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Biology Questions and Answers
Foreword
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Biology Questions and Answers
Table of Contents
Foreword......................................................................................................................................... 3
Disclaimer........................................................................................................................................ 3
Biochemistry.................................................................................................................................... 9
Biochemistry Introduction.......................................................................................................... 11
Water and Mineral Salts............................................................................................................ 13
Carbohydrates........................................................................................................................... 18
Lipids......................................................................................................................................... 20
Proteins..................................................................................................................................... 22
Enzymes................................................................................................................................... 29
Nucleic Acids............................................................................................................................. 35
Cell Biology.................................................................................................................................... 43
Cell Structure............................................................................................................................ 45
Cell Membrane.......................................................................................................................... 54
Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement.............................................................................................. 63
Cell Secretion............................................................................................................................ 65
Cell Digestion............................................................................................................................ 66
Cell Nucleus.............................................................................................................................. 68
Cell Division.............................................................................................................................. 73
Photosynthesis.......................................................................................................................... 84
Cell Respiration......................................................................................................................... 91
Protein Synthesis...................................................................................................................... 99
Microbiology................................................................................................................................ 107
Bacteria................................................................................................................................... 109
Protists.................................................................................................................................... 113
Fungi....................................................................................................................................... 117
Viruses.................................................................................................................................... 120
Zoology........................................................................................................................................ 123
Life Kingdoms......................................................................................................................... 125
Poriferans................................................................................................................................ 128
Cnidarians............................................................................................................................... 131
Platyhelminthes....................................................................................................................... 135
Nematodes.............................................................................................................................. 139
Annelids.................................................................................................................................. 142
Arthropods.............................................................................................................................. 147
Molluscs.................................................................................................................................. 154
Echinoderms........................................................................................................................... 158
Chordates............................................................................................................................... 161
Fishes..................................................................................................................................... 164
Amphibians............................................................................................................................. 167
Reptiles................................................................................................................................... 170
Birds........................................................................................................................................ 173
Mammals................................................................................................................................ 176
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Biology Questions and Answers
Physiology................................................................................................................................... 179
Basic Histology........................................................................................................................ 181
Blood....................................................................................................................................... 185
Metabolism and Homeostasis................................................................................................. 191
Nutrition and Vitamins............................................................................................................. 193
Digestive System.................................................................................................................... 198
Respiratory System................................................................................................................. 211
Circulatory System.................................................................................................................. 219
Excretory System.................................................................................................................... 231
Epithelia.................................................................................................................................. 238
Musculoskeletal System.......................................................................................................... 241
Nervous System...................................................................................................................... 247
Visual System......................................................................................................................... 261
Hearing System....................................................................................................................... 264
Endocrine System................................................................................................................... 266
Immune System...................................................................................................................... 278
Gametogenesis....................................................................................................................... 286
Reproductive System.............................................................................................................. 291
Embryology.................................................................................................................................. 301
Embryonic Development......................................................................................................... 303
Extraembryonic Membranes................................................................................................... 308
Botany......................................................................................................................................... 311
Plant Classification.................................................................................................................. 313
Bryophytes.............................................................................................................................. 316
Pteridophytes.......................................................................................................................... 317
Gymnosperms......................................................................................................................... 320
Angiosperms........................................................................................................................... 323
Plant Tissues........................................................................................................................... 328
Plant Physiology...................................................................................................................... 334
Genetics...................................................................................................................................... 345
Genetic Concepts.................................................................................................................... 347
Mendel's Laws........................................................................................................................ 352
Non-mendelian Inheritance..................................................................................................... 357
Linkage and Crossing Over..................................................................................................... 362
Sex Determination and Sex-Linked Inheritance...................................................................... 365
Blood Types............................................................................................................................ 370
Karyotype and Genetic Diseases............................................................................................ 375
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle................................................................................................ 379
Genetic Engineering................................................................................................................ 382
Evolution...................................................................................................................................... 387
Origin of Life............................................................................................................................ 389
Theory of Evolution................................................................................................................. 395
Ecology........................................................................................................................................ 403
Concepts of Ecology............................................................................................................... 405
Earth's Biomes........................................................................................................................ 407
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Biology Questions and Answers
Food Chains and Trophic Pyramids........................................................................................ 411
Biogeochemical Cycles........................................................................................................... 416
Biodiversity.............................................................................................................................. 419
Ecological Interactions............................................................................................................ 422
Ecological Succession............................................................................................................. 426
Population Ecology................................................................................................................. 428
Environmental Issues.............................................................................................................. 432
Diseases...................................................................................................................................... 439
Concepts of Parasitism........................................................................................................... 441
Bacterial Infections.................................................................................................................. 443
Protozoan Diseases............................................................................................................... 446
Fungal Infections..................................................................................................................... 452
Viral Infections......................................................................................................................... 453
Worm Diseases....................................................................................................................... 461
Prion Diseases........................................................................................................................ 467
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Biology Questions and Answers
Biochemistry
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Biology Questions and Answers
The most important inorganic
Biochemistry substances for living beings are water,
Introduction mineral salts, carbon dioxide and
molecular oxygen. (There are several
other inorganic substances without
which cells would die.)
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Biology Questions and Answers
6. What are the main Glucose, for example, is the main
functions of the organic energy source for the formation of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), a molecule
molecules for living beings? that is necessary in several metabolic
reactions. ATP is an organic molecule
Organic molecules, like proteins, lipids too and is itself the energy source for
and carbohydrates, perform several many biochemical reactions. Fat,
functions for living organisms. proteins and some types of organic
Noteworthy functions are the structural polymers, like starch and glycogen, that
function (as part of the material that are polymers of glucose, are energy
constitutes, delimits and maintains reservoirs for the organism.
organs, membranes, cell organelles,
etc.), the energetic function (chemical
reactions of the energetic metabolism),
the control and informative function 9. What are some examples of
(genetic code control, inter and
the control and informative
intracellular signaling, endocrine
integration) and the enzymatic function function of organic molecules?
of proteins (facilitation of chemical
reactions). Based on genetic information, organic
molecules control the entire work of the
cell. The nucleic acids, DNA and RNA,
are organic molecules that direct the
7. What are some examples of protein synthesis, and proteins in their
the structural function of turn are the main molecules responsible
for the diversity of cellular biological
organic molecules? tasks. In membranes and within the
cell, some organic molecules act as
Organic molecules have a structural information receptors and signalers.
function as they are part of cell Proteins and lipids have an important
membranes, cytoskeleton, organ walls role in the communication between cells
and blood vessel walls, bones, cartilages and tissues, acting as hormones,
and, in plants, of the conductive and substances that transmit information at
support tissues. a distance throughout the organism.
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Biology Questions and Answers
3. Water has key participation
Water and Mineral in organic reactions. What are
Salts examples of two types of
organic reactions in which
water is respectively
incorporated or liberated in
1. What is the approximate the products of these
percentage (in mass) of water reactions?
in the human body? Is this
percentage expected to be Photosynthesis is a biochemical process
larger in the adult or in the old in which water is incorporated into
individual? organic molecules. In the reaction, the
hydrogen atoms from water go to the
Approximately 65% of the human produced glucose and the oxygen atoms
individual mass is water. The brain, for from water form the molecular oxygen
example, has around 90% of water in liberated: carbon dioxide + water +
mass, the muscles, 85%, and the bones light = glucose + molecular oxygen.
have between 25% and 40% of water. Aerobic respiration is an example of
biochemical reaction in which water is
Younger adult individuals have produced: glucose + molecular oxygen
proportionally more water in mass than = carbon dioxide + water.
older individuals.
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Biology Questions and Answers
Water is an excellent solvent for polar anions (OH-) by acids and bases in
substances because the electrical water solution.
activity (attraction and repulsion) of its
poles helps the separation and the
mixing of these substances, giving them
more movement and thus increasing the 7. Can the heat capacity of
number of molecular collisions and the water be considered small or
speed of chemical reactions. On the large? What is the biological
other hand, water is not good as a
solvent for non-polar substances. significance of that
characteristic?
Polarity is one of the water properties.
From Thermology it is known that the
quantity of exchanged heat (Q) is equal
to the mass (m) multiplied by the
5. Which kind of polarity do specific heat of the substance (c)
water-soluble and fat-soluble multiplied by the variation of
substances respectively have? temperature (T), Q = m.c.ΔT., and that
heat capacity is Q/T, hence, m.c. Heat
capacity, however, relates to a specific
Water-soluble substances are polar body, since it considers mass, whereas
molecules, i.e., they have electrically specific heat relates to the general
charged areas. These molecules get the substance. Therefore it is more correct
description “water-soluble” because to refer to specific heat in this problem.
they are soluble in water, a polar
molecule too. Water has a specific heat of 1 cal/g.oC
which means that 1 oC per gram is
Fat-soluble substances are non-polar changed in its temperature with the
molecules, i.e., they are electrically addition or subtraction of 1 cal of
neutral. They get the description “fat- energy. This is a very elevated value
soluble” because they dissolve other (for example, the specific heat of
non-polar substances. ethanol is 0,58 cal/g.oC, and mercury, a
metal, has a specific heat of 0,033
cal/g. oC) making water an excellent
thermal protector against variations of
6. What is the importance of temperature. Even if sudden external
water for enzymatic activity? temperature changes occur, the internal
biological conditions are kept stable in
Enzymes, biological catalysts, depend organisms which contain enough water.
on water to reach their substrates and
bind to them. There is no enzymatic High specific heat is one of the most
activity without water. In addition, important water properties.
enzymes depend on adequate pH
interval to work and the pH is a
consequence of the liberation of
hydrogen cations (H+) and hydroxyl
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Biology Questions and Answers
8. What are the main water 11. What are the main
properties that make water negative ions found in living
special for life? beings?
The water properties that make water The main anions found in living beings
biologically important are molecular are the chlorine anion (Cl-), the
polarity, thermal stability (elevated phosphate anion (PO4--), the bicarbonate
specific heat), fusion and ebullition anion (HCO3-), the nitrate anion (NO3-)
points that allow water to be liquid in and the sulfate anion (SO4-).
most environments, acid-base
neutrality, small molecular size and low
chemical reactivity. (Compared to other
substances, like ethanol or hydrogen 12. How do mineral salts
sulfide.) participate in osmotic
regulation?
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Biology Questions and Answers
a positive outer side. This electrical Calcium has an important role in
situation is maintained by ion transport muscular contraction, in the blood
across the membrane. coagulation process, in the structure of
bone tissue, in teeth, in the motility of
the sperm cell flagellum and in the
nervous transmission.
14. Why is pH regulation
important for living beings?
How do mineral salts
17. What is hemoglobin? What
participate in this regulation?
is the inorganic element that
The potential of hydrogen (pH) is a
is fundamental in the
measure of the amount of hydrogen composition of hemoglobin?
ions (H-) in a solution. The regulation of
the pH according to the necessities of Hemoglobin is the protein present in the
each organ or tissue is extremely blood responsible for the transport of
important for the organism since oxygen from the lungs to the tissues
enzymes act only under some pH and cells.
ranges and many proteins are only
active under some pH ranges. Therefore The hemoglobin molecule is composed
biochemical reactions depend on correct of four protein chains, each with a heme
levels of pH to occur. group containing an iron atom. The iron
is responsible for the binding of oxygen
Neutral pH is one of the water in the lungs and also for the red color of
properties. hemoglobin and thus of the blood.
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19. What is phosphorylation? for the acid-base balance of the
What are some biological organism since they participate, along
with bicarbonate anions, in the pH
processes in which buffer system of the body. Another
phosphorylation plays a function of chlorine is in the digestive
critical role? physiology: inside the gastric lumen,
hydrochloric acid secreted by stomach
Phosphorylation is the name given to cells ionizes itself into hydrogen and
processes of the addition of phosphates chlorine ions lowering the pH of the
to some molecules thus making these gastric juice and then permitting the
molecules more energized. enzymatic digestion to take place.
Phosphorylation has an important role,
for example, in photosynthesis (the
photophosphorylation of the light phase)
and in aerobic respiration (oxidative
phosphorylation of the respiratory
chain). In general the phosphate used in
phosphorylation comes from ATP
molecules.
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Biology Questions and Answers
3. What are monosaccharides,
Carbohydrates oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides?
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Biology Questions and Answers
by the union of one molecule of 7. What are the main
galactose with one molecule of glucose. biological functions of the
polysaccharides?
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Biology Questions and Answers
4. What are phospholipids?
Lipids
Phospholipids are molecules made of
glycerol bound to two long molecules of
fatty acids and to one phosphate group.
1. What are the main types of Therefore, phospholipids are
lipids? amphipathic molecules, i.e., they have a
non-polar portion, due to the long fatty
The main types of lipids are triglycerides acid chains, and a polar portion, due to
(fats and oils), phospholipids, waxes the group phosphate.
and steroids.
Phospholipids are the main component
of cell membranes. Sphingomyelin, the
substance that forms the myelin sheath
2. What is the structural of axons in the nervous system, is a
formula of glycerol? To which phospholipid too.
organic function do these
molecules belong?
5. What are steroids? What
Glycerol is a linear chain of three are some examples of steroids
carbons; the central carbon is bound to
with a biological function?
one hydroxyl radical and to one
hydrogen and the two other carbons in
the extremities are bound to a hydroxyl Steroids are lipids based in an angular
radical and to two hydrogens. Spatial combination of four carbon rings, three
sides of the hydroxyls are the same. of them made of six carbons and one
ring made of five carbons in the
extremity. The union of each ring to the
adjacent ring is made by the sharing of
3. How are triglycerides two adjacent carbons belonging to both
rings.
made?
Bile salts, cholesterol, the sexual
Triglycerides, fats or oils, are made of hormones estrogen, progesterone and
three molecules of fatty acids bound to testosterone, the corticosteroids and the
one molecule of glycerol. Hydroxyls of pro-vitamin D are examples of steroids.
each one of the three fatty acids and
each hydrogen of the hydroxyls of the
glycerol bind to form three molecules of
water that are liberated.
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Biology Questions and Answers
6. What are hydrophobic hydrophilic portion, like the
molecules (or hydrophobic phospholipids, giving them the property
of being dragged by water, and a
molecular regions)? What are hydrophobic portion (non polar).
hydrophilic molecules? How
can they be characterized in
relation to their polarity?
9. What is meant by
Hydrophobic molecules are those that saturation or unsaturation of
have little or no propensity to dissolve oils and fats?
in water (hydro = water, phobia = fear).
Hydrophilic molecules are those that When it is said that a triglyceride is
have great propensity to dissolve in saturated it means that in its molecule
water (philia = friendship). the carbon chain is bound in its
maximum capacity to hydrogens, i.e.,
Water is a polar substance. there are no double or triple bonds
Remembering the rule that “equal between carbons. These saturated
dissolves equal” one can conclude that molecules are generally solid fats at
hydrophobic substances are non-polar normal temperature.
molecules while hydrophilic molecules
are polar molecules. Unsaturated triglyceride molecules are
those in which there are double or triple
bonds between carbons and so they do
not accomplish their maximum capacity
7. Are organic solvents like of hydrogenation. These unsaturated
benzene and ether polar or molecules in general are oils, liquid at
non-polar substances? normal temperature.
Benzene and the ethers are molecules The terms saturated or unsaturated
without electrically charged portions and refer then to the saturation of the
thus they are non-polar substances. carbonic chain by hydrogen atoms.
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Biology Questions and Answers
proteins), the endocrine integration
Proteins function (hormones) and the
informative function (membrane
receptors, intracellular signalers). There
are also many proteins whose biological
1. What are proteins? How can functions are not yet known.
the protein diversity of living
beings be explained?
3. What is the constitutional
Proteins are molecules made of
unit of proteins?
sequences of amino acids bound by a
peptide bond.
The constitutional units of proteins are
The genetic code codifies twenty the amino acids.
different amino acids that can compose
proteins. So there are numerous
combinations of amino acid which can
form polypeptide chains and for this 4. What is an oligopeptide?
reason protein molecules can be How is it different from a
immensely diverse. polypeptide?
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Biology Questions and Answers
6. Does every amino acid have An amino acid has a central carbon to
a central carbon? To which which a carboxyl group binds on a side
and to which a –R (variable radical)
organic group is that central binds on the opposite side. In the
carbon bound? perpendicular direction of those ligands
an amine group binds the central carbon
A carboxyl group –COOH, an amine on one side and a hydrogen binds on
group – NH2, an atom of hydrogen –H the opposite side.
and a variable radical -R necessarily are
bound to the central carbon of an amino The bind of the carboxyl group to a
acid. carbon where a hydrogen is laterally
attached is responsible for the name
“acid” in amino acids. The bound of an
amine group in the central carbon
7. How can amine groups be provides the name “amino”.
classified?
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Biology Questions and Answers
that binding the hydroxyl of the 15. Do the amine and the
carboxyl and one hydrogen of the amine carboxyl groups attached to
is lost resulting in the liberation of one
central carbons participate in
water molecule.
the union between amino
acids?
12. What is the binding Yes. The nitrogen of the amine group of
between two amino acids one amino acid binds to the carbon of
called? the carboxyl group of the other amino
acid. The water molecule liberated from
the formation of the peptide bond thus
The chemical bond between two amino
has a hydrogen from the amine and an
acids is called a peptide bond.
oxygen and another hydrogen from the
carboxyl.
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18. Are proteins with the 21. What is the secondary
same number of each different structure of a protein?
amino acid that form them
necessarily identical proteins? The secondary protein structure is
generated by the manner its amino
Even if many proteins have the same acids interact through the
number of each different amino acid intermolecular bond. These interactions
that form them, for example, 50 create a spatial conformation of the
alanines, 70 glycines and 20 histidines, polypeptide filament. The two most
the sequences in which these amino studied secondary conformations of
acids are connected may be very proteins are the alpha-helix and the
different. So if two or more proteins are beta-sheet.
in such condition of numeric similarity
for each type of their constituent amino
acids, they are not necessarily identical.
22. What is the difference
between the alpha-helix and
the beta-sheet protein
19. What is the essential conformations?
condition for a protein to be
identical to another protein? Alpha-helix and beta-sheet
conformations are the two main types of
For a protein to be identical to another secondary structure of a protein
protein it is necessary for the sequence molecule. According to the primary
of amino acids that form them to be protein structure its secondary structure
identical. can be of one type or the other.
