations,
 𝑻𝒋 =
j-1
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 and
 =
𝝏𝜽𝒋 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 gives a pattern.
 It is observed that equation
 =
𝝏𝜽𝒋 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 can be obtained from equation
 𝑻𝒋 =
j-1
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
 by
 Interchanging row 1 with row 2
 Changing the sign of row 1, and

 Making row 3 and row 4 zero.
 Hence, partial derivative of j-1𝑻𝒋 with
respect to 𝜽𝒋 can be obtained using the
above steps and without actually
differentiating the terms.
 The same result can be obtained
using matrix operations, which is more
convenient in performing the
operations using a computer.
 Mathematically these steps can be
carried out using a 𝟒X𝟒 matrix 𝑸𝒋
defined as 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 𝑸𝒋 = 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 And Premultiplying j-1𝑻𝒋 with 𝑸𝒋 , one ge
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑪𝜽𝒋 −𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋
𝟎 𝑺𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜽𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 −𝑪𝜽𝒋 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝒂𝒋 𝑺𝜽𝒋
 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 = 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑺𝜶𝒋 𝑪𝜶𝒋 𝒅𝒋
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 =
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 The result is same as above.

𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
 Hence, = 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 .
𝝏𝜽𝒋
 The partial derivative equation

𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
= 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 also applies for a
𝝏𝜽𝒋
prismatic joint with 𝑸𝒋 ,
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 modified as 𝑸𝒋 = 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 .
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 Since 𝟎𝑻𝒊 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 … . 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 partial
derivative of 𝟎𝑻𝒊 with respect to 𝒒𝒋 is
𝝏𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒊
 = 𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 … . 𝒋 − 𝟐 𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝒋𝑻 𝒋+𝟏 … . 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝝏 𝒋−𝟏 𝑻𝒋
 Using equation = 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 ,
𝝏𝜽𝒋
this simplifies to
𝝏𝟎𝑻𝒊
 =
𝝏𝒒𝒋
𝟎𝑻𝟏 𝟏𝑻𝟐 … . 𝒋 − 𝟐 𝑻𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒋 𝒋𝑻 𝒋+𝟏 … . 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 =
𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊
 This result is valid only for 𝒋 ≤ 𝒊.
 Hence, for 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … . 𝒏.
𝝏𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒋 ≤ 𝒊

 =
𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒋 > 𝒊

 It is to be noted that the partial
derivative of homogeneous
transformation matrix 𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 with
respect to 𝒒𝒋 represents the effect of
motion of joint 𝒋 on link 𝒊.
 The link velocity 𝒗𝒊 in equation
0 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒓
𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝝏𝒒 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊 is,
𝒋
thus, simplified using equation
𝝏𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒋 ≤ 𝒊
 =
𝝏𝒒𝒋 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒋 > 𝒊
𝒊
 as 𝒗𝒊 = 𝒋=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊

The Inertia Tensor
 The mass of the link contributes
inertia forces during motion of the
link.
 The mass properties, which reflect
all the inertial loads with respect to
rotations about the origin of frame of
interest, are represented by a moment
of inertia tensor.
 It is a 𝟒X𝟒 symmetric matrix, which
characterizes the distribution of mass
of a rigid body (the link 𝒊).
 The moment of inertia tensor is
defined as
𝒙𝒊 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
 𝑰𝒊 =
𝒙𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝟐 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
𝒙𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
 Where 𝒅𝒎𝒊 is the mass of the

element on link 𝒊 located at 𝒊𝒓𝒊 =
[𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝟏]𝑻 as shown in figure 2.
𝒁
𝒅𝒎
𝑿 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
𝒀
𝒚 𝒙

 Using the moment of inertia 𝑰𝒌𝒌 ,
cross product of inertia, 𝑰𝒌𝒍 (𝒌 ≠ 𝒍)and
first moments of body, the inertia
tensor in equation above is expressed
as 𝟏 −𝐈𝐱𝐱 + 𝐈𝐲𝐲 + 𝐈𝐳𝐳 𝐈𝐱𝐲 𝐈𝐱𝐳 𝐦𝐢 𝐱 𝐢
𝟐
𝟏
𝐈𝐱𝐲 𝐈𝐱𝐱 − 𝐈𝐲𝐲 + 𝐈𝐳𝐳 𝐈𝐲𝐳 𝐦𝐢 𝐲𝐢
 𝐈𝐢 = 𝟐
𝟏
𝐈𝐱𝐳 𝐈𝐲𝐳 𝐈𝐱𝐱 + 𝐈𝐲𝐲 − 𝐈𝐳𝐳 𝐦𝐢 𝐳𝐢
𝟐
𝐦𝐢 𝐱 𝐢 𝐦𝐢 𝐲𝐢 𝐦𝐢 𝐳𝐢 𝐦𝐢
 Where 𝒎𝒊 , is the mass of the link 𝒊