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Biology Questions and Answers
The tertiary protein structure is a spatial structures. Denaturation is modification
conformation additional to the in any of these spatial structures that
secondary structure in which the alpha- makes the protein deficient or
helix or the beta-sheet folds itself up. biologically inactive.
The forces that keep the tertiary
structure generally are interactions After denaturation the primary protein
between the –R groups of the amino structure is not affected.
acids and between other parts of the
protein and water molecules of the
solution.
26. How can denaturation be
The main types of tertiary structure of classified regarding its
proteins are the globular proteins and
reversibility?
the fibrous proteins.
The quaternary protein structure is the 27. What are some factors
spatial conformation due to interactions that can lead to protein
among polypeptide chains that form the denaturation?
protein.
Protein denaturation can be caused by
Only those proteins made of two or
temperature variation, pH change,
more polypeptide chains have
changes in the concentration of
quaternary structure. Insulin (two
surrounding solutes and by other
chains), hemoglobin (four chains) and
processes. Most proteins denature after
the immunoglobulins (antibodies, four
certain elevation of temperature or
chains) are some examples of protein
when in very acid or very basic
having quaternary structure.
solutions. This is one of the main
reasons that it is necessary for the
organisms to keep stable temperature
and pH.
25. What is protein
denaturation? Is there any
change in the primary
structure when a protein is
denatured?
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Biology Questions and Answers
28. Is it expected that a 30. What is the difference
change in the primary, in the between essential and natural
secondary or in the tertiary amino acids?
structure of a protein will
produce more functional Essential amino acids are those that the
consequences? organism is not able to synthesize and
that need to be ingested by the
individual. Natural amino acids are
Any change of the protein structure is
those that are produced by the
relevant if it alters its biological activity.
organism.
Changes in the primary protein
structure are more important because
There are living species that produce
they are modifications in the
every amino acid they need, for
composition of the molecule and such
example, the bacteria Escherichia coli,
composition determines all other
that does not have essential amino
structures of the protein.
acids. Other species, like humans, need
to obtain essential amino acids from the
diet. Among the twenty different known
amino acids that form proteins humans
29. In sickle cell anemia, a can make twelve of them and the
hereditary disease, there is remaining eight need to be taken from
substitution of one amino acid the proteins they ingest with food.
by another in one of the four
polypeptide chains of The essential amino acids for humans
are phenylalanine, histidine, isoleucine,
hemoglobin. In this case are lysine, methionine, threonine,
all of the structural levels of tryptophane and valine.
the protein modified?
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Biology Questions and Answers
Keratin is a protein with structural
function present in the epidermis and
skin appendages of vertebrates.
Immunoglobulins are the antibodies,
specific proteins that attack and
inactivate strange agents that enter the
body. Reverse transcriptase is the
enzyme responsible for the transcription
of RNA and formation of DNA in the life
cycle of retroviruses. Hemoglobin is the
protein that carries oxygen from the
lungs to the cells. Insulin is a hormone
secreted by the pancreas that
participates in the metabolism of
glucose.
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Biology Questions and Answers
Enzymes are proteins that are catalysts
Enzymes of chemical reactions. From Chemistry it
is known that catalysts are non-
consumable substances that reduce the
activation energy necessary for a
1. What are catalysts? chemical reaction to occur.
Catalysts are substances that reduce Enzymes are highly specific to the
the activation energy of a chemical reactions they catalyze. They are of vital
reaction, facilitating it or making it importance for life because most
energetically viable. The catalyst chemical reactions of the cells and
increases the speed of the chemical tissues are catalyzed by enzymes.
reaction. Without enzymatic action those
reactions would not occur or would not
happen in the required speed for the
biological processes in which they
2. What amount of catalyst is participate.
consumed in the reaction it
catalyzes?
5. What is meant by
Catalysts are not consumed in the substrates of enzymatic
reactions they catalyze. reactions?
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In the lock and key model the enzyme 9. What is the activation
has a region with specific spatial center of an enzyme? Is it the
conformation for the binding of the
key or the lock of the lock and
substrate. In the induced fit model the
binding of the substrate induces a key model?
change in the spatial configuration of
the enzyme for the substrate to fit. The activation center is a region of the
enzyme produced by its spatial
conformation to which the substrate
binds. In the lock and key model the
activation center is the lock and the
7. How does the formation of substrate is the key.
the enzyme-substrate
complex explain the reduction
of the activation energy of 10. Why can it be said that the
chemical reactions? enzymatic action is highly
specific?
The enzyme possibly works as a test
tube within which reagents meet to
The enzymatic action is highly specific
form products. With the facilitation of
the meeting provided by enzymes it is because only specific substrates of one
enzyme bind to the activation center of
easier for collisions between reagents to
occur and thus the activation energy of that enzyme. Each enzyme generally
catalyzes only a specific chemical
the chemical reaction is reduced. This is
one of the possible hypotheses. reaction.
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Biology Questions and Answers
12. What are the main factors 15. Concerning enzymatic
that alter the speed of reactions, how different are
enzymatic reactions? the graphic curve of the
variation of the speed of a
The main factors that change the speed reaction as function of
of enzymatic reactions are temperature, substrate concentration and
pH and substrate concentration
the curve of variation of the
(quantity).
speed of a reaction as function
of temperature?
13. How does the substrate The curve of variation of speed of the
concentration affect the speed enzymatic reaction as a function of
of enzymatic reactions? growing substrate concentration is a
growing curve until the point where it
stabilizes due to the saturation of the
Initially as substrate concentration
activation centers of the enzymes.
increases, the speed of the reaction
increases; this happens because free
The curve of variation of speed of the
activation centers of the enzyme bind to
enzymatic reaction as a function of
free substrates. Once all activation
growing temperature has a crescent
centers of the available enzymes
portion and reaches a peak (the
become bound to their substrates new
optimum temperature) then it decreases
increments of the substrate
and reaches zero in the point of
concentration will have no effect on the
inactivity of the enzymes by
speed of the reaction.
denaturation.
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Biology Questions and Answers
own structures to obtain energy. 19. Since pepsin is a gastric
Elevation of temperature later reverts enzyme does it have an acid
denaturation of enzymes and the organs
or basic optimum pH? What
and tissues also preserved by other
specific techniques may be grafted into happens to pepsin when it
the receptors. passes into the duodenum?
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22. For the enzymatic reaction 24. What is the action
what is the effect of a mechanism of the
substance with the same antiretroviral drugs called
spatial conformation as an protease inhibitors which are
enzymatic substrate? How is used against HIV infection?
this type of substance known?
Protease inhibitors are some of the
Substances that “simulate” substrates antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV
can bind to the activation center of infection. Protease is an enzyme
enzymes thus blocking the true necessary for the assembling of HIV
substrates to bind to these enzymes and after the synthesis of its proteins within
paralyzing the enzymatic reaction. Such the host cell. The protease inhibitor
“fake substrates” are called enzyme binds to the activation center of the
inhibitors. enzyme blocking the formation of the
enzyme-substrate complex and the
The binding of enzyme inhibitors to enzyme activity thus impairing the viral
enzymes can be reversible or replication.
irreversible.
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26. What are zymogens?
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3. What are pentoses? To
Nucleic Acids what organic group do
pentoses belong? Are
nucleotides formed of only
1. What are nucleic acids? one type of pentose?
What is the historic origin of
this name? Pentoses are carbohydrates made of
five carbons. Deoxyribose is the pentose
that constitutes DNA nucleotides and
DNA and RNA, the nucleic acids, are the
ribose is the pentose that is part of RNA
molecules responsible for the hereditary
nucleotides.
information that commands the protein
synthesis in living beings. The name
“nucleic” derives from the fact that they
were discovered (by the Swiss
4. Into which two groups can
biochemist Friedrich Miescher, in 1869)
within the cell nucleus. In that time it the nitrogen-containing bases
was not known that those substances that form DNA and RNA be
contained the hereditary information. classified? What is the
criterion used in that
classification?
2. Of what units are nucleic
The nitrogen-containing bases that form
acids constituted? What are DNA and RNA are classified as
the chemical entities that pyrimidine and purine bases.
compose that unit?
By the analysis of the structural
Nucleic acids are formed by sequences formulae of those nitrogen-containing
of nucleotides. bases it is possible to realize that three
of them, cytosine, thymine and uracil,
Nucleotides are constituted by one have only one nitrogenized carbon ring.
molecule of sugar (deoxyribose in DNA The others, adenine and guanine, have
and ribose in RNA) bound to one two nitrogenized associated carbon
molecule of phosphate and to one rings.
nitrogen-containing base (adenine,
uracil, cytosine or guanine, in RNA, and
adenine, thymine, cytosine and
guanine, in DNA). 5. Concerning the nitrogen-
containing bases that
participate in nucleotides,
what is the difference
between DNA and RNA?
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In DNA nucleotides can be formed of In eukaryotic cells DNA is found within
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) the cell nucleus. In prokaryotic cells
or guanine (G). In RNA nucleotides can DNA is found dispersed in the cytosol,
also contain adenine (A), cytosine (C) or the fluid space inside the cell.
guanine (G), however, instead of
thymine (T) there is uracil (U). Other DNA molecules can also be found
within mitochondria and chloroplasts,
specialized organelles of eukaryotic
cells.
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The rule for the pairing of nitrogen- and there is no necessary
containing bases of the polynucleotide proportionality of nitrogen-containing
chains that form the DNA molecule is bases to form it.
pyrimidine base binds to purine base,
under the condition that thymine (T)
binds to adenine (A) and cytosine (C)
binds to guanine (G). 12. Which type of chemical
bond maintains the pairing of
In RNA there is no binding between
each chain in the DNA
nitrogen-containing bases. That is
because RNA is formed of only one molecule?
polynucleotide chain; differently, DNA is
formed of two chains. It is therefore not To form the DNA molecule, purine bases
correct to question base pairing in RNA. bind to pyrimidine bases by
intermolecular bonds called hydrogen
bonds. Hydrogen bonds occur when
there is hydrogen near one of these
11. What is the numeric electronegative elements: fluorine,
relation between pyrimidine oxygen or nitrogen.
and purine bases in the DNA In such conditions hydrogen looks like
molecule? Is that relation having lost electrons for those elements
valid in RNA molecules? and a very strong polarization is
created. The highly positive hydrogen
The DNA molecule is made of two bound attracts pairs of electrons of other
polynucleotide chains that form a helical molecules making a hydrogen bond.
structure (the double helix). The binding
of the two chains is between their
nitrogen-containing bases and it always
obeys the following rules: adenine (A), 13. What is the completing
a purine base, binds with thymine (T), a sequence of nitrogen-
pyrimidine base, and guanine (G), a containing bases for a
purine base, binds to cytosine (C), a AGCCGTTAAC fragment of a
pyrimidine base. Therefore in one
molecule of DNA there will be the same DNA chain?
number of adenine (A) and thymine (T)
and same number of cytosine (C) and TCGGCAATTG.
guanine (G). The quantities of purine
and of pyrimidine bases then will also
be the same in a 50% proportion for
each type. The relation A = T and C = 14. What is the name of the
G, or A/T = C/G = 1, is called Chargaff’s DNA duplication process?
relation and the pairing rules described What is the main enzyme that
above are known as Chargaff’s rules.
participates in it?
In RNA there are not two nucleotide
chains. RNA is a simple chain molecule
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The process of copying, or duplication, of a new synthesized polynucleotide
of the DNA molecule is called chain.
replication. The enzyme that
participates in the formation of a new
DNA chain is the DNA polymerase.
There are also other important enzymes 17. What are the chemical
in the replication process, the helicase, bonds of the DNA molecule
the gyrase and the ligase. that are broken for the
replication process to occur?
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19. Does DNA replication 21. Mistakes may happen
occur in cell division? during every copying process.
The same is true for DNA
Yes. DNA replication occurs in mitosis as replication. Are there
well in meiosis. correction systems in cells
that try to fix those mistakes?
Under which situation are the
20. One characteristic of the mistakes carried only by the
DNA molecule is its replication individual owner of the cell
capability. What are the within which the mistake has
consequences of failures occurred and in which
during DNA replication? situation are they transmitted
to other individuals?
Ideally a DNA molecule should replicate
in a perfect way. Sometimes however The cell is equipped with an enzymatic
failures in the duplication occur, with system that tries to fix mistakes of the
alteration (deletion, addition or DNA replication process. This system
substitution) of one or more nucleotides however is not completely efficient.
in the molecule.
DNA replication mistakes are kept in the
Those mistakes, or mutations, therefore original individual where the failure
make changes in the protein synthesis occurred when the phenomenon affects
process too. For example, the somatic cells. If a replication mistake
production of an important protein for occurs in the formation of a germline
cells or tissues may be suppressed, new cell (e.g., in gametes) the DNA
utile or inutile proteins can be created, alteration may be transmitted to the
etc. The mistake in the DNA duplication offspring of the individual.
and the resulting production of altered
genetic material are some of the main
creative forces for the biological
evolution and the diversity of species. 22. Where can RNA be found
within cells?
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Mitochondria and chloroplasts also have In replication the enzyme DNA
their own DNA and RNA. polymerase catalyzes the formation of a
new polynucleotide chain using free
nucleotides in solution and putting them
in the new chain according to the DNA
23. Does RNA molecule have template exposed and to the rule A-T,
two polynucleotide chains like C-G. In transcription the enzyme RNA
polymerase makes a new polynucletide
DNA?
chain according to the DNA template
exposed obeying, however, the rule A-
Only DNA has two polynucleotide U, C-G.
chains. RNA is formed by just one
polynucleotide chain. In replication the original template DNA
chain is kept bound by hydrogen bonds
to the newly formed DNA chain and a
new DNA molecule is then created. In
24. What is the production of transcription the association between
RNA called and what is the the template DNA chain and the newly
enzyme that catalyzes the formed RNA is undone and RNA
process? constituted of only one polynucleotide
chain is liberated.
The making of RNA from information
contained in DNA is called transcription.
The enzyme that catalyzes the process
is the RNA polymerase.
26. What are the three main
types of RNA? What is meant
by heterogeneous RNA?
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27. Concerning their biological 29. Do the phosphate and the
function what is the difference pentose groups give
between DNA and RNA? homogeneity or heterogeneity
to the nucleic acid chains?
DNA is the source of information for What about the nitrogen-
RNA production (transcription) and thus containing groups? Supported
for protein synthesis. DNA is still the
by that, which of those groups
basis of heredity due to its replication
capability. is expected to directly
participate in the highly
The messenger RNA is the template for diverse and heterogeneous
protein synthesis (translation). In this genetic coding, i.e., which of
process tRNA and rRNA also participate those groups is the basis of
since the first carries amino acids for
the polypeptide chain formation and the
the information for protein
second is a structural constituent of production?
ribosomes (the organelles where
proteins are made). The phosphate and the pentose groups
are the same in every nucleotide that
forms the nucleic acid and so they give
homogeneity to the molecule. The
28. Is there any situation in nitrogen-containing bases however can
which DNA is made based on a vary among adenine, thymine, cytosine,
RNA template? What is the guanine (in DNA) and uracil (in RNA).
These variations provide the
enzyme involved? heterogeneity of the nucleic acid
molecule.
The process in which DNA is synthesized
having as template a RNA chain is called Homogeneous portions of a molecule
reverse transcription. In cells infected seldom would store any information, by
by retroviruses (RNA viruses, like the the same reason that a sequence of the
AIDS or SARS viruses) reverse same letter of the alphabet cannot
transcription occurs and DNA is made make many words with different
from information contained in the viral meanings. The nitrogen-containing
RNA. bases, on the other hand, because they
are different (four different types for
Viral RNA within the host cell produces RNA or DNA), can make different
DNA with the help of an enzyme called sequences and combinations that allow
reverse transcriptase. Based on that the diversity of the genetic code.
DNA the host cell then makes viral
proteins, new viruses are assembled
and viral replication occurs.
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Cell Biology
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3. In 1665 Robert Hooke, an
Cell Structure English scientist, published his
book Micrographia, in which
he described that pieces of
1. What is cell theory? cork viewed under the
microscope presented small
Cell theory asserts that the cell is the cavities similar to pores which
constituent unit of living beings. were filled with air. Based on
later knowledge, of what were
Before the discovery of the cell, it was
the walls of those cavities
not recognized that living beings were
made of building blocks like cells. constituted? What is the
historical importance of that
The cell theory is one of the basic observation?
theories of Biology.
The walls of the cavities observed by
Hooke were the walls of the plant cells
that form the tissue. The observation
2. Are there living beings led to the discovery of the cells, a fact
without cells? only possible after the invention of the
microscope. In that work, Hooke
Viruses are considered the only living established the term “cell”, now widely
beings that do not have cells. Viruses used in Biology, to designate those
are constituted by genetic material cavities seen under the microscope.
(DNA or RNA) enwrapped by a protein
capsule. They do not have membranes
and cell organelles nor do they have
self-metabolism. 4. What are the two big
groups into which cells are
classified?
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5. Do bacteria cells have a pointing to the exterior of the layer and
nucleus? the non-polar phospholipid chains in the
interior. Proteins can be found
embedded in the lipid bilayer and there
In bacteria the genetic material is are also some carbohydrates bound to
dispersed in the cytosol and there is no proteins and to phospholipids in the
internal membrane that delimits a outer face of the membrane.
nucleus.
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exoskeleton of arthropods); in plants, and thus they are eukaryotic cells; in
the cell wall is made of cellulose too. these cells the genetic material is
located within the nucleus. Bacterial
cells (cells of living beings of the
kingdom Monera) do not have organized
11. Do membranes form only cellular nuclei and so they are
the outer wrapping of cells? prokaryotic cells and their genetic
material is found dispersed in the
cytosol.
Lipid membranes do not form only the
outer cover of cells. Cell organelles,
such as the Golgi complex,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
the endoplasmic reticula and the
14. What are the three main
nucleus, are delimited by membranes parts of a eukaryotic cell?
too.
The eukaryotic cell can be divided into
two main portions: the cell membrane
that separates the intracellular space
12. Which type of cell came from the outer space physically
first in evolution - the delimiting the cell; the cytoplasm, the
interior portion filled with cytosol (the
eukaryotic cell or the
aqueous fluid inside the cell); and the
prokaryotic cell? nucleus, the membrane-delimited
internal region that contains the genetic
This is an interesting problem of material.
biological evolution. The most accepted
hypothesis asserts that the more simple
cell, the prokaryotic cell, appeared
earlier in evolution than the more 15. What are the main
complex eukaryotic cell. The structures within the cell
endosymbiotic hypothesis, for example,
affirms that aerobic eukaryotic cells
nucleus?
appeared from the mutualist ecological
interaction between aerobic prokaryotes Within the cell nucleus the main
and primitive anaerobic eukaryotes. structures are: the nucleolus, an
optically dense region, spherical shaped,
where there are concentrated ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) associated to proteins
13. Concerning the presence (there may be more than one nucleolus
in a nucleus); the chromatin, made of
of the nucleus what is the
DNA molecules dispersed in the nuclear
difference between animal matrix during the cell interphase; the
and bacterial cells? karyotecha, or nuclear membrane, the
membrane that delimits the nucleus.
Animal cells (cells of living beings of the
kingdom Animalia) have an interior
membrane that delimits a cell nucleus
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16. What are the substances 19. What is the name of the
that constitute the chromatin? membrane that delimits the
What is the difference nucleus? To which component
between chromatin and of the cell structure is that
chromosome? membrane contiguous?
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22. Where in the cell can 24. A netlike membranous
ribosomes be found? What is complex of superposed flat
the main biological function of saccules with vesicles
ribosomes? detaching from the
extremities seen in electronic
Ribosomes can be found free in the microscopy. What is the
cytoplasm, adhered to the outer side of observed structure? What is
the nuclear membrane or associated to
its biological function?
the endoplasmic reticulum membrane
defining the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Ribosomes are the structures What is being observed is the Golgi
where protein synthesis takes place. complex, or Golgi apparatus. This
cytoplasmic organelle is associated with
chemical processing and modification of
proteins made by the cell and with
23. What is the difference storage and branding of these proteins
for posterior use or secretion. Vesicles
between smooth and rough
seen under the electronic microscope
endoplasmic reticulum? contain material already processed,
ready to be exported (secreted) by the
The endoplasmic reticulum is a delicate cell. The vesicles detach from the Golgi
membranous structure contiguous to apparatus, travel across the cytoplasm
the nuclear membrane and present in and fuse with the plasma membrane
the cytoplasm. It forms an extensive then secreting their substances to the
net of channels throughout the cell and exterior.
is classified into rough or smooth types.
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26. Why are lysosomes known 28. What are the
as “the cleaners” of the cell morphological, chemical and
waste? functional similarities and
differences between
Lysosomes carry out autophagic and lysosomes and peroxisomes?
heterophagic digestion: autophagic
digestion by digesting residual Similarities: lysosomes and peroxisomes
substances from the cellular are small membranous vesicles that
metabolism; heterophagic digestion by contain enzymes and enclose residual
digesting substances that enter the cell. substances from internal or external
Lysosomes enfold the substances to be origin degrading them. Differences:
degraded forming digestive vacuoles, or lysosomes have digestive enzymes
residual vacuoles, that later migrate (hydrolases) that break substances to
toward the plasma membrane fusing be digested into small molecules;
with it and liberating (exocytosis) the peroxisomes contain enzymes that
digested material to the exterior. degrade mainly long-chained fatty acids
and amino acids and that inactivate
Cell Structure Review - Image Diversity: toxic agents including ethanol; within
lysosomes peroxisomes there is the enzyme
catalase, responsible for the oxidation of
organic compounds by hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and, when this
27. Which are the cell substance is in excess, by the
organelles that participate in degradation of the peroxide into water
cell division and in the and molecular oxygen.
formation of cillia and flagella
of some eukaryotic cells?
29. What are mitochondria?
The organelles that participate in the
cell division and in the formation of cilia
What is the basic morphology
and flagella of some eukaryotic cells are of these organelles and in
the centrioles. Some cells have cillia which cells can they be found?
(paramecium, the bronchial ciliated
epithelium, etc.) or flagella (flagellate Mitochondria are the organelles in which
protists, sperm cells, etc.); these cell the most important part of the cellular
structures are composed of respiration occurs: the ATP production.
microtubules originated from the
centrioles. Centrioles also make the Mitochondria are organelles delimited by
aster microtubules that are very two lipid membranes. The inner
important for cell division. membrane invaginates to the interior of
the organelle forming cristae that
delimitate the internal space known as
mitochondrial matrix and where
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA),
mitochondrial RNA (mt RNA),
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mitochondrial ribosomes and respiratory offering energy to them. This hypothesis
enzymes can be found. Mitochondria are is called the endosymbiotic hypothesis
numerous in eukaryotic cells and they on the origin of mitochondria.
are even more abundant in those cells
that use more energy, like muscle cells. The hypothesis is strengthened by some
Because they have their own DNA, RNA molecular evidence such as the fact that
and ribosomes, mitochondria can self- mitochondria have their own
replicate. independent DNA and protein synthesis
machinery, with their own RNA and
ribosomes, and that they can self-
replicate.
30. Why can mitochondria be
considered the power plants The endosymbiotic theory can be
applied to chloroplasts too. It is
of the aerobic cells?
supposed that these organelles were
primitive photosynthetic prokaryotes
Mitochondria are the “power plants” of because they have their own DNA, RNA
aerobic cells because within them the and ribosomes and they can self-
final stages of the cellular respiration replicate too.
process occurs. Cellular respiration is
the process of using organic molecule
(mainly glucose) and oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and energy. The energy 32. What are the main
is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) molecules and later used
components of the
in other cellular metabolic reactions. In cytoskeleton?
mitochondria the two last steps of the
cellular respiration take place: the Krebs The cytoskeleton is a network of very
cycle and the respiratory chain. small tubules and filaments distributed
throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. It is made of microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate
31. What is the endosymbiotic filaments.
hypothesis about the origin of
Microtubules are formed by molecules of
mitochondria? What are the
a protein called tubulin. Microfilaments
molecular facts that support are made of actin, the same protein that
the hypothesis? To which participates in the contraction of muscle
other cellular organelles can cells. Intermediate filaments are made
the hypothesis also be of protein too.
applied?
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As the name indicates, the cytoskeleton 35. What is the molecule
is responsible for the support of the responsible for the absorption
normal shape of the cell; it also acts as
of photic energy for
a facilitator for substance transport
across the cell and for the movement of photosynthesis? Where is that
cellular organelles. For example, the molecule located in
sliding between actin-containing photosynthetic cells?
filaments and the protein myosin
creates pseudopods. In cells of the The chlorophyll molecules are
phagocytic defense system, like responsible for the absorption of light
macrophages, cytoskeleton is energy for photosynthesis. These
responsible for the plasma membrane molecules are found in the internal
projections that engulf the external membranes of chloroplasts.
material to be interiorized and attacked
by the cell.
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absorption in 450 nm wavelength cell size, preventing the cell to break
(blue). when it absorbs a lot of water.
37. What is the path followed 40. What are plant cell
by the energy absorbed by vacuoles? What are their
plants to be used in functions? What is the
photosynthesis? covering membrane of the
vacuoles called?
The energy source of photosynthesis is
the sun, the unique and central star of Plant cell vacuoles are cell structures
our planetary system. In photosynthesis delimited by membranes within which
the solar energy is transformed into there is an aqueous solution made of
chemical energy, the energy of the various substances like carbohydrates
chemical bonds of the produced glucose and proteins. In young plant cells many
molecules (and of the released small vacuoles can be seen; within adult
molecular oxygen). The energy of cells the most part of the internal area
glucose is then stored as starch (a of the cell is occupied by a central
glucose polymer) or it is used in the vacuole.
cellular respiration process and
transferred to ATP molecules. ATP is The main function of the vacuoles is the
consumed in metabolic processes that osmotic balance of the intracellular
spend energy (for example, in active space. They act as “an external space”
transport across membranes). inside the cell. Vacuoles absorb or
release water in response to the cellular
metabolic necessities by increasing or
lowering the concentration of osmotic
38. Of what substance is the particles dissolved in the cytosol.
plant cell wall made? Of which Vacuoles also serve as a storage place
monomer is it made? for some substances.
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3. What is diffusion?
Cell Membrane
Diffusion is the spreading of substance
molecules from a region where the
substance is more concentrated to
1. What is a membrane? another region where it is less
concentrated. For example, during the
Membrane is any delicate sheet that boiling of water in a kitchen gaseous
separates one region from another water particles tend to uniformly spread
blocking or permitting (selectively or in the air by diffusion.
completely) the passage of substances.
The skin, for example, can be
considered a membrane that separates
the exterior from the interior of the 4. What is meant by
body; cellophane, used in chemical concentration gradient? Is it
laboratories to separate solutions, acts
correct to refer to
as a membrane too.
“concentration gradient of
water”?
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concentration to a region of lower solute 7. Can solutions with the same
concentration. concentration of different
solutes have different osmotic
One can consider osmosis as movement
of water (solvent) and diffusion as pressures?
movement of solutes, both
concentration gradient-driven. The osmotic pressure of a solution does
not depend on the nature of the solute,
it depends only on the quantity of
molecules (particles) in relation to the
6. What is osmotic pressure? total solution volume. Solutions with
same concentration of particles even
Osmotic pressure is the pressure containing different solutes exert the
created in an aqueous solution by a same osmotic pressure.
region of lower solute concentration
upon a region of higher solute Even when the solution contains a
concentration forcing the passage of mixture of different solutes its osmotic
water from that to this more pressure depends only on its total
concentrated region. The intensity of particle concentration regardless of the
the osmotic pressure (in units of nature of the solutes.
pressure) is equal to the pressure that
is necessary to apply in the solution to
prevent its dilution by the entering of
water by osmosis. 8. How are solutions classified
according to their comparative
It is possible to apply in the solution tonicity?
another pressure in the contrary way to
the osmotic pressure, like the Comparative to another, a solution can
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid or the be hypotonic (or hyposmotic), isotonic
atmospheric pressure. In plant cells, for (or isosmotic) or hypertonic (or
example, the rigid cell wall makes hyperosmotic).
opposite pressure against the tendency
of water to enter when the cell is put When a solution is less concentrated
under a hypotonic environment. than another the adjective hypotonic is
Microscopically, the pressure contrary to given and the more concentrated is
the osmotic pressure does not forbid called hypertonic. When two compared
water to pass through a semipermeable solutions have the same concentration
membrane but it creates a both receive the adjective isotonic. So
compensatory flux of water in the this classification makes sense only for
opposite way. comparison of solutions.
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9. Concerning permeability carbohydrates form the glycocalix of the
what type of membrane is the membrane.
cell membrane? This description (with further
explanations) is known as the fluid
The cell membrane is a selectively mosaic model about the structure of the
permeable membrane, i.e., it allows the cell membrane.
passage of water and some selected
solutes.
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12. What are differentiations membranes against their concentration
of the cell membrane? gradient, from a less concentrated to a
more concentrated region. In passive
transport, because it is spontaneous,
In some types of cells, the cell there is no energy spent; the active
membrane presents differentiations that transport however requires energy
are necessary for the specific functions (work) to occur.
of the cells. The main differentiations
are the microvilli and the structures for Active transport works to maintain or
reinforcement of adhesion or union increase the concentration gradient of a
between cells (cell junctions). substance between two regions while
passive transport acts in a manner to
Microvilli are multiple external reduce the concentration gradient.
projections of the membrane resembling
glove fingers. This differentiation is
found in cells of tissues where it is
advantageous to increase the size of the
14. What are the three main
surface area in contact with the
exterior, for example, in the enteric types of passive transport?
(intestinal) epithelium for absorption of
nutrients. The three main types of passive
transport are simple diffusion, osmosis
Membrane differentiations for and facilitated diffusion.
reinforcement of adhesion between cells
occur mainly in epithelial tissues where
the need for coverage and
impermeability requires cells to be 15. What is the energy source
“glued” to neighboring cells. These used in active transport
differentiations can be interdigitations, through biological
desmosomes, tight junctions (zonula
membranes?
occludens), zonula adherens (adherens
junctions) and gap junctions.
The energy necessary for active
transport (against the concentration
gradient of the transported substance)
13. What is the relationship to occur comes from ATP molecules. The
active transportation uses chemical
between concentration
energy from ATP.
gradient and active and
passive transport?
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Simple diffusion is the direct passage of there will be no increase in the intensity
substances across the membrane in of the diffusion. This situation is called
favor of their concentration gradient. In saturation of the transport proteins and
facilitated diffusion the movement of it represents the point at which the
substances is also in favor of their maximum transport capacity of the
concentration gradient but the substance across the membrane is
substances move bound to specific achieved.
molecules that act as “permeabilizers”,
i.e., facilitators of their passage through
the membrane.
19. Without saturation of
transport proteins and under
the same concentration
17. How does the intensity of
gradient how can the speed of
simple diffusion vary in
simple diffusion be compared
relation to the concentration
to the speed of facilitated
gradient of the moved
diffusion?
substance?
The action of facilitator proteins in
The higher the concentration gradient of facilitated diffusion makes this type of
a substance the more intense its simple diffusion faster than simple diffusion
diffusion will be. If the concentration under equal concentration gradients of
gradient diminishes the intensity of the moved substance.
simple diffusion diminishes too.
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addition, after one transport job is In active transport however the
concluded, the permease is not transported substance moves against its
consumed and can perform other concentration gradient and with energy
successive transports. spent. Facilitated diffusion is a passive
transport in favor of the concentration
gradient and it does not require energy.
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ATPase, is fundamental to keep the vesicle then detaches from the
characteristic negative electrical charge membrane and enters the cytoplasm
in the intracellular side of the receiving the name phagosome.
membrane of the resting cell and to
create adequate conditions of sodium
and potassium concentrations inside
and outside the cell to maintain the 27. How does the plant cell
cellular metabolism. wall react when it is placed
under hypotonic medium?
25. What is mass The plant cell wall (the covering of the
cell external to the cell membrane) is
transportation across the cell made of cellulose, a polymer of glucose.
membrane?
When the cell is put under hypotonic
Mass transportation is the entrance or medium it absorbs too much water
the exiting of substances in or from the through osmosis. In that situation the
cell engulfed by portions of membrane. cell wall pressure acts to compensate
The fusion of internal substance- the osmotic pressure thus forbidding
containing membranous vesicles with excessive increase of the cellular
the cell membrane is called exocytosis. volume and the cell lysis.
The entrance of substances into the cell
after they have been engulfed by
projections of the membrane is called
endocytosis. 28. What is meant by suction
force of the plant cell? Does
the suction force facilitate or
26. What are the two main make difficult the entrance of
types of endocytosis? water into the cell?
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29. What is the wall resistance DPD = SF. These cells are called
of plant cells? Does this plasmolysed cells, situation
characterized by the retraction of the
resistance facilitate or make cell membrane that detach from the cell
difficult the entrance of water wall.
into the cell?
In plant cells under isotonic medium
Wall resistance, or turgor pressure (TP), there is no increase of the internal
is the pressure made by the distension water volume, SF > 0 and TP = 0 (since
of the plant cell wall in opposition to the the cell wall is not distended). The cell
increase of the cell volume. The wall membrane slightly touches the cell wall
resistance works against the entrance of and in this situation the cell is called a
water in the cell, i.e., it acts forcing the flaccid cell.
exiting of water and compensating the
entrance of the solvent by osmosis. In plant cells under hypotonic medium
there is tendency of water to enter, SF
= TP (since the osmotic pressure is
totally compensated by the distension of
30. What does the formula the cell wall) and DPD = 0. The cell that
DPD = SF – TP mean? has expanded itself to this point is
called a turgid cell.
DPD is the abbreviation of diffusion
pressure deficit, SF (suction force) is the
vacuolar osmotic pressure and TP is the
32. What is the formula of the
turgor pressure.
DPD for withered (shrunken)
The difference between SF and TP plant cells? How is that
determines whether water tends or not situation possible?
to enter the cell. If SF > TP, DPD > 0
and water tends to enter the cell by Withered plant cells are those that have
osmosis. If TP > SF, DPD < 0 and water shrunk due to loss of water by
cannot enter the cell by osmosis. evaporation without enough
replacement. In this situation the cell
membrane retracts and detaches from
the cell wall. The cell wall moreover
31. What are the values of expands in length to stimulate the
DPD for plant cells under entrance of water making TP < 0. Since
hypertonic, isotonic and DPD = SF – TP and TP is negative (< 0)
hypotonic media? its formula becomes DPD = SF + |TP|.
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The plant cell when placed under
hypertonic medium loses a great
amount of water and its cell membrane
detaches from the cell wall. In that
situation the cell is called a plasmolysed
cell. When the plasmolysed cell is placed
under hypertonic medium it absorbs
water and becomes a turgid cell. This
phenomenon is called deplasmolysis.
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3. Of which substance are
Cytoskeleton and microfilaments made? What
Cell Movement are the properties of these
elements that give motility to
cells?
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cell. In eukaryotic cells of protists and move along a substratum. Pseudopods
animals they originate from centrioles appear from differences of viscosity
that migrate towards the plasma among neighboring regions of
membrane and differentiate into cytoplasm near the plasma membrane
structures projected outside the cell. and from the contractile action of
Each cilium or flagellum is made of nine microfilaments.
peripheral pairs of microtubules and one
central pair all covered by membrane. Amoeboid movements occur, for
(In bacteria, flagella are made of a example, in amoebas (a protozoan),
protein named flagellin and there can organisms that use their movement to
also be fimbria made of pilin.) find food. The leukocytes, cells of the
immune system, when attracted by
In the fixation base of each cilium or chemical substances (immune
flagellum in the plasma membrane mediators) use amoeboid movements to
there are proteins that work as get out from capillaries in regions of
molecular motors providing movement tissue damage to participate in the
for these structures with energy inflammatory process.
spending. Due to this energy spending
ciliated or flagellated eukaryotic cells
have a large number of mitochondria.
7. What are some examples of
In humans ciliated cells can be found, movement created by the
for example, in the bronchial and
contraction of sarcomeres of
tracheal epithelium. In these tissues the
cilia have the defensive function of the muscle cells?
sweeping mucous and foreign
substances that enter the airways. The handling of a cup of coffee, the
Sperm cells are a typical example of peristaltic movements of the bowels,
flagellated cells, their flagellum is the the cardiac beats and even a smile are
propulsion equipment for the movement examples of movement created by
towards the ovule. contraction of the sarcomeres of the
muscle cells. This contraction is a type
of cell movement.