and 𝒊𝒓𝒊 = [𝒙𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝟏]𝑻 is its center of
 The moment of inertia tensor 𝑰𝒊 for
link 𝒊 depends on the mass
distribution of the link and not on its
position or rate of change of position.
The Kinetic Energy
 The kinetic energy of the differential
mass 𝒅𝒎𝒊 on link 𝒊, for 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … . . 𝒏,
located at 𝟎𝒓𝒊 and moving with
velocity 𝟎𝒗𝒊 (= 𝒗𝒊 )with respect to the
𝟏
base frame {𝟎}is 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒎𝒊 (𝒗𝒊 )𝟐 .
𝟐 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
𝒏
 The trace operator𝑻𝒓 𝑨 = 𝒊=𝟏 𝒂𝒊𝒊 is
𝟐
used to obtain (𝒗𝒊 ) as,
𝟐 𝑻
(𝒗𝒊 ) = 𝒗𝒊 . 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎𝒓𝒊 . 𝟎𝒓𝒊 = 𝑻𝒓 𝟎𝒓𝒊 𝟎𝒓𝒊 = 𝑻𝒓(𝒗𝒊 𝒗𝒊 𝑻 )
 Substituting 𝒗𝒊 from equation

𝒗𝒊 = 𝒊𝒋=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊 in
equation (𝒗𝒊 )𝟐 = 𝑻𝒓(𝒗𝒊 𝒗𝒊 𝑻 ) and the
𝟏
result in equation 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒎𝒊 (𝒗𝒊 )𝟐
𝟐
 the kinetic energy of the differential
mass is obtained as
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊 𝑻
 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝟐 𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒌 𝒊𝒓𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊
𝟏 𝒊𝒓 𝑻
𝑻
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
 Or 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻 𝒊 𝒊𝒓
𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻 𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌
𝟐
 The total kinetic energy of link 𝒊 is then

𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒌𝒊 .

That is 𝒊𝒓 𝑻
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊 𝒊 𝑻
 𝒌𝒊 = 𝒅𝒌𝒊 = 𝟐
𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓
𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌
 Or
𝟏 𝒊𝒓 𝑻
𝑻
𝒊 𝒊 𝒊
𝒌𝒊 = 𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓
𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸 𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻 𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌
𝟐
𝒊𝒓 𝑻
𝒊𝒓 𝒊
 The integral term 𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 in the
above equation is the moment of
inertia tensor 𝑰𝒊 , given by equation
 𝑰𝒊 =
𝟏
−𝑰𝒙𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚𝒚 + 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝑰𝒙𝒚 𝑰𝒙𝒛 𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊
𝟐
𝟏
𝑰𝒙𝒚 𝑰𝒙𝒙 − 𝑰𝒚𝒚 + 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝑰𝒚𝒛 𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊
𝟐
𝟏
𝑰𝒙𝒛 𝑰𝒚𝒛 𝑰𝒙𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚𝒚 − 𝑰𝒛𝒛 𝒎𝒊 𝒛𝒊
𝟐
𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝒎𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝒎 𝒊 𝒛𝒊 𝒎𝒊
 Therefore 𝒌𝒊 is given by
 𝒌𝒊 =
𝟏 𝒊 𝒊 𝑻
𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌
𝟐
 Thus, for 𝒏 −DOF manipulator, total

kinetic energy of manipulator is
𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝒊 𝒊 𝑻
 𝒌= 𝒊=𝟏 𝒌𝒊 =𝟐 𝒊=𝟏 𝑻𝒓 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑞𝑗 𝑞𝑘
 Exchanging the trace and sum

operations
𝟏 𝒏 𝒊 𝒊 𝑻
 𝒌= 𝒊=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌=𝟏 𝑻𝒓 𝟎𝑻 𝒋−𝟏 𝑸𝒋 𝒋 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝑰𝒊 𝟎𝑻 𝒌−𝟏 𝑸𝒌 𝒌 − 𝟏 𝑻𝒊 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌
𝟐
 Note that the kinetic energy 𝒌 of the

manipulator is a scalar and is a
function of joint position and velocity
(𝒒, 𝒒). BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
The Potential
Energy
 The potential energy 𝑷𝒊 of link 𝒊 in a
gravity field 𝒈 is 𝑷𝒊 = −𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝟎𝒓𝒊 =
− 𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝟎𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊
 where vectors 𝟎𝒓𝒊 and 𝒊𝒓𝒊 represent

the center of mass of link 𝒊 with
respect to frame {𝟎}and with respect
to frame {𝒊}, respectively,
 and the acceleration due to gravity
𝒈 = [𝒈𝒙 𝒈𝒚 𝒈𝒛 𝟎]𝑻 is the 𝟒𝑿𝟏 gravity
vector with respect to base frame {𝟎}.
 The negative sign indicates that

work is done on the system to raise
link 𝒊 against gravity.

 The total potential energy of the
manipulator is sum of the potential
energies of the links, that is,
𝒏 𝒏
𝑷 = 𝒊=𝟏 𝑷𝒊 = − 𝒊=𝟏 𝒎𝒊 𝒈𝑻𝒊 𝒊𝒓𝒊
 Because 𝟎𝒓𝒊 is a function of 𝒒𝒊 , the
potential energy of a manipulator is
described by a scalar formula as a
function of joint displacements 𝒒.
THANK YOU
DE ZG/ES ZG561
Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
DE ZG/ES ZG561
Manipulator Control
CONTROL OF MANIPULATORS
 A robotic manipulator is required to carry out a specific
task by moving the end effector accurately and
repeatedly.
 In control of a manipulator, the joint location for various
times is input to a control system and the manipulator
end-effector is moved along the decided or designed
trajectory.
 Control of manipulator requires a mathematical model
and related circuitry.
Desired Joint Control Actual Joint
Manipulator
Parameters 𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒 System motion 𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒

 Mathematical model is obtained using physical laws
governing robot dynamics and associated devices.
 Measuring the outputs from manipulator by sensors, and
correcting the input to the control system based on
outputs is known intelligence of the system.
 Robot performs two types of tasks.
 Contact type tasks and non-contact type tasks.
 Non-contact type tasks involve manipulation of the end-
effector in space to do the work.
 In contact type task the end effector makes contact, i.e.
interacts, with the objects to be manipulated.
 A control system must control the manipulation of the
end effector, but also the forces that are applied on the
objects handled.
 Actuators at various joints power and drive the joints by
applying a force or torque.
 The required commands for the actuators of the
manipulator are provided by the control system.
 Commands are generated by the control system based
on the control set points, i.e. input parameters like joint
displacement histories.
 The final (actual) joint and end effector position and their
derivatives are compared with input values.
 The error signals are used to generate the control
actions.
 The control system may be open loop type or closed loop
type.
Desired Joint / Actual joint / End-
End effector Control
Manipulator effector motion
Parameters System
𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒
𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒
open loop Control System

Parameters System
𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒
𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒
Feed Back
Closed loop Control System
 Control of manipulator motions and end-effector forces
require knowledge of the forces and torques that must be
exerted at the joints.
 Hence each joint is controlled by a position servo.
 Control system is a simple one if one joint must be
moved at a time and slowly.
 Then control system produces a joint actuator forces /
torques those are proportional to change in joint-variable
(displacement).
 To impart fast motions so that manipulator performance
is better, all the joints must move simultaneously.

 In fast-motions and due to simultaneous joint motions,
coupled dynamic forces are induced making the
dynamic model a non-linear one.
 A typical robotic control architecture for 𝑛 - dof
manipulator consists of a master control system that
controls 𝑛 joints actuators.
Joint 1 Joint 1 𝒒 𝟏 , 𝒒𝟏 , 𝒒𝟏
Controller
Joint 2 Joint 2 𝒒 𝟐 , 𝒒𝟐 , 𝒒𝟐
Master Controller
Control
System
Joint n
Joint n 𝒒 𝒏 , 𝒒𝒏 , 𝒒𝒏
Controller
 Master controller sends corresponding set point to each
joint controller.
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
 The actuator torque is computed using the dynamic
model of the manipulator.
 𝝉𝒊 = 𝒋 𝒎𝒊𝒋 𝒒𝒋 + 𝒋 𝒌 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝒒𝒋 𝒒𝒌 + 𝑮𝒊
 However, accurate computation of 𝒎𝒊𝒋 , 𝒉𝒊𝒋𝒌 and 𝑮𝒊 is
difficult.
 Also while developing the dynamic model effects of
friction, backlash etc. at the joints and external
disturbances are not taken into consideration.
 It is already stated if these effects are included it
becomes very difficult model it and the model is highly
non-linear.
 Hence open loop control has limited applications and
used in where in precision is not important.