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of messenger RNA and protein synthesis
Cell Secretion occur. These proteins are stored in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum and later
they go to the Golgi apparatus. Within
the Golgi apparatus proteins are
1. What is meant by cellular chemically transformed and when ready
secretion? they are put inside vesicles that detach
from the organelle. These vesicles fuse
with the plasma membrane (exocytosis)
Cell secretion is the elimination to the
in the right place and its content is
exterior of substances produced by the
liberated outside the cell.
cell (for example, hormones, mucus,
sweat, etc.)
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3. What is the main cell
Cell Digestion organelle involved in cell
digestion? What are the
properties of that organelle
1. What is extracellular that enable it to do the task?
digestion?
The organelles responsible for
Extracellular digestion is that in which intracellular digestion are the
food breaking into utile molecules that lysosomes. Lysosomes are vesicles that
can be internalized by the cell is done in contain digestive enzymes capable of
the extracellular space, i.e., outside the breaking big molecules into smaller
cell. In extracellular digestion, the cells ones. These vesicles fuse with others
secret substances that break big that carry the material to be digested
molecules into smaller ones in the and then digestion takes place.
external environment. Later the cell can
benefit from these products of
digestion.
4. What is heterophagic
intracellular digestion? How is
this process accomplished?
2. What is intracellular
digestion? Heterophagic intracellular digestion is
the breaking into smaller substances of
Intracellular digestion, or cellular external substances engulfed in the cell
digestion, is the breaking in the interior by pinocytosis or phagocytosis.
of the cell of big molecules coming from Phagosomes or pinosomes fuse with
outside or even from its own cell lysosomes making the digestive
metabolism into smaller molecules. vacuoles. Within the digestive vacuoles
Products and residues of the the molecules to be digested are
intracellular digestion are used by the hydrolyzed and the products of the
cell or excreted. digestion cross through the membrane
and reach the cytoplasm or they are
Intracellular digestion is classified into kept inside the vacuoles. The vacuole
two types: heterophagic intracellular with residues from digestion is called
digestion and autophagic intracellular residual body and by exocytosis it fuses
digestion. with the plasma membrane and
liberates its “waste” in the exterior
space.
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5. What is autophagic for the perfuration of the egg cell
intracellular digestion? Why is membrane in the fertilization process.
The acrosome, located in the anterior
this type of intracellular end of the sperm cell, is a specialized
digestion intensified in an region of the Golgi apparatus that
organism undergoing accumulates a great amount of
starvation? digestive enzymes.
Autophagic intracellular digestion is the In tadpoles the tail regresses while the
cellular internal digestion of waste and organism develops into an adult frog.
residual materials. In general it is done This tissue destruction is a digestion of
by lysosomes. the tail's own cells and extracellular
materials and it is made by lysosomes
Autophagic intracellular digestion is and their enzymes. The complete
intensified in situations of starvation digestion of a cell by its own
because in such condition the cell tries mechanisms is called autolysis, a type
to obtain from its own constituent of apoptosis (cell suicide).
materials the nutrients necessary to
stay alive.
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4. What are heterochromatin
Cell Nucleus and euchromatin?
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6. In the phase when the cell Some Biology textbooks call the
is not dividing (interphase) is chromosome a unique filament of
chromatin as well as the condensed
there activity within the cell structure made of two identical
nucleus? chromatids after the DNA duplication.
Rigorously the pair of identical
In the interphase there is intense chromatids bound in the centromere are
metabolic activity in the cell nucleus: two copies of the same chromosome
DNA is duplicating, euchromatin is being and therefore they are two identical
transcripted and RNA is produced. chromosomes (and not only one).
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10. What are the primary and humans, there are 22 pairs of
the secondary constrictions of homologous chromosomes plus the pair
of sex chromosomes (the sex
a chromosome? What is the chromosomes are partially
other name given to the homologous).
secondary constriction?
The only human cells that do not have
Primary constriction is the narrower homologous chromosomes are the
region of a condensed chromosome gametes since during meiosis the
where the centromere, the structure homologous chromosomes are
that unites identical chromatids, is separated.
located. Secondary constriction is a
region similar to the primary
constriction, narrower than the normal
thickness of the chromosome too, and 12. What is the difference
in general it is related to genes that between the concepts of
coordinate the formation of the karyotype and genome?
nucleolus and control the ribosomic RNA
(rRNA) synthesis. For this reason the
Genome is the set of DNA molecules
secondary contrictions (that can be one
that characterizes each living being or
or more in chromosome) is called
each species. The concept then includes
nucleolus organizer region (NOR).
the specific nucleotide sequence of the
DNA molecules of each individual or
species. Karyotype is the set of
chromosomes of individuals of a given
11. What are homologous individual or species concerning
chromosomes? Which are the morphology and number of each
human cells that do not have chromosome or pair of homologous.
homologous chromosomes?
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generated by sexual reproduction to be Gametes have one sex chromosome and
identical. Nevertheless the karyotypes somatic cells have two sex
of two normal individuals of the same chromosomes.
species and of the same sex are always
identical. The human normal karyotype
is represented by the formula 44+XX for
women and 44+XY for men. 16. Do phylogenetically
proximal species have cells
with proximal chromosome
14. What is the other name counts?
given to sex chromosomes?
The number of chromosomes typical of
What is the function of sex each species is proximal for
chromosomes? phylogenetically proximal species (for
example, orangutan, gorilla,
Sex chromosomes are also called chimpanzee and human). But it is not
allosomes (the other chromosomes that impossible that evolutionary distant
are not sex chromosomes are called species, like rat and oat, bears similar
autosomes). karyotypes and the same total number
of chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes get such name
because they have genes that Even presenting equal number of
determine the sex (male or female) of chromosomes evolutionary distant
an individual. Sex chromosomes also species have radically different
have genes related to other biological characteristics since the quantity and
functions. the sequence of nucleotides that
compose their respective DNA molecules
are quite different.
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Eukaryotic cells have nucleus delimited
by two juxtaposed membranes that
continue with the membrane of the
endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear
membrane, or karyotheca, presents
pores through which substances pass.
There are also ribosomes adhered to its
external surface.
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3. What is the importance of
Cell Division mitosis for the embryonic
development?
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5. How does mitosis the consequent tissue damage requires
participate in the growth of incessant epithelial renovation through
cell division. The tissue renovation is
pluricellular organisms? completed in two to three days and is
made by mitosis.
All pluricellular beings grow with the
increase in quantity of their cells. This
increase is produced by mitosis
(although some types of growth occur 8. What is cellular
by cellular hypertrophy or by deposition
regeneration? How is mitosis
of substances in interstitial spaces).
related to this process?
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phase and the mitotic is the following new cell and it ends with the beginning
phase. of DNA replication. In the G1 period the
cell is growing.
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16. Does mitosis properly 19. What are the main events
occur before or after the of the first mitotic period?
interphase? Is it a mere “point
of view” issue? The first mitotic period is prophase.
During prophase the following events
Mitosis must be considered a succeeding occur: migration of each centriole pair
phase after interphase since this is a (centrioles were duplicated in
preparation step to mitosis. Thus it is interphase) to opposite cell poles; aster
not merely a point of view issue. formation around the centriole pairs;
formation of the spindle fibers between
the two centriole pairs; end of
chromosome condensation;
disintegration of the nucleolus; breaking
17. Into which periods is
of the karyotheca; dispersion of
mitosis divided? condensed chromosomes in the
cytoplasm; binding of chromosomes to
Mitosis is divided into four periods: the spindle fibers.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
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21. What are the main events 24. What are the main events
of the second mitotic period? of the final mitotic period?
The second mitotic period is metaphase. The final mitotic phase is telophase. In
In metaphase the following events telophase the following events occur:
occur: condensed chromosomes bind (in decondensation of chromosomes, each
their centromere region) to the spindle set located in opposite cell poles;
fibers and get concentrated in the karyotecha formation around each set of
middle of the cell; the formation of the chromosomes forming two nuclei;
mitotic apparatus is completed. destruction of the mitotic apparatus;
Metaphase ends with the breaking of reappearing of the nucleoli; beginning of
the binding of identical chromatids and cytokinesis (the division of cytoplasm to
then anaphase begins. ultimately separate the new cells).
22. What are the main events 25. What is the name of the
of the third mitotic period? cytoplasm division in the end
of mitosis? What are the
The third mitotic period is anaphase. In differences in this process
anaphase the following events occur: between animal and plant
duplication and breaking of centromeres
cells?
with separation of identical chromatids;
traction (by the spindle fibers) of
identical chromatids each to opposite Cytoplasm division occurs after
cell poles; beginning of chromosome telophase and it is called cytokinesis. In
decondensation. animal cells an invagination of the
plasma membrane toward the cell
center appears in the equator of the
parent cell and then the cell is
23. During mitotic anaphase is strangulated in that region and divided
into two daughter cells. This type of
there separation of
division is called centripetal cytokinesis
homologous chromosomes or (from outside).
separation of identical
chromatids? In plant cells the cytokinesis is not
centripetal since the division happens
In the anaphase of mitosis the identical from the inside. Membranous sacs full of
chromatids separate and complete pairs pectin concentrate in the internal central
of homologous chromosomes continue region of the cell and propagate to the
to exist in each daughter cell. The periphery toward the plasma
separation of the homologous membrane. The pectin-containing sacs
chromosomes occurs in the anaphase of fuse themselves and form a central
the cell division by meiosis. structure called phragmoplast. On the
phragmoplast cellulose deposition
occurs and a true cell wall is created to
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separate the daughter cells. Plant cells 27. How does the quantity of
thus present centrifugal cytokinesis. genetic material vary within
the cell during the sequential
The phragmoplast has “failures”, or
pores, to permit cytoplasmic phases of the cell cycle?
communications between the daughter
cells. These openings are called The first period of the first phase
plasmodesms. (interphase) of the cell cycle is the G1,
followed by S and G2 and then by the
mitotic phase.
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copying process that does not interfere will be formed from the zygote. In
with cell ploidy. species with zygotic meiosis the adult
individuals are haploid and they form
gametes by mitosis. These gametes
fuse in pairs with others and generate a
30. Concerning their final diploid zygote that, then, undergoes
products (daughter cells and meiosis to restitute the normal ploidy of
adult individuals.
their ploidies) what are the
differences between mitosis
and meiosis?
32. For the biological diversity
In mitosis one cell, for example, with 2n is mitosis or meiosis the more
chromosomes, duplicates its important process?
chromosomal set and divides generating
two other cells, each with 2n
chromosomes too. In meiosis, one Meiosis is the cell division process that
diploid cell (2n) duplicates its allows the formation of gametes to
chromosomes too, but four cells with n sexual reproduction, with aleatory
chromosomes are generated. separation of each chromosome of the
individual homologous pairs. These
gametes can fecundate gametes from
other individuals promoting combination
of homologous chromosomes from
31. Concerning their biological
different individuals. In that manner the
function what is the difference chromosomal recombination provided
between mitosis and meiosis? by meiosis and sexual reproduction
creates individuals with dissimilar
The main biological function of mitosis is genetic patrimony from their fathers
cellular multiplication, a fundamental and thus promotes biological diversity.
process for the growth and development
of multicellular organisms, tissue Some fungi species and plants, for
renewing, asexual reproduction, etc. example, present sporic meiosis, i.e., a
The biological function of meiosis is structure where half of the
gamete formation (in gametic meiosis) chromosomes of the species is
or spore formation (in sporic meiosis), generated from meiosis. This structure,
i.e., the production of cells qualified for by mitosis, forms gametes. Even in this
sexual reproduction with half the case diversity comes from meiosis.
quantity of chromosomes compared to Meiosis then is the cell division process
the original cell. that in conjunction with genetic
mutations is responsible for the
There is a special type of meiosis that biological diversity.
happens in zygotes of some algae,
protozoans and fungi. This meiosis, Even in species having zygotic meiosis
called zygotic meiosis, has the function the aleatory separation of homologous
of reducing to a half the number of chromosomes in meiosis creates
chromosomes of adult individuals that biological diversity.
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33. What are the respective meiosis; it is, for example, the type of
ploidies of gamete, zygote and meiosis that occurs in plants.
somatic cells in a species with Gametes are also cells with half the
gametic meiosis? number of chromosomes of the normal
cell of the species, but they are
Adopting as pattern an “x” quantity of specialized in fecundation, the fusion
chromosomes for gametes, zygotes will with another gamete that generates the
have 2x chromosomes and somatic cells zygote, a cell with double the number of
will have 2x too. chromosomes than gametic cells.
Gametes can appear from gametic
meiosis or by mitosis in gametophytes
originated from sexual spores.
34. Why is meiosis important
for the maintenance of the In humans as well in most animals the
normal quantity of meiosis is gametic. There are no spores
nor alternation of generations. The male
chromosomes of a species gamete is the sperm cell, and the
with sexual reproduction? female gamete is the egg cell.
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each of the two haploid cells created in 40. How many cells are made
meiosis I, giving birth to four haploid after meiosis I and meiosis II?
cells.
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provides recombination of alleles (of 47. What are the respective
different genes) linked in the same functions of the separation of
chromosome during cell divison by
homologous chromosomes
meiosis.
and of the separation of
identical chromatids in
meiosis?
44. What are the “chiasms” of
homologous chromosomes The separation of homologous
seen in prophase I? chromosomes in meiosis I has two main
functions: to reduce to a half the total
Chiasms are intersections of two tracts number of chromosomes, generating
in the form of X. haploid daughter cells at the end of the
process, and to make possible genetic
The chiasms seen in prophase I are recombination since the separation is
chromosome arms crossing over same aleatory, i.e., each pair of daughter cells
arms of their homologous. In fact when can be different from the other pair
chiasms are seen under the microscope relating chromosomal combination from
chromatids are exchanging paternal and maternal origins. (And if
chromosomal segments with other crossing over is considered each of the
chromatids of its homologous. four resulting cells can be different from
the others.)
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Ploidy reduction does not occur in
mitosis. This fact shows that, although
in meiosis ploidy is decreased from its
original number, in meiosis II, a process
similar to mitosis, the cause of that
reduction is what happens in meiosis I,
i.e., the separation of the homologous
chromosomes.
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4. Which are the living beings
Photosynthesis that carry out photosynthesis?
Which is the cell organelle
responsible for the absorption
1. What is the primary source of light for the photosynthesis
of energy for living beings on process in plants and algae?
earth?
There are many beings (including all
The sun, center of our planetary system animals) that do not carry out
and star of the milky way galaxy (our photosynthesis. There are also
galaxy), is the source of the energy that autotrophic beings that do not perform
is processed and consumed by living photosynthesis but they perform
beings. Intense nuclear reactions in the chemosynthesis. Plants, algae and
sun liberate light and other energetic cyanobacteria are photosynthetic
radiations into the surrounding space. beings.
Some of this energy reaches our planet.
In plants and algae, light is absorbed by
chlorophyll, a molecule present in
cytoplasmic organelles called
chloroplasts.
2. How is light from the sun
transformed into chemical
energy to be used by the
living beings on earth? 5. Are there chloroplasts in
cyanobacteria?
Light from the sun is transformed into
chemical energy contained in organic In cyanobacteria there are no
material by the photosynthesis process. chloroplasts and the chlorophyll layers
In photosynthesis light, water and are dispersed in cytosol.
carbon dioxide react and highly
energetic glucose molecules and
molecular oxygen are made.
6. Which chemical element is
central in the chlorophyll
3. What is the chemical molecule?
equation of photosynthesis?
The chemical element that is central in
the chlorophyll molecule is magnesium.
The chemical equation of photosynthesis
One atom of magnesium is present in
is the following:
the center of an amalgam of eight
nitrogen-containing carbon rings.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6
O2
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7. How do chloroplasts chloroplast and an intergrana
multiply? membrane permeates the interior of the
organelle.
Like mitochondria chloroplasts have
their own DNA, RNA and ribosomes and
they self-replicate through binary
10. In which chloroplast
division.
structure are chlorophyll
molecules found?
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ADP phosphorylation is the addition of 15. How is the photic energy
one inorganic phosphate in the molecule absorbed by chlorophyll
of adenosine diphosphate thus creating
transfered to ATP molecules in
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and
incorporating energy. The photophosphorylation? How
phosphorylation is oxidative when the will be the resulting ATP
energy incorporated comes from the used?
breaking of organic molecules having
oxygen as reagent, as in aerobic cellular Light excites chlorophyll and energizes
respiration. The reaction is called electrons that jump off the molecule.
photophosphorylation when the energy The energy liberated when these
source is light, as in photosynthesis. electrons escape is used in the
phosphorylation of ADP, forming ATP.
The energy incorporated into ATP is The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction
disposable (liberated) to other cellular is the ATP synthase.
reactions when ATP hydrolyzes and ADP
is formed again. The resulting ATP is then consumed in
the next chemical stage of
photosynthesis to energetically enrich
carbon dioxide for the formation of
13. What are the stages into glucose.
which photosynthesis is
divided?
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17. What are the chemical is the hydrogen donor of the reaction.
substances produced by water Glucose is made of carbon and oxygen
atoms obtained from carbon dioxide and
photolysis? What is the of hydrogen atoms obtained from water.
destination of each of those
substances?
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Chlorophyll is green because it reflects 24. Photosynthesis is the most
the green light frequency, i.e., it does important producer of
not “use” the green range of the
molecular oxygen (O2) on our
electromagnetic spectrum. Thus green
light does not favor photosynthesis planet. From which molecule
(curiously green is the light that plants do oxygen atoms liberated by
“dislike”). photosynthesis come? From
which other molecule could
one suspect they have come?
22. What are the divisions of What are the destinations of
white light according to the those oxygen atoms?
electromagnetic spectrum?
The oxygen atoms liberated as
Which are the two most molecular oxygen by the photosynthesis
efficient colors for process come from water.
photosynthesis?
One indeed could suspect that those
The color divisions of the oxygen atoms would have come from
electromagnetic spectrum in decreasing carbon dioxide. Oxygen atoms from
order of frequency are: red, orange, carbon dioxide however are
yellow, green, blue, anil and violet. incorporated into glucose molecules and
When mixed together these colors into water molecules liberated in the
generate white. chemical stage of photosynthesis.
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26. Which are the subproducts 29. What is the general
of the photochemical stage chemical equation of
that are essential for the photosynthesis? Why doesn't
chemical stage of that equation clearly show the
photosynthesis? real origin of the molecular
oxygen liberated?
The chemical stage of photosynthesis
depends on NADPH and ATP produced in The general equation of photosynthesis
the “light reactions” (photochemical is:
stage).
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 +
6 O2.
27. What are the roles of Water molecules are also produced in
NADPH and ATP in the the chemical stage of photosynthesis as
chemical stage of the following complete equation reveals:
photosynthesis?
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 +
6 H2O + 6 O2
NADPH acts as reductant of carbon
dioxide, it delivers highly energetic Water molecules are present in the
hydrogens to precursor molecules reagent side as well in the product side
during the glucose formation process. of the equation. Pure mathematical
ATP is an energy source for the simplification of stoichiometric
reactions of chemical stage. coefficients however leads to elimination
of water from the product side and it
then seems that 6 molecules of
molecular oxygen (O2), i.e., 12 atoms of
28. Why is the nickname “dark oxygen, are made for each 6 molecules
reactions” not entirely correct of water, i.e., 6 oxygen atoms, in the
for the chemical stage of reagent side. Thus a false impression
photosynthesis? that 6 other oxygens come from carbon
dioxide is created.
“Dark reactions” is not a correct name
for the chemical stage of photosynthesis
since the reactions of the chemical
stage also occur in the presence of light.
30. What are the three main
limiting factors of
photosynthesis?
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31. Photosynthesis rate varies there is no incorporation of material into
according to the photic energy the plant and thus the plant growth
discontinues.
intensity. Does the same occur
in aerobic respiration? What
happens to the glucose
balance as a result of these 33. Why is the carbon dioxide
variations? concentration a limiting factor
of the photosynthesis
In a photosynthetic being the aerobic process? When the carbon
respiration rate can be superior, inferior dioxide concentration is
or equal to the photosynthesis rate.
increased indefinitely is
Respiration rate depends on the
energetic needs of the plant while the photosynthesis also increased
photosynthesis rate varies, as other indefinitely?
conditions are maintained, with the
variation of light energy. The availability of carbon dioxide is a
limiting factor for the photosynthesis
In a situation in which the respiration process because this gas is a reagent of
rate is greater than the photosynthesis the reaction.
rate glucose consumption is higher than
glucose production. In a situation in Since enzymes catalyze the building of
which the respiration rate is lower than organic molecules with carbon atoms
photosynthesis rate there is from carbon dioxide photosynthesis
accumulation of glucose (positive stops as soon as these enzymes become
balance). In a situation in which the saturated, i.e., when all their activation
rates are equal all molecular oxygen centers are bound to their substrates. In
produced by the photosynthesis process that situation an increase of the carbon
is used in respiration and all carbon dioxide concentration will not increase
dioxide liberated by respiration is the photosynthesis rate.
consumed in photosynthesis and so
there is no positive balance of glucose
nor depletion of carbohydrate stores. 34. Why do some trees lose
their green color in the
autumn?
32. What is the compensation
In autumn days become shorter and
point? What is the implication
nights longer thus there is a reduction
of the compensation point for of the photosynthesis rate and some
the plant growth? plants prepare themselves for the
winter making nutrient stores. In this
The (photic) compensation point is the process, nutrients from the leaves travel
photic energy intensity under which towards storage sites: limbs, trunk and
aerobic respiration rate equals roots. With less chlorophyll produced in
photosynthesis rate. In this situation all leaves the typical green color of the
produced glucose is consumed and plant fades.
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since adenosine has a local vasodilator
Cell Respiration effect thus providing faster vasodilation
than other physiological methods.
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they depend on aerobic cell respiration C6H12O6 + 2 ADP + P --> 2 C2H5OH +
to obtain energy for ATP production. 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
Anaerobic organisms are those that live
or can live under oxygen-lacking In lactic fermentation pyruvic acid is
environments. transformed into lactic acid and there is
no production of carbon dioxide. The
lactic fermentation equation is:
The two main types of fermentation are 9. Why in cake and bread
alcoholic fermentation and lactic manufacture are alcoholic
fermentation.
fermenting organisms used
In alcoholic fermentation pyruvic acid, and not lactic fermenting
an intermediate molecule, is converted organisms?
into ethanol with liberation of carbon
dioxide. The alcoholic fermentation Fermentation has the function of
equation is as follows: making cakes and breads grow. This is
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accomplished by liberation of carbon 12. How many ATP molecules
dioxide in alcoholic fermentation as the are produced for each glucose
gas passes through the dough and
molecule used in
makes it grow. In lactic fermentation
there is no liberation of carbon dioxide fermentation? How many ATP
and the desired result would not be molecules are produced for
obtained. each glucose molecule used in
aerobic respiration?
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15. What are the three phases to participate in the next phase of the
into which the cell respiration aerobic cell respiration.
is divided?
The three phases of aerobic cell 18. How many ATP molecules
respiration are glycolysis, Krebs cycle
are made after glycolysis?
and respiratory chain (also known as
the electron transport chain).
Glycolysis is a process similar to glucose
degradation in fermentation. It produces
(final balance) two molecules of ATP for
16. What is glycolysis? What each broken glucose.
are the products of this
process?
19. What is NAD? What is the
Glycolysis, the first stage of the aerobic role of the NAD molecule in
cell respiration, is a process in which
glycolysis?
glucose is degraded (broken) to form
two pyruvic acid molecules along with
the formation of two ATP and two NAD (nicotinamide adenine
NADH. dinucleotide) is a hydrogen acceptor
necessary as reductant (to receive
Glycolysis is a complex reaction hydrogen) in some reactions in which it
implying the formation of several is reduced and converted into NADH2.
intermediate molecules until pyruvic During glycolysis two NAD molecules
acid molecules are made. Although two retrieve hydrogens liberated after an
ATP molecules are consumed in the intermediate reaction thus forming
reaction, there is also production of four NADH2.
molecules of ATP, thus a positive
balance of two ATP molecules is
obtained. Two NADH molecules are also
produced. In glycolysis the 6-carbon 20. What happens during
structure of glucose is broken and two aerobic respiration to the
organic chains of three carbons each are pyruvic acid molecules made
made; these chains give birth to two by glycolysis? What is the
pyruvic acid molecules.
sequence of reactions that
then follows?
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coenzyme A) with liberation of one Since acetyl CoA is the substrate that
carbon dioxide. The Krebs cycle (also triggers the Krebs cycle, this process is
known as citric acid cycle), the second called the final common pathway for
stage of aerobic respiration, then being activated by other organic
begins. molecules (lipids and proteins) and not
only by glucose.
23. Why is the Krebs cycle 25. How many carbon dioxide
also called the final common molecules are liberated after
pathway of the degradation of each cycle of the Krebs cycle?
organic compounds? For a single glucose how many
carbon dioxide molecules
The Krebs cycle is called the final were already liberated by the
common pathway of the degradation of aerobic respiration at that
organic compounds because it is also
possible to generate acetyl CoA from
point?
the degradation of lipids and proteins.
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Each round of the Krebs cycle liberates 27. What are cytochromes?
two carbon dioxide molecules.
Cytochromes are proteins of the internal
At the end of the cycle all carbon atoms mitochondrial membrane that are
from the original glucose molecule specialized in electron transfer and
degraded in glycolysis are already participate in the respiratory chain.
liberated incorporated into carbon Energized electrons liberated by the
dioxide molecules. That occurs because hydrogen donors NADH2 and FADH2
for each glucose two pyruvic acid (then reconverted into NAD and FAD)
molecules were made by glycolysis. pass through a sequence of
Each of these two pyruvic acids then is cytochromes losing energy in each
converted into acetyl CoA with liberation passage. The energy is then used in the
of one carbon dioxide molecule (two in synthesis of ATP.
total). Since each of the two produced
acetyl CoA cycles the Krebs cycle once,
from the initial glucose two rounds of
the Krebs cycle is generated and so four
28. How in the respiratory
other carbon dioxide molecules are
made. chain do electrons from FADH2
and NADH2 passing through
All of the six carbons of the glucose cytochromes liberate energy
molecule are then incorporated into six for the ATP synthesis? What is
carbon dioxide molecules (two made this ATP synthesis called?
during acetyl CoA formation and four
during the two cycles of the Krebs
cycle). FADH2 and NADH2 oxidate into FAD and
NAD and liberate hydrogen ions and
highly energized electrons in the
beginning of the respiratory chain.
26. Where in mitochondria
The energy lost by electrons that pass
does the process called through the cytochromes is used to
respiratory chain occur? pump protons (hydrogen ions) out of
Which are the products of the the inner mitochondrial membrane (to
Krebs cycle used in that final the region between the inner and the
phase of the aerobic outer membranes of the
mitochondrion). Hydrogen concentration
respiration? gradient between the inner and the
outer spaces delimited by the inner
Respiratory chain, or the electron membrane forces protons (hydrogen
transport chain, is performed by protein ions) to return to the mitochondrial
systems located in the inner membrane matrix (the region inside the inner
of the mitochondria. Energized electrons membrane) however that return is only
of hydrogen atoms transported by possible if hydrogen ions pass through
NADH2 and FADH2 are the products of an enzymatic complex called ATP
the preceding phases used in the synthetase embedded in the inner
respiratory chain. membrane. In that passage the ATP
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synthetase phosphorylates ADP and 30. How does the poison
then ATP molecules are produced. cyanide act upon the aerobic
respiration?
Hydrogen liberated in the mitochondrion
then combines with oxygen to form
water. As a reaction that depends on Cyanide is a poison that inhibits the last
oxygen this type of ATP synthesis is cytochrome of the respiratory chain,
called oxidative phosphorylation. interrupting the ATP formation and thus
leading the cell to death.
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33. What is the general
equation of the aerobic
respiration (also representing
ADP and phosphate)?
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A gene is a DNA polynucleotide
Protein Synthesis sequence that contains information for
the production of a protein.
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6. How different are the cells specialized in secretion, the
location of ribosomes in endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi
apparatus are well-developed since they
eukaryotic and in prokaryotic participate in the storage and
cells? processing of proteins for exportation.
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11. After the fact that it is Considering two nucleotides there would
based on information from be an arrangement of 4 elements, 2 x
2, resulting in a total of only 16 possible
mRNA what is the process of codifier units (4 x 4). Nature may know
protein synthesis called? combinatory analysis since it makes a
genetic code by arrangement of the 4
Protein synthesis is called translation (of RNA bases, 3 x 3, providing 64 different
genetic information into proteins). triplets (4 x 4 x 4).
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15. Since among the 64 binding of two neighboring mRNA
codons of mRNA 61 codify codons and where anticodons of tRNA
bind by hydrogen bond. Thus ribosomes
amino acids that form are the structure responsible for the
polypeptide chains what are positioning and exposure of mRNA
the functions of the three codons to be translated. In ribosomes
remaining codons? the peptide bond between two amino
acids brought by tRNA molecules also
Since there are 20 amino acids and 64 occurs. The peptide bond happens when
possibilities of mRNA codons, it is tRNAs carrying amino acids are bound
expected some amino acids to be to exposed mRNA codons.
codified by more than one codon. And
that really happens.
Not all 64 codons however codify amino 17. How are amino acids
acids. Three of them, UAA, UGA and brought to the cellular site
UAG, work on information that the last where translation takes place?
amino acid of a polypeptide chain under What is an anticodon?
productions was already bound, i.e.,
they signal the end of the polypeptide
Amino acids are brought to ribosomes
synthesis. These codons are called
by RNA molecules known as transfer
terminal codons. The codon AUG
RNA, or tRNA. One tRNA associated to
codifies the amino acid methionine and
its specific amino acid binds by a special
at the same time it signals the
sequence of three nucleotides to a
beginning of the synthesis of a
mRNA codon exposed in the ribosome.
polypeptide chain (it is an initialization
This sequence in the tRNA is known as
codon).
anticodon. The tRNA anticodon must be
complementary to the mRNA codon to
In prokaryotic cells there is a sequence
which it binds, according to the rule A-
called Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in
U, CG. The ribosome then slides along
general AGGAGG) in the position that
the mRNA molecule (a process called
antecedes the initialization codon AUG.
translocation) to expose the following
The function of this sequence is
codon to the binding of other tRNA.
distinctness between the initialization
When amino acids corresponding to
AUG and other AUG codons of the RNA.
neighboring codons bind by peptide
bond the first tRNa is liberated.
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18. Why is the proximity 20. How many of the same
between ribosomes and amino proteins are made at the same
acids important for the protein time by each ribosome in the
formation? What is the translation of one mRNA
enzyme that catalyzes that molecule? How does
reaction? consecutive protein
production occur in
The proximity between ribosomes and translation?
amino acids is important because the
enzyme that catalyzes the peptide bond Ribosomes do not make several
resides in ribosomes. As substrates of different proteins simultaneously. They
these enzymes, amino acids need to make them one after another.
bind to the enzyme activation centers.
Along one single mRNA molecule
The enzyme that catalyzes the peptide however many ribosomes may move in
bond is the peptidyl transferase. a real mass manufacturing of the same
protein. The unit made of many
ribosomes working upon the same
mRNA molecule is called polysome.
19. Why do ribosomes move
along mRNA during
translation?
21. An mRNA molecule
During translation the ribosome always codifies only one type of
exposes two mRNA codons to be protein?
translated by moving along the mRNA.
When a peptide bond is made the Eukaryotic cells have monocistronic
ribosome moves to expose the next mRNA, i.e., each mRNA codifies only
codon. This moving is called ribosomal one polypeptide chain. Prokaryotes can
translocation. (In the rough present polycistronic mRNA.
endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes are
attached outside the membrane and At the end of the assembling of amino
mRNA molecules rather moving through acids into a polypeptide chain, the
them). mRNA, by one of its terminal codons,
signals to the ribosome that the
polypeptide is complete. The ribosome
then liberates the produced protein. In
prokaryotes after this conclusion the
information for the beginning of the
synthesis of another different protein
may follow in the same mRNA.
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22. If a tRNA anticodon is CAA For example, the amino acid arginine is
what is its corresponding codified by six codons: CGU, CGC, CGA,
CGG, AGA and AGG.
mRNA codon? For the genetic
code which amino acid does
this codon codify?
25. What is the concept of
According to the A-U , C-G rule, the universality of the genetic
corresponding codon to the CAA code? What are the exceptions
anticodon is GUU.
to this universality?
The genetic code table for translation is
related to codons and not to anticodons. The genetic code is universal because
The amino acid codified by GUU, the rules of protein codification based
according to the genetic code, is valine. on mRNA codons are practically the
same for all known living beings. For
example, the genetic code is the same
for humans, for bacteria and for
23. If a fragment of nucleic invertebrates.
acid has a nucleotide The protein synthesis in mitochondria,
sequence TAC can one assert chloroplasts and some protozoans
that it is a codon or an however are accomplished by different
anticodon? genetic codification.
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human DNA containing a gene for the
production of a given protein into the
genetic material of bacteria. Since the
bacterial transcription and translation
systems work in the same manner as
the correspondent human systems do,
the bacteria will begin to synthesize the
human protein related to the inserted
DNA fragment. There are industries that
produce human insulin (for use by
diabetic patients) in this way,
synthesized by bacteria with modified
DNA. If the genetic code was not
universal this kind of genetic
manipulation would be impossible or
very difficult to accomplish without new
technological progresses.
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Microbiology
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living under high temperatures and low
Bacteria pH. The methanogen archaebacteria are
those that liberate methane gas (CH4),
they are found in swamps.
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5. What are examples of them to parasite their host. Some
human diseases caused by bacteria have fimbriae, cilium-like
structures that attach the bacterial cell
bacteria? to the host tissue. There are bacteria
specialized in intracellular parasitism.
Some human diseases caused by Other bacteria secrete toxins, molecules
bacteria are tuberculosis, pertussis, that cause disease; in some cases, the
diphtheria, bacterial meningitis, bacterial population growth causes food
gonorrhea, syphilis, bubonic plague, contamination by toxins. Generally,
leptospirosis, cholera, typhoid fever, bacterial disease is caused by bacterial
Hansen’s disease, trachoma, tetanus, population growth with invasion and
anthrax. destruction of tissues or by bacterial
toxins that contaminate the organism.
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sulfur photosynthetic bacteria, use 13. What is the main
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) instead of water. constituent of the cell wall of
bacteria?
10. How are bacteria classified The bacterial cell wall is made of
peptidoglycans.
according to their need for
oxygen?
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(transformation, transduction or
conjugation) with a combination of
genetic material from different
individuals.
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In comparison to pluricellular organisms
Protists protozoans are more proximal to the
animal kingdom than to plants: they are
heterotrophs, they have a rudimentary
locomotion system (amoeboid
1. Which are the groups of movements, cilia, flagella), they do not
living beings that form the have cell wall, some species present
structures that resemble structures of a
protist kingdom?
primitive digestive system, with
cytostome (mouth) and cytopyge
The protist kingdom includes protozoans (anus), specialized in digestion and
and algae. (Two groups of fungi with excretion.
similar characteristics to protozoans,
myxomycetes and oomycetes, have The evolutionary hypothesis that animal
been classified as protists.) cells have come from differentiation of
protozoans is strong.
Unicellular protozoans and algae are
unicellular eukaryotes. The pluricellular
algae are eukaryotes of simple structure
too. It is believed that protists are 4. What is the basic
phylogenetic ancestors of living beings
morphology of a protozoan
of the other eukariotic kingdoms (fungi,
animals and plants). cell?
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paramecium, have two nuclei: the move. Trichomonas are flagellated
macronucleus and the micronucleus. protozoans, i.e., they have relatively
long filaments outside the cell that beat
and make possible active swimming in
fluid environments.
6. What are the respective
functions of the macronucleus
and of the micronucleus in the
9. How is digestion performed
paramecium?
in protozoans?
The macronucleus is properly the cell
nucleus, it has DNA and RNA and acts Digestion in protozoans is intracellular
as the center of the cellular control and digestion: organic material is
regulation. The micronucleus has internalized and degraded inside the
reproductive functions and it is related cell.
to the conjugation process (sexual
reproduction). Protozoans get food by phagocytosis
and then the food is digested when
phagosomes fuse with lisosomes within
the cell, forming digestive vacuoles. The
digestive vacuoles give origin to residual
7. What do protozoans “eat”?
bodies that are eliminated from the cell
Do they move in search for by exocytosis.
food?