Parameters System
𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒
𝒒, 𝒒, 𝒒
Feed Back
Closed loop Control System

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
 All the limitations in open-loop control system like, non-
linear effects in accuracies are overcome using closed-
loop control system.
 At every desired instant (or continuously) the actual joint
position and velocities are measured by sensors
(encoders, tachometers etc.) placed at the joints.
 Using these measured quantities error between set
values and actual values is computed.
 A suitable control law then computes the joint
torques/forces required as a function of these servo
errors using a dynamic model.
 The interactive effects like inertia forces, Coriolis forces,
centrifugal forces vary continuously with time.
 Computing these effects on dynamic model is complex
and time consuming.
 Hence the actual real time control becomes extremely
difficult.
 Block diagram of typical control systems is shown in
figure below.
Input Power Output

Comparator Controller Actuator Manipulator
Amplifier
Feed Back
Sensor
elements

 It consists of actuators, comparator (a small computer),
DAC, controller to implement the control strategies.
 Amplifier to boost and transform the small command
signals to actuate the actuators at joints.
 A sensor to detect the position and position of joint and
ADC in feedback path.

Input Output
Comp Cont DAC Amp Act Manip
ADC Sensor
 Performance and range of applications of a manipulator

is influenced by the control scheme followed and how it
is implemented.
 Performance of the manipulator and control strategy
used are influenced by the configuration and mechanical
design.
 Hardware and software of a point to point control differs
from continuous path control.
 Control system for anthropomorphic manipulator is different from
that for Cartesian manipulator.
 Control system are linear or non-linear.
Linear control schemes.
 In any control system, the controllers react to error signal and
provides an input to the actuators.
 There are number of ways the controller reacts to error signal.
 They are ….
 On/off or two step control
 Proportional control (P)
 Derivative control (𝑫)
 Integral control (𝑰)
 Other modes which are combinations of modes 𝑫, 𝑷, 𝑰

SECOND ORDER LINEAR SYSTEMS
Input 𝒙 System Output 𝒚
 If this system is a second order system with inherent

qualities for the same.
 The relationship between output 𝒚 and input 𝒙 is
described by the differential equation.
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒚 = 𝒃𝟎 𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Where 𝒂𝒊 and 𝒃𝒊 are constants.

 If any function is 𝒇(𝒕), then 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝑭(𝒔).
∝
 𝑭 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝟎 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 where 𝒔 is a complex quantity called a subsidiary variable
 And 𝓛 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒀(𝒔).
 𝓛 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒔 𝒀 𝒔 − 𝒀 𝟎
 𝓛 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒔𝟐 𝒀 𝒔 − 𝒔 𝒀 𝟎 − 𝒀 𝟎
 𝓛 𝐱(𝒕) = 𝑿(𝒔)
 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒚 = 𝒃𝟎 𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Laplace transform of this equation with initial condition is
 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒀 𝒔 = 𝒃𝟎 𝑿 𝒔
 Rearranging the equation 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒀 𝒔 =
𝒃𝟎 𝑿 𝒔 ,
𝒀 𝒔 𝒃𝟎
 = = 𝑮(𝒔)
𝑿 𝒔 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟏 𝒔+𝒂𝟎

Transfer function
Input 𝒙 TF Output 𝒚
 The functional relation between output and input is

known as Transfer function, (TF).
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
 That is 𝐓𝐅 = = 𝑮(𝒔)
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒀 𝒔
 𝑮(𝒔) =
𝑿 𝒔
An unrealistic dream
 Why not simply set G(s)=Y(s)/R(s)=1?
 Transfer function represent the physical system or
process.
 Therefore G(s)=1 is unrealizable.

 Example 1: A potentiometer (pot) is used as a position
sensor in a robotic manipulator. The Pot is configured
such that each of 𝟑𝟎𝟎 rotation yields 𝟏𝟎 volts. Find the
transfer function of the pot.
 Input to the system is rotation in degrees and output

from the system is volts.
𝒀 𝒔 𝟏𝟎 𝑽 𝑽
 𝑻𝑭 = 𝑮 𝒔 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝑿 𝒔 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒆𝒈

 Example 2: For a temperature measuring sensor, the
input is temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, voltage is
output in volts. The sensor transfer function is given
𝑽
as 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 . Find the sensor temperature if output is
𝒅𝒆𝒈 𝑭
𝟔𝑽.
𝑽 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
 𝑮 𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 = =
𝒅𝒆𝒈 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝟔𝑽
 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = = = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑭
𝑮(𝒔) 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝑽/𝒅𝒆𝒈𝑭