In the paramecium the entrance of food
Protozoans are heterotroph beings, i.e., into the cell and the excretion of
they do not make their own food and digestive residuals occur at specialized
thus they need to search for it in the regions of the plasma membrane, the
environment. Protozans have developed cytostom and the cytopyge,
several locomotion mechanisms and respectively.
they actively move towards food.
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The vacuoles of protozoans are internal 12. Which is the form of
structures specialized in water storage protozoan reproduction that
that when necessary liberate water to
generates more variability?
the cytoplasm. Vacuoles thus can dilute
the cytoplasm for it to enter into
osmotic equilibrium with the Sexual reproduction always generates
environment. Protozoans of fresh water more genetic variability than asexual
then need vacuoles more since their reproduction. That is because in sexual
intracellular is hypertonic in relation to reproduction the fusion of genetic
the exterior. Without the dilution material from different individuals
mechanism provided by the vacuoles, occurs and so the offspring is not
protozoans of fresh water would absorb genetically identical to the parent cell.
too much water and would die.
If the hypothesis that protozoans
originated multicellular animals is
strong, other hypotheses may be even
11. Do protozoans have sexual stronger: that these protozoans were
able to reproduce sexually, since only
or asexual reproduction?
genetic variation can produce biological
differentiation to the point of creating
In protozoans reproduction is sexual or new types of living beings.
asexual. The most frequent form of
sexual reproduction is binary division, or
scissiparity, in which the cell divides
itself by mitosis originating two 13. What are the four groups
daughter cells. Some species, like the
plasmodium, agent of malaria,
of protozoans?
reproduce asexually by schizogony
(multiple fission); in this form of The four main groups of protozoans are
reproduction the cell becomes the sarcodines (that form pseudopods,
multinucleated, generally inside a host like amoebae), the mastigophores
cell, and each nucleus is expelled out (flagellated, like the trypanosome that
together with cytoplasm portions giving causes Chagas’ disease), the ciliated
rise to new protozoans. (like paramecia) and the sporozoans
(spore-forming, like plasmodia).
The sexual reproduction in protozoans
can happen by conjugation, with
incorporation of genetic material from
one cell into another, or by gametes 14. Why are euglenas involved
that fecundate others and form zygotes. in polemics related to their
In the plasmodium sexual reproduction taxonomic classification?
happens in the mosquito, the definitive
host, and the zygote undergoes mitosis
Euglenas are involved in taxonomic
(sporogony) creating many sporozoites.
polemics because they tend to be
classified sometimes as protozoans and
sometimes as algae. Although they have
chloroplasts and they are photosynthetic
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autotrophic beings, euglenas do not food in the oriental world. Jelly
have a cell wall and they can survive by compounds are extracted from some
“eating” substances from the algae, like glues and pastes for
environment when light is not available industrial and commercial use.
for photosynthesis. Curiously euglenas
also have a photosensitive structure The agar-agar, used as a medium for
called stigma that orients the movement biological culture in laboratories and in
of the cell towards light. Nowadays medicines, and the substance known as
euglenas are classified as algae, but it is carrageenin, a component of tooth
suspected that they are common pastes, cosmetics, paint and hygienic
ancestors of algae and protozoans. products, are extracted from
rhodophyte algae. Diatom algae
deposited on the bottom of the sea form
diatomites, used in the production of
15. Do algae reproduce filters, refractories, thermal isolation
sexually or asexually? and cement. Some algae are used as
agricultural fertilizers.
There are algae that reproduce sexually
and there are algae that reproduce
asexually.
17. What is the phenomenon
In unicellular algae reproduction is known as “red tide”? Which
generally asexual by binary division. ambiental harms can it cause?
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4. What are the hyphae and
Fungi the mycelium of pluricellular
fungi?
1. What are the main cellular The main structures of pluricellular fungi
are the hyphae (threadlike filaments
features of fungi?
made of contiguous uni or
multinucleated cells) and the mycelium
There are unicellular and pluricellular (a set of hyphae).
fungi. All fungi are eukaryotes and
heterotrophs.
Fungi have cells with cell wall made of 5. What are the types of
chitin, the same substance that
reproduction that occur in
constitutes the exoskeleton of
arthropods. Fungi, likewise animals, fungi?
characterize for storing glucose in the
form of its polymer glycogen. In fungi there are asexual and sexual
reproduction. Fungi reproduce asexually
by fragmentation, gemmation and
sporulation. Some species can
2. Are there photosynthetic reproduce sexually by fusion of hyphae
fungi? How do fungi nourish from different individuals, even with
metagenesis (alternation of
themselves?
generations).
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Fungi are heterotrophs and 10. What are mycorrhizas?
decomposers (they break down dead How does each participant
beings) and they actively participate in
benefit in this ecological
the recycling of organic material in
ecosystems. Some fungi keep mutualist interaction?
ecological interaction with algae or
cyanobacteria, forming lichen, and with Mycorrhizas are mutualist ecological
plant roots, forming mycorrhizas. interactions between fungi and some
plants roots. Fungi provide to the plant
more water and mineral salts and obtain
organic material from the vegetable.
8. What is the utility of fungi
for some industries?
11. What are the main human
Fungi are industrially used in the
production of fermented beverage, diseases caused by fungi?
bread, cheese, etc. Some fungi are very
important for the production of medical The main human diseases caused by
drugs. There are fungi processed to fungi are coccidioidomycosis,
serve as food for humans, like eatable histoplasmosis, blastomycosis,
mushrooms. paracoccidioidomycosis, or South
American blastomycosis, sporotrichosis,
aspergillosis and systemic candidiasis.
9. What are lichens? How do Fungi are also responsible for many
fungi participate in this dermatologic diseases
(dermatomycosis) that affect the skin,
ecological interaction?
the nails, the scalp, etc.
Lichens are formed by mutualist On the other hand, many fungi are able
ecological interaction between fungi and to produce antibacterial substances that
algae or between fungi and combat diseases. In the second world
cyanobacteria. In this ecological war, in German jails, Russian prisoners
interaction, the fungi absorb water that that accepted to eat moldy bread had
is then used by algae (or less skin infection than those that
cyanobacteria), and algae (or refused the food. In China, moldy soy
cyanobacteria), as autotrophs, produce sauce has millennial past use against
organic material in excess to serve as infections. Penicillin, a potent antibiotic,
food for the fungi. was discovered in 1928 by Alexander
Fleming when he observed the
antibacterial activity of fungi from the
genus Penicillium.
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12. What is cyclosporin? How
are fungi related to this
substance?
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4. Why is it a strong
Viruses evolutionary hypothesis that
although viruses are the
structurally simplest beings
1. Are viruses cellular beings? they were not the first living
beings?
Viruses are considered living beings but
they do not have cellular structure. The fact that viruses are obligate
intracellular parasites makes very weak
There is some controversy regarding the hypothesis that virus appeared
their classification as living beings. Their before cellular beings in the evolution of
characteristics of self-reproduction and life.
of having genetic material however
reinforce that classification.
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injects its DNA molecules into the host 8. What is the basic structure
cell. of the HIV virus? What is the
function of the glycoproteins
Within the host cell the viral DNA is
transcripted and thus messenger RNA is of its envelope?
produced. Viral mRNA then is translated
and viral proteins are made. HIV is an RNA virus. In its core there
are two strands of RNA and reverse
Viral polypeptides made within the host transcriptase molecules. The core is
cell are cut by enzymes called proteases covered by a capsid, a layer of proteins.
and then copies of the virus are The capsid then is covered by an
assembled with the newly formed envelope having glycoproteins and
proteins. When the assemblage of new lipids.
viruses is completed the cell membrane
breaks and the viruses are released to The glycoproteins of the HIV envelope
the outside. One sole infected cell can are located on the outer surface of the
produce hundreds of viruses. virus and they are responsible for the
recognition of the cells to be infected
(the HIV host cell is the CD4
lymphocyte) and for the adhesion of the
7. What are retroviruses? How virus to the cell membrane. (CD4 is a
do they reproduce and what is receptor glycoprotein of the outer
membrane of some lymphocytes).
the role of the enzyme reverse
transcriptase?
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10. What is meant when it is 12. SARS is a disease that
said that a virus is in an appeared in 2003 with
inactive state? epidemic features in the
province of Guangdong, in
Viruses considered in inactive state are east China. What type of agent
those whose genetic material is within causes SARS?
host cells without synthesis of viral
proteins and assemblage of new virus.
SARS is caused by a virus from the
The life cycle of these viruses can be
coronavirus group, a RNA virus
activated under certain conditions and
(retrovirus). SARS can be fatal.
then synthesis of viral proteins begins
and new copies are made.
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Zoology
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For example, the scientific name of the
Life Kingdoms human species is "Homo sapiens",
indicating that it belongs to the genus
Homo.
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or multicellular beings with cells having 10. Which are the beings that
delimited nucleus. form the kingdom Animalia?
What are the two big groups
into which this kingdom is
6. Which are the beings that divided?
constitute the kingdom
Monera? The kingdom Animalia is the animal
kingdom. Commonly the kingdom
Animalia is subdivided into invertebrates
The kingdom Monera is the kingdom of
and vertebrates.
the prokaryotes, composed of bacteria
and archaebacteria.
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notochord of the embryonic stage is promising methods to study phylogeny
substituted by the vertebral column in is the comparison of DNA molecules
adults. from different groups of living beings
researching similarities and differences
in nucleotide sequences that may
indicate more or less relatedness among
14. What are the five classes species.
of vertebrates? To which of
these do human beings
belong?
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4. How does water move
Poriferans inside sponges? What is the
function of the pores in these
animals?
1. What are poriferans?
Sponges are filtering beings. They make
The phylum Porifera contains the water enter their bodies by their lateral
simplest creatures of the animal pores. Water then circulates inside the
kingdom. Sponges are aquatic sessile central cavity and exits through the
beings (they are not able to move by osculum.
themselves and they keep themselves
attached to substrates), they do not
have tissue diversity and their bodies
have pores (feature after which their 5. How do sponges try to
name comes). protect themselves against
harm from the environment?
They are multicellular, like all beings of Is that method efficient or
the animal kingdom. rudimentary?
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cells with amoeboid movement (by cells that absorb molecular oxygen and
pseudopods), the amoebocytes; since liberate carbon dioxide.
they are embedded in connective
matrix, amoebocytes move and
distribute nutrients to other cells and
they also produce spicules that like a 10. Do sponges have nervous,
primitive skeleton fill the tissue and circulatory and excretory
support the body structure. (Some systems?
poriferans have an internal skeleton, an
endoskeleton, made of spicules and
organic fibers.) Sponges do not have a nervous system
neither circulatory system nor excretory
system.
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13. What is the economic
importance of sponges?
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3. Concerning tissue
Cnidarians complexity how different are
cnidarians from poriferans?
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6. What is the type of 9. What are the types of
digestion that occurs in reproduction presented by
cnidarians? cnidarians?
These animals have a digestive cavity They present asexual and sexual
and they make extracellular and reproduction.
intracellular digestion. The extracellular
digestion takes place within the
digestive cavity.
10. What is the type of
asexual reproduction that
occurs in hydras?
7. What are cnidocytes? What
is the name of the capsule Hydras reproduce asexually by budding.
inside the cnidocyte? What are
the biological functions of this
structure?
11. What is metagenesis?
Cnidocytes are specialized cells present What are the other names of
in coelenterates. They are found in the this process?
epidermis and contain toxic substances
that can hurt, paralyze or even kill other Metagenesis is the type of life cycle in
animals. which there are two different forms of
individuals of the same species, one
Each cnidocyte has an internal capsule haploid and the other diploid. In one of
know as nematocyst where the actual these stages gametogenesis occurs and
urticating substance is stored. When a fecundated gametes give birth to the
cnidocyte is excited it causes the zygote that then develops into the other
nematocyst to expose a filament form. Metagenesis is also known as
containing the toxic chemical. alternation of generations or as
diplobiont life cycle. (All plants, for
Cnidocytes and their nematocysts have example, present metagenesis.)
the biological functions of defending the
individual from external aggression and
of helping to capture their prey.
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there is alternation between polypoid examples are hydras, by-the-wind-
and medusoid forms. The polyps sailors and Obelia. In scyphozoans the
reproduce asexually originating main phase is the medusoid and the
medusae that then liberate gametes. best known example is the common
The male and female gametes unite jellyfish (Aurelia). In anthozoans there
under water to form the zygote that is only the polypoid form and corals and
then develops into larva and later sea anemones are notable in this group.
originates another polyp.
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made of calcium carbonate. Numerous
coral individuals associate in
intraspecific harmonic ecological
interaction forming colonies with
hundreds, thousands and even millions
of beings. Water-permeated solid
structures of these colonies, known as
reefs, work as true ecosystems for other
living beings. The biggest known coral
colony is the Great Barrier Reef in the
northeast coast of Australia. There are
however many coral species whose
individuals live alone and do not form
colonies.
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4. What are the types of
Platyhelminthes digestion and of digestive
system of platyhelminthes?
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(also called solenocytes), excretory appear, a characteristic of the
ducts and excretory pores. evolutionary process of increased
nervous complexity. In platyhelminthes
one can note the beginning of the
cephalization process, with a
8. What is an example of concentration of neurons (nervous cells)
freshwater flatworm? Due to in the anterior portion of the body and
the appearance of photoreceptor cells in
that habitat what is the
the ocelli.
physiological problem that
these animals must solve? With the increased capacity of these
animals to perceive and to interact with
Platyhelminthes of freshwater, like the surrounds due to the increased
planarias, have an internal environment complexity of their neural complexity, it
much more concentrated in solutes than is possible to find platyhelminthes in a
the exterior and so they present a variety of environments, including the
tendency to gain water. These terrestrial, and with diverse ways of life,
organisms then need a drainage system like those that are parasites and those
to avoid cell death caused by excessive that are free-living.
water.
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bilateral body where the nervous central 14. Is it possible for a
command and important sensory organs hermaphrodite species to
are located.
present cross-fecundation?
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trematodes (or Trematoda) and 18. Platyhelminth identity
cestodes (or Cestoda). card. How are platyhelminthes
characterized according to
Turbellarians are free-living
platyhelminthes and their main examples of representing
representative is the planaria (Dugesia beings, basic morphology,
tigrina). Trematodes are parasites, they type of symmetry, germ layers
live inside a host and the schistosome and coelom, digestive system,
(Schistosoma mansoni) that causes
respiratory system, circulatory
schistosomiasis is an example. Cestodes
are parasites too, they do not have system, excretory system,
digestive tubes and their cells are nervous system and types of
nourished by absorption of nutrients reproduction?
from the host; their most popular
representative are the beef and pork Examples of representing beings:
taenias (Taenia saginata and Taenia planarias, schistosomes, taenias. Basic
solium) that parasite humans. morphology: flat worm. Type of
symmetry: bilateral. Germ layers and
coelom: triploblastics, acoelomates.
Digestive system: incomplete.
17. What are the main human Respiratory system: nonexistent,
diseases caused by respiration by diffusion. Circulatory
platyhelminthes? system: nonexistent. Excretory system:
protonephridia with flame cells. Nervous
system: ganglial, beginning of
The main human diseases caused by
cephalization. Types of reproduction:
platyhelminthes are schistosomiasis,
asexual and sexual.
tapeworm disease (cestodiasis) and
cysticercosis.
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4. What are the morphological
Nematodes similarities and differences
between nematodes and
annelids?
1. What are examples of
nematodes? Nematodes, like annelids, have a
cylindrical elongated body. Annelids
differentiate from nematodes by
Ascaris, hookworm and filaria, all
presenting a segmented body (body
parasites of humans, are examples of
divided into metameres) and so they
nematodes (also known as
are called segmented worms.
roundworms).
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7. Compared to 9. How is the nervous system
platyhelminthes which of nematodes organized?
physiological problem have Where are the neural chords
the cylindrical body of located in their body?
nematodes brought? How was
that problem solved? Roundworms have a ganglial nervous
system with an anterior neural ring
The cylindrical shape of nematodes representing (evolutionarily) a primitive
made impossible the respiration cephalization.
exclusively by simple diffusion among
cells since there are tissues far from the Nematodes have two main longitudinal
exterior. This problem was solved by ganglial chords that extend one dorsally
the presence of an inner cavity in the and the other ventrally under the
body filled with fluid, the pseudocoelom. epidermis. There may also be nerves
The pseudocoelom has the function of lateral to these main chords. The
distributing gases and nutrients to the nervous system of a free-living
body and to collect residuals, besides nematode, “Caenorhabditis elegans”,
serving as a hydrostatic base to keep has been well-studied in
the worm shape. neurophysiological research and
presents 302 neurons.
(For the fact that the pseudocoelom
fluid and the pseudocoelom do not The nematode “C. Elegans” was the
characterize a true circulatory system organism used in the research on the
with blood and heart it is not said that genetic regulation of organogenesis and
in nematodes the respiration is apoptosis whose researchers won the
cutaneous; it is considered that these Nobel prize of Medicine in 2002
animals still make respiration by (Brenner, Horvitz and Sulston).
diffusion).
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11. What are the main human
diseases caused by
roundworms?
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Another important evolutionary novelty
Annelids of the annelids is the closed circulatory
system.
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Earthworms eat decomposing organic 8. How is the respiratory
material and small organisms ingested system of beings of the
together with soil particles. The
phylum Annelida
digestive tubes of earthworms have
special structures, like a muscular wall characterized?
and a gizzard, that triturate the food
and scratch it against the ingested soil Respiration in annelids can be
particles. Since annelid digestion is cutaneous or branchial. Cutaneous
exclusively extracellular earthworms respiration occurs due to the rich
also present in the posterior part of vascularity under the epidermis. The
their digestive system structures like gills, present in aquatic annelids, are
the cecum and the typhlosole that have located in the parapodia (false claws)
the function of increasing the absorption that have an extensive capillary net.
surface of the intestine.
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the tissues to be irrigated. In closed 14. How can the excretory
circulatory systems blood circulates only system of annelids be
within blood vessels and through the
described?
heart.
13. How can the presence, Annelids have a nervous system made
localization and function of of two ventral chords and one relatively
muscular tissue in beings of big nervous cell concentration in its
anterior portion resembling a primitive
the phylum Annelida be brain.
explained?
Nematodes have an anterior neural ring
In these beings there are a longitudinal connected to two neural chords, a
muscular layer under the epidermis and, ventral and a dorsal one, while in
internally juxtaposed and perpendicular planarias (platyhelminthes) there are
to it, another circular (radial to the axis) only two small anterior “cerebral”
muscular layer. The circular muscle ganglia from which neural chords split.
layer has the function of elongating the Cephalization in annelids thus is more
body while the longitudinal shortens it. outstanding than in nematodes or in
By alternating actions both promote flatworms.
movement.
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16. What is the clitellum of 20. What is the ecological role
earthtworms and where it is of earthworms?
located?
Earthworms have an important
The clitellum is a special region of the ecological role as they eat decomposing
annelid constituted by rings organic material. They also dig tunnels
(metameres) with reproductive function. in the subsoil allowing the entrance of
It can be found in the anterior portion of gases and nutrients that are useful for
the animal and it is characterized by a plant roots and other living beings. So
lighter color in comparison to the they act as decomposers and as
normal color of the other segments. fertilizers too.
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Digestive system: complete. Respiratory
system: cutaneous or branchial.
Circulatory system: closed, with
hemoglobin. Excretory system: a pair of
metanephridia in each metamere.
Nervous system: neural chords, a pair
of ganglia per metamere, anterior
concentration of neurons (primitive
brain). Types of reproduction: sexual,
with dioecious and monoecious beings.
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4. Concerning germ layers and
Arthropods the presence of coelom how
are arthropods characterized?
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7. How do arthropods grow? 10. What is the type of
digestive system present in
Due to the presence of exoskeleton the beings of the phylum
growth of an arthropod is periodical. Arthropoda? Are these
During the growth period the animal
animals protostomes or
loses the exoskeleton, grows and
develops a new exoskeleton. This deuterostomes?
process is named ecdysis, or molting.
The digestive tube of arthropods is
complete, containing mouth and anus.
Arthropods are protostome animals, i.e.,
8. How does the presence of in their embryonic development the
exoskeleton explain the blastopore originates the mouth.
general small size of
arthropods?
11. How is the extracorporeal
Since they have exoskeleton and digestion associated to
periodic ecdysis, the growth of
predation in arachnids?
arthropods is limited to avoid the animal
becoming vulnerable to environmental
harm. There are however some Arachnids can inoculate poison to
arthropod species with relatively large- paralyze or kill their preys using
sized individuals, like “giant” structures called chelicerae. The prey is
cockroaches, crabs and spiders. partially digested outside the body of
the arachnid by digestive enzymes
inoculated together with the venom or
injected posteriorly. After this
9. How can the features of the extracorporeal digestion the food is
ingested and gains the digestive tube of
arthropod exoskeleton explain
the predator where the extracellular
the terrestrial adaptation of digestion continues.
some species of the phylum?
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inside small tubes that connect the 15. What are respiratory
animal external surface and ramify to pigments? What is the
tissues and cells without the
respiratory pigment present in
participation of blood. In arachnids,
besides the tracheal respiration, book some arthropods? Which is
lungs (thin folds resembling leaves in a the analogous molecule in
book) may also exist. humans?
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17. How are the excretory 19. What are compound eyes?
systems of the three main
arthropod classes constituted? Arthropods have compound eyes made
of several visual units called ommatidia.
In crustaceans a pair of excretory Each ommatidium transmits visual
organs called green glands exists. The information through the optic nerve to
green glands collect residuals from the the brain, which interprets the image.
blood and other parts of the body. They Because they are round and numerous,
are connected by ducts to excretory these ommatidia, whose external
pores located under the base of the surfaces point in different directions
antennae and these pores release the creating independent images, cause
excretions outside. arthropod eyes have a large visual field,
larger than the visual field of
In insects small structures called vertebrates. Some insects have one or
malpighian tubules gather wastes from more simple eye besides their pair of
the blood and throw them into excretory compound eyes.
ducts that open in the intestine. In
these animals excretions are eliminated
together with feces.
20. How is arthropod
In arachnids, besides malpighian reproduction characterized?
tubules, there are coxal glands located
in the cephalothorax near the limbs that Reproduction in beings of the phylum
also participate in excretion. Arthropoda is sexual, with larval stage
in some insects and crustaceans
(arachnids present only direct
development).
18. What are the noteworthy
features of the nervous
system of arthropods?
21. What are the types of
In arthropods the nervous system has fecundation that occur in
more sophisticated sensory receptors arthropods? What is the
with well-advanced cephalization. In the predominant type?
anterior region of the body there is a
fusion of ganglia forming a brain In arthropods there are species having
connected to two ventral ganglial chains external fecundation and other species
having motor and sensory nerves. having internal fecundation. Internal
fecundation is predominant.
The boosted development of the
sensory system of arthropods provides
more adaptive possibilities for these
animals to explore many different
environments.
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22. How is fecundation done emerging into the adult form. Imago is
in insects (external or the name given to the adult form of
insects with indirect development.
internal)? Is there copulation
between insects?
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28. How are the three main 31. Which arthropod class is
arthropod classes the most diversified animal
characterized according to the group of the planet? How can
presence of antennae? this evolutionary success be
explained?
Crustaceans have two pairs of
antennae; insects have one pair; The insects are the animal group with
arachnids do not have antennae. most diversity of species. Almost
750000 insect species are known, about
55% of the total already cataloged
species of living beings (compare with
29. How are the three main mammals, with no more than 4000
arthropod classes known species). It is calculated however
characterized according to the that the number of unknown species of
insects may be over 2 million. The
body division?
insect population on the planet is
estimated to be more than 10 quintillion
In crustaceans and arachnids the head (1000000000000000000) individuals.
is fused with the thorax forming the
cephalothorax. Their body thus is The great evolutionary success of
divided into cephalothorax and insects is due to factors such as: small
abdomen. size and alimentary diversity, making
possible the exploration of numerous
In insects there are head, thorax and different ecological niches; wings that
abdomen. provided more geographic spread; the
tracheal respiration that gave them
motor agility; high reproductive rates
with production of great numbers of
30. How are the three main descendants.
arthropod classes
characterized according to the
number of limbs?
32. What are some examples
Most crustaceans have five pairs of of beings of the phylum
limbs. Insects have three pairs and Arthropoda that present a
arachnids present four pairs of limbs. high level of behavioral
sophistication?
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communication mechanism in some
bees known as the bee dance by which
an individual signal to others
information about the spatial position of
flower fields and other nectar sources.
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secreting a calcareous carapace, or
Molluscs shell, an exoskeleton to support and
protect them and to prevent
dehydration.
The word “mollusc” means “soft thing”. The phylum Mollusca is divided into five
Molluscs have soft bodies and this main classes: pelecypods, or bivalves
feature explains the name of the (Pelecypoda, or Bivalvia), includes
phylum. oysters, clams, mussels; gastropods
(Gastropoda), snails, sea slugs;
cephalopods (Cephalopoda), squids,
octopuses; scaphopods (Scaphopoda),
4. What are the biological tooth shells; Polyplacophora, chitons.
troubles that molluscs face There are a few other mollusc classes.
due to their soft body?
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The body of gastropods is divided into 11. Which type of circulatory
three main portions: head, the visceral system do molluscs have?
mass and foot.
How can it be compared to the
respiratory system of
annelids?
8. What is the type of
digestive system in molluscs? Molluscs, with the exception of
cephalopods, have an open circulatory
Molluscs present extracellular digestion system, i.e., the blood circulates within
and a complete digestive system, with vessels, from the heart, but it also fills
mouth and anus. open lacunas or cavities. In annelids the
circulatory system is closed, i.e., the
blood circulates only inside blood
vessels.
9. What is the radula? What is
the function of this organ?
12. How is the large size of
Some molluscs have a tongue-like some cephalopods related to
structure with harsh saliences similar to
small teeth. This structure is called
the type of circulatory system
radula. The radula projects outside and they present?
helps to scrape food.
In cephalopods the circulatory system is
closed and this provides more speed
and pressure for the blood circulation
10. How is the respiratory allowing the existence of species with
system in aquatic molluscs large bodies, like octopuses and giant
characterized? What adaptive squids.
respiratory structure do
terrestrial molluscs present?
13. How is the excretory
Aquatic molluscs oxygenate their blood system of molluscs
through gills in direct contact with characterized?
water. In terrestrial molluscs the rich
vascularity under the mantle cavity
absorbs air doing the role of a primitive Molluscs have one or two pair of
lung. spongelike nephridia, similar to kidneys.
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14. What type of exoskeleton 17. What is the function of the
do some molluscs present? feet in molluscs? How is the
mollusc foot related to the
Some molluscs, like bivalves and name given to the classes of
gastropods, secrete an external the phylum?
calcareous carapace (the shell). Calcium
carbonate is secreted by the mantle, a
The mollusc foot has the function of
fold in the epidermis, forming the shell.
locomotion, support, fixation, digging in
the environment and sometimes of
In pelecypods, the shell is made of two
holding prey.
valves that articulate and contain the
individual body within. In gastropods
The terminations of the names given to
the shell contains only part of the body,
the main mollusc classes come from the
the visceral mass.
Greek word “podos” that means foot.
Gastropods have feet in their ventral
region (as the name indicates);
pelecypods have ax-shaped feet (ax in
15. Do octopus and squids
Greek is “pelekys”); in cephalopods the
have exoskeleton? feet are near the head.
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Molluscs are important players in 21. Mollusc identity card. How
several food chains in ecosystems. Many are molluscs characterized
marine molluscs are part of a common
according to examples of
human diet, like octopus and squid,
very appreciated in the East, and representing beings, basic
oysters and mussels, consumed all morphology, type of
around the world. Besides molluscs that symmetry, germ layers and
are part of the food industry, pearls coelom, digestive system,
made by oysters have high commercial
respiratory system, circulatory
value.
system, excretory system,
nervous system and types of
reproduction?
20. How are natural and
artificial pearls created? Examples of representing beings: snails,
sea slugs, octopuses, squids, mussels,
Pearls are made from small strange oysters. Basic morphology: soft body,
particles that deposit between the shell with or without calcareous shell. Type of
and the mantle of the oyster. These symmetry: bilateral. Germ layers and
particles trigger a defense process by coelom: triploblastics, coelomates.
the organism and they are gradually Digestive system: complete. Respiratory
covered by calcium carbonate layers system: branchial or, in terrestrial
secreted by the oyster thus giving birth gastropods, lungs. Circulatory system:
to pearls. open or, in cephalopods, closed.
Excretory system: nephridia. Nervous
In the artificial production of pearls a system: ganglial, advanced
small fragment of shell covered with cephalization in cephalopods. Types of
mantle pieces is inserted between the reproduction: sexual.
shell and the mantle of an oyster and a
pearl is formed around the graft.
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4. How can the endoskeleton
Echinoderms of echinoderms be
characterized in comparison
to analogous structures
1. What are some present in vertebrates,
representatives of the arthropods and molluscs?
echinoderm phylum?
The echinoderm skeleton is internal,
Starfishes, sea cucumbers i.e., it is an endoskeleton. It is made of
(holothurians), sea urchins and brittle calcium carbonate (calcareous).
stars are examples of echinoderms.
Vertebrates also have internal skeleton
made of bones and cartilages.
Arthropods have an external carapace
made of chitin, a chitinous exoskeleton.
2. Under which environments
Some molluscs present a calcareous
do echinoderms live? shell that works as exoskeleton.
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6. What is the type of In echinoderms there are not well-
digestive system of defined respiratory (with the exception
of the holothurian group) and
echinoderms? circulatory systems. The ambulacral
hydrovascular system plays the function
Echinoderms present a complete of these systems.
digestive system, with mouth and anus.
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12. Do echinoderms present 15. Echinoderm identity card.
internal or external How are echinoderms
fecundation? Is there sex characterized according to
division among individuals? examples of representing
beings, basic morphology,
The fecundation in echinoderms is type of symmetry, germ layers
external, gametes are liberated in water and coelom, digestive system,
where fecundation occurs.
respiratory system, circulatory
The majority of echinoderms are system, excretory system,
dioecious with male and female nervous system and types of
individuals. reproduction?
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4. What is the destination of
Chordates the notochord in vertebrates
and in protochordates?
All beings of the phylum Chordata have The tubular and dorsal nervous system
branchial clefts in the pharynx (in some of chordates is related to the
species present only in the embryo), cephalization in these animals and to
notochord (substituted by the spinal bilateral symmetry.
column in vertebrates) and dorsal
neural tube. The presence of neural integrating
centers with concentration of neurons in
the brains and the spinal cord (central
nervous system, CNS) allowed the
3. What is the destination of increase of the interaction complexity
between these animals and the
the branchial clefts in
environment. Receptor (afferent
humans? conduction) and efferent (motor,
regulatory and behavioral reactions)
In humans the branchial clefts located functions come out more sophisticated
in the anterior region of the pharynx in chordates due to the presence of
(also known as pharyngeal clefts) are more well-developed neural networks.
present only in the embryonic stage and These features have been preserved by
disappear later. evolution as they provide adaptive
advantage to their owners.
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6. How can the tubular-dorsal develop inside the mother’s body,
nervous system in chordates feeding from her).
be compared to the nervous
pattern present in
invertebrates? 9. Into which subphyla are the
protochordates divided? What
In chordates the nervous system is are some representatives of
dorsal and highly cephalized while in
each protochordate
most invertebrates the nervous system
is ganglial and ventral. subphylum?
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11. Evolutionarily 12. Chordate identity card.
protochordates may be How are they characterized
intermediate animals between according to examples of
invertebrates and vertebrates. representing beings, basic
Imagine a scientist is testing morphology, type of
the hypothesis that symmetry, germ layers and
vertebrates evolved from coelom, digestive system,
echinoderms. Having as respiratory system, circulatory
research object a newly found system, excretory system,
protochordate species, what is nervous system and types of
an example of a discovery that reproduction?
would weaken the hypothesis?
What is an example of a Examples of representing beings:
discovery that would protochordates (ascidians, amphioxus),
vertebrates. Basic morphology:
strengthen it?
branchial clefts, notochord, neural tube.
Type of symmetry: bilateral. Germ
Hypothesis to be tested: Vertebrates layers and coelom: triploblastics,
evolved from echinoderms. Testing coelomates. Digestive system:
material: A newly found protochordate complete, deuterostomes. Respiratory
species (i.e., a vertebrate forerunner). system: branchial (in aquatic),
cutaneous (in adult amphibians),
Example of weakening observation (that pulmonary (others). Circulatory system:
puts the new protochordate species open in protochordates, closed in
evolutionarily far from echinoderms): vertebrates. Excretory system: diffusion
“The new species is protostome”, as and flame cells in protochordates,
opposed to echinoderms, that are kidneys in vertebrates. Nervous system:
deuterostomes. This observation brings neural tube in embryos, cerebral vesicle
the suspicion that deuterostomy in and single ganglion in protochordates,
vertebrates is independent in origin brain within the cranium and spinal cord
from echinoderms. within the spinal column in vertebrates.
Types of reproduction: sexual, with or
Example of strengthening observation without larval stage.
(that nears the new protochordate
species to echinoderms): “The new
species has secondary radial
symmetry”, similar to echinoderms. This
observation makes stronger the
hypothesis that echinoderms and
vertebrates are relatives.
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4. Comparing to cyclostomes
Fishes (primitive vertebrates) what
are the main novelties
presented by fishes?
1. What are the two main
classes into which fishes are Compared to cyclostomes, evolutionary
novelties presented by fishes are:
divided?
pectoral and pelvic fins, symmetric and
paired; the presence of mandibles.
Fishes are divided into two main
classes: chondrichthyes, fishes with
cartilaginous skeletons (sharks, rays,
dog-fishes), and osteichthyes, bony 5. How different are the
fishes (tuna, sardines, salmons).
swimming strategies in
osteichthyes and in
chondrichthyes? Why do
2. From which features do sharks need to agitate their
condrichthyes and body to swim while bony
osteichthyes get these names? fishes do not?
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6. How does the swim bladder 8. Do fishes present an open
of fishes work allowing fishes or closed circulatory system?
to control their depth under How many chambers does a
water? fish heart have? How does
blood flow throughout the fish
From Hydrostatics it is known that an body?
object does not sink if its density is
equal or less than the density of the As in every vertebrate the circulatory
fluid in which it is immersed. system of fishes is closed, i.e., blood
flows only within blood vessels.
When the swim bladder is filled by gas it
reduces the density of the fish body and The fish heart has only two consecutive
when it is emptied this density is chambers: a thin-walled atrium and a
increased. So this mechanism controls muscular ventricle. The arterial
the fish depth under water. (oxygenated) blood comes from the gills
and gains arteries towards tissues, then
venous blood is collected by veins and
reaches the atrium of the heart passing
7. How do fishes do gas to the ventricle that pumps the venous
exchange? blood towards the gills to be again
oxygenated.
Fishes “breath” through gills. Gills, or
branchiae, are highly vascularized
organs specialized in gas exchange
under water and present in aquatic 9. How is excretion done in
animals (marine annelids, crustaceans, fishes?
fishes and tadpoles). Gills are a
respiratory organ (analogous, for Fishes have a pair of kidneys that
example, to lungs) containing very thin filtrate the blood. Bony fishes excrete
lamellae with many apparent blood nitrogen as ammonia, NH3, (they are
vessels in direct contact with water. ammoniotelic) and cartilaginous fishes
excrete urea as nitrogen waste (they
In osteichthyes the gills are covered by are ureotelic, like adult amphibians and
a bony flap that protects them called mammals).
operculum. In chondrichthyes there are
no opercula.
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information about pressure variation
and vibrations in the surrounding water.
In chondrichthyes fecundation is
internal by means of copulation. In
osteichthyes fecundation generally is
external and the gametes are released
in the water, where they can fecundate
their counterpart and form the zygote.
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In amphibians the embryonic
Amphibians development is indirect (there is a larval
stage).