 Example 3: Derive the Transfer Function 𝑮(𝒔)for the differential
equation, 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒚 = 𝒃𝟎 𝒙, where 𝒚(𝒕)is output and 𝒙(𝒕)is
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
input.
 Applying Laplace transform to the differential equation, we get
 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔𝒀 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒀 𝒔 = 𝒃𝟎 𝑿 𝒔 .
 Or 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟎 𝒀 𝒔 = 𝒃𝟎 𝑿 𝒔 .
𝒀 𝒔 𝒃𝟎
 Hence =
𝑿 𝒔 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟏 𝒔+𝒂𝟎

 Example 4: A potentiometer as a position transducer has a total
resistance of 𝟖𝑲𝛀and a maximum displacement of 𝟓 𝒄𝒎. Power
dissipation at maximum displacement is 𝟓𝟎𝒎𝑾 . Determine the
output voltage from the transducer for a displacement of 𝟐 𝒄𝒎.
Power dissipation at maximum displacement = 𝟓𝟎𝒎𝑾
Potentiometer total resistance = 𝟖𝑲𝛀 Maximum displacement = 𝟓 𝒄𝒎
Displacement given = 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 Power dissipation in potentiometer resistance 𝐏 = 𝑽𝑰
Voltage 𝐕 = 𝑰𝑹 Therefore, Voltage across the resistance, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑷𝑹 Or 𝑽 = 𝑷𝑹
𝑽= 𝟓𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ∗ 𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝑽

𝟐 𝒄𝒎
Voltage across the resistance at a displacement of 2 𝑽= ∗ 𝟐𝟎𝑽 = 𝟖𝑽
𝟓 𝒄𝒎
cm is
 Example: What is the change in resistance of a metal wire strain gauge with a
resistance of 100 Ω, if the strain of the element is 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ? What is strain if the
change in resistance is 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝛀?
 For metal wire strain gauge, 𝑮 = 𝟐.
 Hence with the given data change in resistance ∆𝑹 = 𝑮 ∗ 𝑹 ∗ 𝜺
 That is we get ∆𝑹 = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝛀
∆𝑹 𝟎.𝟐
 Therefore, fractional change in resistance = = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑹 𝟏𝟎𝟎
∆𝑹
 When change in resistance is ∆𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝛀, from the relation = 𝑮𝜺
𝑹
∆𝑹 𝟎.𝟏𝟓
 We get 𝜺 = = = 𝟕. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓
𝑮𝑹 𝟐∗𝟏𝟎𝟎

Series System
 For series of components the net Transfer Function TF

is the product of individual TFs in the series as out put
from one component is input for another component
𝒀𝟏 (𝒔) 𝒀𝟐 (𝒔) 𝒀𝟑 (𝒔) 𝒀𝒏−𝟏 (𝒔)

𝑻𝑭𝟏 = 𝑮𝟏 𝑻𝑭𝟐 = 𝑮𝟐 𝑻𝑭𝟑 = 𝑮𝟑 𝑻𝑭𝒏 = 𝑮𝒏
𝑿(𝒔) 𝒀(𝒔)
𝒀(𝒔)
Overall TF 𝑮(𝒔) = = 𝑮𝟏 ∗ 𝑮𝟐 ∗ 𝑮𝟑 ∗ 𝑮𝟒 … . .∗ 𝑮𝒏
𝑿(𝒔)

Parallel System
𝑼𝟏 (𝒔)
𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)
𝑬(𝒔) 𝑼(𝒔)
𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)
𝑼𝟐 (𝒔)
 𝑼𝟏 𝒔 = 𝑮𝟏 𝒔 ∗ 𝑬 𝒔  𝑼𝟐 𝒔 = 𝑮𝟐 𝒔 ∗ 𝑬 𝒔
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝑼𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑼𝟐 𝒔
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝑮𝟏 𝒔 ∗ 𝑬 𝒔 + 𝑮𝟐 𝒔 ∗ 𝑬(𝒔)
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝑮𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑮𝟐 𝒔 𝑬(𝒔)
𝑼 𝒔
𝑮 𝒔 = = 𝑮𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)  𝑮 𝒔 = 𝑮𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)
𝑬 𝒔
On-off or two position control
 This is the simplest form of control action.

 The action is simply like a switch.
 The output of the controller has two levels ON and OFF.
 The control signal 𝒖(𝒕)is either maximum or minimum.
 That is the output is either 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑶𝑵 or 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑶𝑭𝑭.
 These two levels are generated based on error signal.
 If the error signal is greater than 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 the 𝑶𝑵 level is generated.
 And if the error signal is less than 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 then the 𝑶𝑭𝑭 level is
generated.
 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝑼𝟏 max value for 𝒆 𝒕 > 𝟎 error is positive.

 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝑼𝟐 min value for 𝒆 𝒕 < 𝟎 error is negative.
DE ZG/ES ZG561 Mechanisms and Robotics BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
 Mathematically it can be written as 𝒚𝒄 = 𝑪𝑶𝑵 for 𝐞(𝒕) > 𝟎
 And 𝒚𝒄 = 𝑪𝑶𝑭𝑭 for 𝐞 𝒕 < 𝟎 .
 Where, 𝒚𝒄 is the controller output
 𝐞(𝒕)is the error signal
 𝑪𝑶𝑵 and 𝑪𝑶𝑭𝑭 are the two control levels for 𝐞(𝒕) > 𝟎 and 𝐞 𝒕 < 𝟎
respectively.
 Shown in figure below is the block diagram of the on-off controller.
𝒚𝒄 𝒕
𝒖 𝒕 𝒆 𝒕 𝑪𝑶𝑵 𝒚 𝒕
+ Plant
- 𝑪𝑶𝑭𝑭

 Mostly, thermostat-based heating system uses an ON-OFF type
controller.
 When the output is lower than the set point the controller is turned ON
 That is provides an ON output.
 And once the output is more than the set point the controller provides
OFF output.
 The turn- ON and turn- OFF in many situations are deliberately made
to differ by a small amount, known as the hysteresis or dead-band as
shown in figure below. Dead Band
𝑪𝑶𝑵
𝒆 𝒕 𝒚𝒄 𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑭𝑭

 This is done to prevent switching of the controller unnecessarily due
to noise when the output is nearly the set point.
 The hysteresis is designed into the control action between the points
at which the control output switches from OFF to ON.
 This designed in hysteresis prevents the output from switching from
OFF to ON too rapidly.
 If the hysteresis is set too narrow, rapid switching will occur.
 Therefore, the hysteresis should be set so that there is sufficient time
delay between the ON and OFF modes of the outputs.
 The sensitivity of the ON-OFF controller depends on the hysteresis.

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
 Proportional Control means that the plant input is changed in direct

proportion to the error, 𝒆(𝒕).
 This controls the output so that the manipulated variable and the error
has a proportional relation.
 The controller sets the manipulated variable in proportion to the
difference between the set point and the measured variable.
 The variable to be controlled may be like speed of a motor.
 The larger is the difference between the set point and the measured
variable the greater is the change in the manipulated variable.
 The coefficient of deviation is called proportional gain, 𝑲𝒑 and is
mathematically written as
𝑪𝒚 (𝑺)
 𝑲𝒑 = 𝑮𝒄 𝒔 =
𝑬(𝑺)
 Where, 𝑮𝒄 𝒔 is the transfer function of the proportional controller

 𝑪𝒚 (𝑺)is the Laplace transform of the output of the controller 𝒄𝒚 (𝒕)
 and 𝑬(𝑺)is the Laplace transform of the error signal, 𝒆(𝒕).
 A typical proportional controller controlling a plant like in case of
control of speed of a typical electrical motor using the feedback loop
is shown in figure below.
Desired Speed 𝑬 𝑺 Proportional 𝒀𝒄 𝑺 𝒀 𝑺

𝑼 𝑺 +
- Controller Plant
Set Point Error Controller
𝑲𝒑 Output
Output Speed
Measured and
manipulated
Variable

 The advantage of proportional controller is that it is relatively easy to
implement.
 However, the disadvantage is that there always involves an offset in
the output response causing difference between the set-point and the
actual output.
 Other disadvantage of proportional controller is the overshoot
problem that arises when a proportional controller is used at high
gain.

 Proportional control
𝒖 𝒕 ∝ 𝒆 𝒕  𝒖 𝒕 = 𝒌𝑷 𝒆 𝒕 𝑼(𝒔)
𝐆 𝐬 = = 𝒌𝑷
𝑬(𝒔)
 Where 𝒌𝑷 is known as proportional

gain
 Block diagram is 𝒌𝑷
Set Point 𝑬(𝒔) 𝑼(𝒔)

+
- 𝒌𝑷
Feed Back

INTEGRAL CONTROLLER
 The block diagram of the integral controller is shown in figure.
 The controller controls the output by integrating the error signal.
𝟏 𝒕
 That is, 𝒄𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒆 𝝉 𝒅𝝉
𝑻𝑰 𝟎
 Where, 𝒄𝒚 𝒕 is the output of the controller.

 𝒆 𝒕 is error signal and 𝑻𝑰 is called the integral time.
Desired Speed 𝑬 𝑺 Integral Controller Controller Output

𝑼 𝑺 + 𝑪𝒚 𝑺
𝒀 𝑺
- 𝑲𝑰
Set Point Error 𝑮𝑰𝑪 𝑺 = = Output Speed
𝑬(𝑺) 𝒔
Feedback Loop

 The integral correction of output is performed by accumulating the
deviation in accordance with time elapsed.
𝟏 𝒕
 The equation 𝒄𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒆 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 can also be written in transfer
𝑻𝑰 𝟎
function form as given below.

𝑪𝒚 𝑺 𝑲𝑰
 𝑮𝑰𝑪 𝑺 = =
𝑬(𝑺) 𝒔
 Where, 𝑮𝑰𝑪 𝑺 is the transfer function of the integral controller, which is the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input (the error signal) of the integral controller.
𝟏
 𝑲𝑰 = 𝑻 , is called the integral gain which is the reciprocal of the integral time.
𝑰

 The offset in the output, and hence the steady-state performance of
the system can be improved by employing integral control action.
 But the integral action may lead to oscillatory output resulting in
poor stability.

Integral control
𝒅𝒖 𝒕
 ∝𝒆 𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝒖 𝒕 ∝ 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕  𝒖 𝒕 = 𝒌𝑰 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Where 𝒌𝑰 is known as proportional
gain
𝑬 𝒔 𝒌 𝑼(𝒔) 𝒌
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑰 = 𝑰𝑬 𝒔  𝐆(𝐬) = = 𝑰
𝒔 𝒔 𝑬(𝒔) 𝒔
𝑬(𝒔) 𝒌𝑰 𝑼(𝒔)
 Block diagram is
𝒔

+ 𝒌𝑰
-
𝒔
Feed Back
DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
 Derivative controller controls the plant by providing the control signal

which is the derivative of the error signal.
 The transfer function of the controller can be written as
𝑪𝒚 𝑺
 𝑮𝑫 𝑺 = = 𝑲𝑫 𝒔
𝑬(𝑺)
 Where 𝑲𝑫 is the constant of proportionality, usually referred to as

derivative time, or simply derivative gain.
 The derivative action improves the transient performance of the

plant.
 However, derivative control has poor steady-state performance.

Derivative control
𝒅𝒆 𝒕
𝒖 𝒕 ∝
𝒅𝒕
 𝒖 𝒕 ∝ 𝒆(𝒕)  𝒖 𝒕 = 𝒌𝑫 𝒆 𝒕
 Where 𝒌𝑫 is known as derivative
gain 𝑼(𝒔)
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑫 𝒔𝑬 𝒔 𝐆 𝐬 = = 𝒌𝑫 𝒔
𝑬(𝒔)
 Block diagram is 𝒌𝑫 𝒔

+
- 𝒌𝑫 𝒔
Feed Back
PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-INTEGRAL CONTROLLER
 In short, the proportional-plus-integral controller is referred to as PI

controller.
 The PI controller controls the plant by providing the control signal
which is the combination of proportional and integral action over the
error signals.
 As stated earlier, the integral control improves the steady-state
performance.

 On the other hand, the integral action may lead to oscillatory output
and hence has poor stability which is not really desirable.
 Combining proportional and integral action the two constants such
as 𝑲𝑷 and 𝑲𝑰 can be adjusted in order to optimize the system
performance or the output response according to the requirement.
 The transfer function of the PI controller is
𝑪𝒚 𝑺 𝑲𝑰 𝟏
 𝑮𝑷𝑰 𝑺 = = 𝑲𝑷 𝟏 + = 𝑲𝑷 𝟏 +
𝑬(𝑺) 𝒔 𝑻𝑰 𝒔

Proportional plus integral control
 𝒖 𝒕 ∝ 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝒌𝑷 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒌𝑰 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒌𝑰
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 𝑬 𝒔 + 𝑬 𝒔
𝒔
𝒌𝑰
𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝑬 𝒔
𝒔
𝒌
 Let 𝑻𝑰 = 𝑷
𝒌𝑰
𝒌𝑰 𝟏
𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝒌 𝑬 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝒌 𝑬 𝒔
𝒔𝒌𝑷 𝑷 𝒔𝑻𝑰 𝑷

𝒌𝑰 𝟏
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝒌 𝑬 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝒌 𝑬 𝒔
𝒔𝒌𝑷 𝑷 𝒔𝑻𝑰 𝑷
𝟏 𝒌𝑷 𝟏
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝑬 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑬 𝒔
𝒔 𝑻𝑰 𝒔𝑻𝑰
𝑼(𝒔) 𝟏
𝐆 𝐬 = = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 +
𝑬(𝒔) 𝒔𝑻𝑰
𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏 𝑼(𝒔)
 Block diagram is 𝒌𝑷 𝟏+
𝒔𝑻𝑰
Set Point 𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏 𝑼(𝒔)

+ 𝒌𝑷 𝟏+
- 𝒔𝑻𝑰
Feed Back
PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
 Proportional-Plus-Derivative Controller is commonly abbreviated to

PD Controller.
 The stability and hence the performance of the system can be

improved by employing derivative action along with proportional
action into the control system.
 Adding a term proportional to the time-derivative of the error signal
can take the edge off the overshoot problems that arise when a
proportional controller is used at high gain.
 The transfer function of the PD controller is
𝑪𝒚 𝑺
 𝑮𝑷𝑫 𝑺 = = 𝑲𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑲𝑫 𝒔
𝑬(𝑺)

Proportional plus differential control
𝒅𝒆 𝒕
𝒖 𝒕 ∝ 𝒆 𝒕 +
𝒅𝒕
 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝒌𝑷 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒌𝑫 𝒆 𝒕
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 𝑬 𝒔 + 𝒌𝑫 𝒔𝑬 𝒔
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + 𝒌𝑫 𝒔 𝑬 𝒔
𝒌𝑫
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑬 𝒔
𝒌𝑷
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑻𝑫 𝒔 𝑬 𝒔
𝒌𝑫
 Where 𝑻𝑫 = is the time
𝒌𝑷
𝑼(𝒔)
derivative 𝐆 𝐬 = = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑻𝑫 𝒔
𝑬(𝒔)
 Block diagram is
𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑻𝑫 𝒔

+
- 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + 𝑻𝑫 𝒔
Feed Back

PROPORTIONAL-PLUS-INTEGRAL-PLUS-DERIVATIVE COONTROLLER
 Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controller is popularly

known as PID controller.
 This is a method, where the reachability can be addressed
effectively and efficiently.
 The transfer function of the PID controller is
𝑪𝒚 𝑺 𝑲𝑰
 𝑮𝑷𝑰𝑫 𝑺 = = 𝑲𝑷 + + 𝑲𝒅 𝒔
𝑬(𝑺) 𝒔
 Where, 𝑲𝑷 , 𝑲𝑰 and 𝑲𝑫 are called proportional, integral and derivative

gains of the controller, respectively.
 These gains are also called PID parameters.

Proportional plus integral plus derivative control
𝒅𝒆 𝒕
 𝒖 𝒕 ∝ 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 +
𝒅𝒕
 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝒌𝑷 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒌𝑰 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒌𝑫 𝒆(𝒕)
𝒌𝑰
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 𝑬 𝒔 + 𝑬 𝒔 + 𝒌𝑫 𝒔𝑬 𝒔
𝒔
𝒌𝑰 𝒌𝑷
 𝑼 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + + 𝒌𝑫 𝒔 𝑬 𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 + + 𝒌𝑷 𝒔𝑻𝑫 𝑬 𝒔
𝒔 𝒔𝑻𝑰
𝑼 𝒔 𝟏
𝐆 𝐬 = = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + + 𝒔𝑻𝑫
𝑬 𝒔 𝒔𝑻𝑰

𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏 𝑼(𝒔)
 Block diagram is 𝒌𝑷 𝟏+ + 𝒔𝑻𝑫
𝒔𝑻𝑰
Set Point 𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏 𝑼(𝒔)

+ 𝒌𝑷 𝟏+ + 𝒔𝑻𝑫
- 𝒔𝑻𝑰
Feed Back
𝟏
 𝐆 𝐬 = 𝒌𝑷 𝟏 + + 𝒔𝑻𝑫
𝒔𝑻𝑰
𝟏+𝒔𝑻𝑰 +𝒔𝟐 𝑻𝑫 𝑻𝑰
𝐆 𝐬 = 𝒌𝑷
𝒔𝑻𝑰

 Shown in figure below is the block diagram of a PID controller.
𝑲𝒑
+ Controller Output
Desired Speed 𝑬 𝑺 𝑲𝒊 + 𝒀 𝑺
𝑼 𝑺 +
- Error 𝒔 + Output Speed
Set Point
𝑲𝒅 𝒔
Feedback Loop

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Mechanisms and Robotics

22 April 2019 DE ZG561, MECHANISMS AND ROBOTICS 4

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Degrees of freedom is often used to describe the