The amphibians are totally aquatic in In fishes gas exchange is done by direct
the larval stage and partially terrestrial contact of water with the branchiae
animals as adults and for these facts (gills). Gases gain and exit the
they are considered intermediate beings circulation through the gills.
in the evolutionary passage of
vertebrates from the aquatic to the dry In adult amphibians gas exchange is
land habitat. Amphibians are also the done through the moist and permeable
first tetrapod animals, i.e., the first with skin (cutaneous respiration) and also
two pair of limbs, a typical feature of through the lungs, a set of tiny airway
terrestrial vertebrates. The name terminations associated to a highly
“amphibian” comes from the double life vascularized tissue specialized in gas
(aquatic as larvae and partially exchange.
terrestrial as adults) of these animals.
The axolotl is an exotic amphibian found
in Mexico that lives in water and
“breathes” through gills even as an
2. What are the amphibian adult.
features that make them
dependent on water to
survive? 5. How is respiration
performed by the larva of
Permeable skin, body subject to amphibians?
dehydration, external fecundation, eggs
without shells and larval stage with
The larva of amphibians has exclusively
branchial respiration are features that
branchial respiration. This is one of the
make amphibians dependent on water
reasons why it depends on water to
to survive.
survive.
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6. How different is the embryonic development of amphibians
amphibian heart from the fish are a heritage from osteichthyes.
heart? Curiously although having external
fecundation amphibian male and female
The fish heart has only two chambers, copulate to stimulate the liberation of
an atrium and a ventricle, and the blood sperm and egg cells. This phenomenon
that comes to it is purely venous. does not characterize internal
fecundation since the gametes unite in
In amphibians there are three heart water.
chambers (a second atrium is present)
and there is arterial blood coming from
the lungs; in these animals the heart
has two atria (one that gets blood from 9. Why is the occurrence of
the body and other that gets blood from
eyelids in amphibians in
the lungs) and one ventricle; arterial
blood mixes with venous blood within comparison to their absence in
the ventricle which in turn pumps the fishes an adaptation to
blood to the lungs and to the systemic terrestrial life?
circulation.
Eyelids associated to lacrimal glands
protect and keep eyes lubricated against
damage from the great luminosity of
7. How is excretion done in terrestrial environments. Fishes do not
amphibians? have eyelids since their eyes are in
constant contact with the fluid medium.
Adult amphibians have kidneys that
filter blood. Nitrogen waste is excreted
as urea (so amphibians are ureotelic
beings). The larvae, aquatic, excrete 10. What are the problems
ammonia. that vertebrates needed to
solve to adapt to the
terrestrial environment since
they came from the aquatic
8. Is fecundation in
habitat? How does evolution
amphibians external or
solved those problems?
internal? In this aspect are
amphibians evolutionarily
The main problems vertebrates coming
proximal to fishes or to from water needed to solve to adapt to
reptiles? the terrestrial environment were the
following: the problem to avoid
In the majority of the amphibian species dehydration; the problem of elimination
fecundation is external. This feature is of wastes in a medium where water is
common to bony fishes too and it shows less available; the problem of protection
that the reproductive system and the against nocent solar radiation; the
problem of gamete locomotion in the
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environment for fecundation; the larval stage. Circulation: closed,
problem of gas exchange, earlier done incomplete, heart with three chambers
by direct contact of water with gills; the without interventricular septum.
problem of body support, since it was Nitrogen waste: urea. Thermal control:
water that played this role in fishes. heterothermic. Types of reproduction:
sexual, water dependant, external
Solutions for the dehydration problem: fecundation and aquatic larval stage.
thicker and impermeable skin, to lose
less water, or moist and permeable
skin, like in amphibians. Solution for the
excretion problem: excretion of urea
(also excreted by chondrichthyes) or
uric acid, substances that need less
water to be dissolved. Solutions for the
problem of protection against radiation:
skin pigments that filter harmful
radiation, feathers, hair or carapaces.
Solution for the gamete movement
problem: internal fecundation (except
for most amphibians, that have external
fecundation). Solution for the gas
exchange problem: appearing of
airways and lungs. Solution for the body
support problem: further development
of muscular and bony structures, like
limbs and claws.
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4. Do beings of the class
Reptiles Reptilia perform gas exchange
in the same way amphibians
do?
1. Which is the vertebrate
class that is considered the These beings do not have permeable
skin so they do not make cutaneous
first entirely terrestrial?
respiration like amphibians do. Just like
in birds and in mammals, their
The first entirely terrrestrial vertebrate respiration is pulmonary.
class, totally independent from the
aquatic habitat, is the class Reptilia.
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7. How has the importance of 10. Compared to amphibians
the brain evolved from fishes what are the two reproductive
to reptiles? novelties of beings of the class
Reptilia for the survival in dry
From the least to the most complex environments?
brain structure, it is evident that the
brain, from fishes to beings of the class Compared to amphibians the two main
Reptilia, became larger and reproductive innovations of beings of
predominant in the central nervous the class Reptilia for the terrestrial
system. habitat are internal fecundation and
shelled eggs.
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external heat source to warm their
bodies.
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bones are called pneumatic bones. This
Birds feature reduces the corporal density of
the animal facilitating the flight.
Birds are animals that present Like reptiles and mammals, they make
aerodynamic bodies covered with gas exchange through lungs.
feathers, anterior limbs transformed
into wings, pneumatic bones and horny
(corneous) beaks.
6. How is the circulatory
system of birds characterized?
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8. What similarities do birds 11. What are the
and reptiles share regarding predominating chemical
external coverage, compounds respectively in
reproduction and excretion? eggshell, white and yolk?
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14. Bird identity card. How are
birds characterized according
to examples of representing
beings, basic morphology,
skin, respiration, circulation,
nitrogen waste, thermal
control and types of
reproduction?
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the mother’s pouch. Placenta only forms
Mammals in female placental mammals.
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5. How is gas exchange done 9. Is fecundation in mammals
in mammals? internal or external?
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while fish fins although having the same
function do not come from modified
limbs; so they are analogous but not
homologous structures.
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Physiology
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well-known by science, different and
Basic Histology specialized cell lineages gave birth to
different tissues, organs and systems
that, as a whole, form the pluricellular
organisms.
1. What is the logical order in
which the concepts of atoms, Cellular differentiation probably is a
very intricate process that activates and
molecules, cells... up to
inactivates some genes within the cell in
biosphere are associated? response to some stimulus.
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5. Of which cells is the 7. What is the typical
nervous tissue constituted? biological function of the
How is the generic function of connective tissues? How is
this tissue related to the this function associated to the
characteristics of the main cell main features of its cells?
type that forms it?
The typical function of the connective
The nervous tissue is formed of neurons tissues is to fill empty spaces among
and glial cells. other body tissues.
The function of the nervous tissue is to This function is related to the great
receive and to transmit neural impulses capability of the cells of the connective
(reception and transmission of tissue to secrete substances that
information). This function justifies the constitute extracellular material, like
characteristic morphology of neurons, collagen and elastic fibers, creating a
with membrane projections (dendrites) significant spacing between these cells.
to get information and an elongated
membrane projection (axon, or nerve (There are other important biological
fiber) to transmit information at features of the connective tissues, such
distance. In their turn, the glial cells as substance transportation, defense of
support the neurons and facilitate their the organism, etc.)
work (sometimes acting as insulators).
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10. What are the general 13. What are the three types
functions of the connective of protein fibers of the
tissues? connective tissue proper?
The main functions of the connective The matrix of the connective tissue
tissues are: supporting and filling of proper is made of collagen fibers, elastic
spaces; cellular nutrition; energetic fibers and reticular fibers.
storage (fats); hematopoiesis
(formation of blood, blood cells and
blood components); immune defense
(specialized cells). 14. What is the function of the
collagen fibers of the
connective tissue?
11. What is connective tissue
There are different collagen types. The
proper? main function of these proteins is to
keep the shape and the structural
The name connective tissue proper is rigidity of the tissue. (Collagen is the
used to designate the connective tissue most abundant protein of the human
that fills interstitial spaces as opposed body.)
to the specialized connective tissues
(blood, bones, cartilage, adipose tissue,
etc.). The connective tissue proper
secretes collagen, elastin and reticular 15. Of which substance do
fibers.
elastic fibers of the connective
tissue are made? What are
some functions of these
12. What are the main cells of fibers?
the connective tissue proper?
What is the name given to the The elastic fibers are made of a protein
intercellular material that called elastin.
surround these cells? Elastic fibers abound in artery walls,
helping the maintenance of the arterial
The main cells of the connective tissue blood pressure in these vessels. They
proper are the fibroblasts, cells that are also present in the lungs, providing
secrete the intercellular material. These them with elasticity (some respiratory
cells are the majority of cells of the diseases are caused by destruction of
tissue. Fibroblasts later are transformed these fibers). In many other organs and
into fibrocytes, mature cells with tissues the elastic fibers are found in the
restricted secretory role. interstitial matrix.
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16. What are the reticular
fibers of the connective tissue
and where can they be found?
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Hematopoiesis occurs in the bone
Blood marrow (mainly within flat bones),
where erythrocytes, leukocytes and
platelets are made, and in the lymphoid
tissue, responsible for the maturation of
1. What are the main leukocytes and found in the thymus,
functions of the blood? spleen and lymphnodes.
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7. What are the other names 10. On average what is the life
by which erythrocytes are duration of the red blood
known? What is the function cells? Where are they
of these cells? destroyed? What is the
destination of the heme
Erythrocytes are also known as red groups after the destruction of
blood cells (RBCs), or red corpuscles. hemoglobin molecules?
Red blood cells are responsible for
oxygen transport from the lungs to the
On average red blood cells live around
tissues.
120 days. The spleen is the main organ
where old red blood cells are destroyed.
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12. What is anemia? What are 13. What is the difference
the four main types of between white and red blood
anemia? cells? What are leukocytes?
The four main types of anemia are the Leukocytes are cells specialized in the
nutrient-deficiency anemia, anemia defense of the body against strange
caused by blood loss, hemolytic anemia agents and they are part of the immune
and aplastic anemia. system.
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a blood sample is above the normal Platelets, also known as thrombocytes,
level for the individual leukocytosis is are fragments of giant cells of the bone
defined. When the leukocyte count is marrow called megakaryocytes. With
lower than the expected normal level their properties of aggregation and
leukopenia is defined. The multiplication adhesiveness they play a direct role in
of these defense cells, leukocytosis, blood clotting and they also liberate
generally takes place when the body is substances that activate other
suffering infections or in cancers of hemostatic processes.
these cells. The lowering of these
defense cells, or leukopenia, occurs Thrombocytopenia is a clinical condition
when some diseases attack the cells, in which the platelet count of the blood
like in AIDS, or when is lower than normal. In this situation
immunosuppressor drugs are used. the person becomes susceptible to
hemorrhages.
In general the body creates leukocytosis
as a defense reaction when it is facing
infectious or pathogenic agents. The
clinical condition of leukocytosis is thus 18. How does the organism
a sign of infection. Leukopenia occurs understand that a clotting
when there is a deficiency in the process must begin?
production (for example, in bone
marrow diseases) or excessive
destruction of leukocytes (for example, When there is some tissue wound with
in case of HIV infection). injury of blood vessel the platelets and
endothelial cells of the wall of the
damaged vessel liberate substances
(respectively platelet factors and tissue
16. What are the mechanisms factors) that trigger the clotting
process.
of hemorrhage contention
called?
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with calcium ions the transformation of 22. What is factor VIII? What
prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin is the genetic disease in which
then catalyzes a reaction that produces
this factor is absent?
fibrin from fibrinogen. Fibrin, as an
insoluble substance, precipitates to form
a network that traps red blood cells and Factor VIII has the function of activating
platelets forming the blood clot and factor X that in its turn is necessary for
containing the hemorrhage. the transformation of prothrombin into
thrombin in the clotting cascade.
Hemophilia A is the X-linked genetic
disease in which the individual does not
20. What are clotting factors? produce factor VIII and so is more
susceptible to severe hemorrhages.
Clotting factors are substances
(enzymes, coenzymes, reagents)
necessary for the clotting stages to
happen. Besides those triggering factors
23. How is hemophilia
and reagents already described (tissue treated? Why is hemophilia
and platelet factors, thromplastinogen, rare in females?
prothrombin, fibrinogen, calcium ions),
other substances participate in the Hemophilia is medically treated with
blood clotting process as clotting administration of factor VIII, in case of
factors, like factor VIII, whose hemophilia A, or of factor IX, in case of
deficiency causes hemophilia A, or the hemophilia B, by means of blood or
factor IX, whose deficiency causes fresh frozen plasma transfusions.
hemophilia B.
Hemophilia, A or B, is an X-linked
recessive inheritance and for a girl to be
hemophilic it is necessary for both of
21. What is the organ where her X chromosomes to be affected while
most of the clotting factors boys, that have only one X
are produced? What is the role chromosome, are more easily affected.
A girl with only one affected
of vitamin K in the blood
chromosome does not present the
coagulation? disease since the normal gene of the
unaffected other X chromosome
Most of the clotting factors are produced produces the clotting factor.
in the liver.
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Since hemophilic patients need frequent formation of clotting factors and
transfusions of clotting factors (VIII or interrupting the making of prothrombin.
IX) they are more susceptible to Dicoumarol is found in some vegetables
contamination by infectious agents undergoing decomposition, and it can
present in the blood from which the cause severe internal hemorrhages
transfused elements come. In the past when those vegetables are accidentally
the blood banks did not usually perform ingested. Coumarinic anticoagulants
HIV detection tests and many cannot be administered during
hemophilic patients have become pregnancy since they pass the placental
infected with the virus. barrier and can cause fetal
hemorrhages.
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Homeostatic sensors are structures that
Metabolism and detect information from the inner and
Homeostasis outer environment of the body. These
sensors may be nervous receptor cells,
cytoplasmic or membrane proteins and
other specialized molecules. Controllers
are structures responsible for processing
1. What is metabolism? and interpreting information received
from the sensors. Controllers in general
Metabolism is the set of physical and are specialized regions of the central
chemical processes upon which the life nervous system but on the molecular
of the cells of a living being depends. level there are also some of them, like
DNA, a molecule that can get
information from proteins to inhibit or
stimulate the expression of some genes.
2. What is the difference Effectors are elements commanded by
between anabolism and the controllers that have the function of
bringing about actions that in fact
catabolism? regulate and maintain the equilibrium of
the organism, like muscles, glands,
Metabolism comprises two opposing cellular organelles, etc., and in the
processes: anabolism and catabolism. molecular level structures that
Anabolism is a set of synthesis reactions participate in the genetic translation,
that transform simpler compounds into the produced proteins, etc.
organic molecules in general with
energy spending. Catabolism is a set of
reactions that break organic molecules
into simpler and less complex 4. How do antagonistic
substances in general with liberation of mechanisms manage
energy. The energy liberated in
catabolism may be used in vital
homeostatic regulation?
processes of the organism, including
anabolism. The homeostatic maintenance of the
body mostly occurs by means of
alternating antagonistic compensatory
mechanisms. There are regulators that
3. What is homeostasis? What lower the pH and others that increase it,
are the sensors, controllers there are effectors whose function is to
increase the body temperature and
and effectors of homeostasis? others that lower it, hormones exist
that, e.g., reduce the level of glucose in
Homeostasis comprises the processes the blood and others that increase the
by which the organism maintains glycemic level. The use of antagonistic
adequate intra and extracellular mechanisms is a strategy found by
conditions to keep possible the normal evolution to solve the problem of the
reactions of the metabolism. maintenance of the body equilibrium.
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5. What is an example of
negative feeback of the
homeostatic regulation?
6. What is an example of
positive feedback of the
homeostatic regulation?
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cycle). Structural nutrients are those
Nutrition and used in the support and structure of
Vitamins cells and tissues; they are the amino
acids that form structural proteins, like
collagen, the membrane proteins, the
cytoskeleton proteins, the contractile
proteins of the muscle tissue, etc.
1. What is a nutrient? Regulatory nutrients are those that
constitute enzymes and coenzymes of
A nutrient is every substance used in the homeostasis, metabolites of the
the metabolism and which is acquired osmotic and electrolytic equilibrium of
from the diet. For example, vitamins cells and hormones; some amino acids,
and essential amino acids are nutrients. vitamins and mineral salts are part of
this group.
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Vitamin C and the vitamins of the B cell division. If there are not enough
complex are examples of water-soluble folic acid in cells with great turnover,
vitamins. Vitamins A, D, E and K are like red blood cells, they have their
examples of fat-soluble vitamins. production reduced.
Fat-soluble vitamins, since they are not In folic acid deficiency precursor cells
soluble in water, cannot easily be (reticulocytes) that would originate
excreted by the body. So they tend to erythrocytes (red blood cells) begin cell
accumulate in tissues with toxic effect division but the process is very slow
when they are ingested in amounts over while the cytoplasm growth is normal.
what is necessary. So the cells became abnormally large, a
typical feature of this kind of anemia
called megaloblastic anemia.
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pellagra. Lack of vitamin B6 causes skin containing food cannot be submitted to
lesions, irritation and convulsions. high temperatures (cooking) since
Vitamin B12 acts together with folic acid vitamin C is thermolabile, i.e., it is
and its deficiency causes cell division inactivated by heat.
disruptions leading to pernicious anemia
(a type of megaloblastic and nutrient
deficiency anemia).
11. What is the association
The absorption of vitamin B12 depends between vitamin D and
on another substance called the intrinsic sunrays?
factor secreted by the gastric mucosa.
Scurvy is the disease caused by a lack The lack of vitamin D causes the disease
of vitamin C. It is characterized by known as rickets (rachitis),
tissue lesions in the skin, lips, nose and characterized by decalcification of bones
joints. Scurvy, or scorbutus, was also and bone deformities. Vitamin D is
known as sailors' disease because in fundamental for absorption of calcium
maritime voyages of the past it was not and thus it is related to the osseous
common to get on board food that tissue health.
contained vitamin C, like citric fruits. So
the sailors became ill with scurvy.
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spontaneous abortions and muscle 16. What are the main mineral
dystrophy. salts responsible for the
cellular osmotic regulation?
Vitamin E is mainly found in corn oil and
peanut oil, wheat germ, milk, eggs and
leafy vegetables. The main ions that act in the regulation
of the osmotic pressure in cells and
tissues are the chlorine anion, the
sodium cation and the potassium cation.
14. Why are some types of
hemorrhagic diseases caused
by genetic or acquired 17. What are the main cellular
deficiency of the vitamin K functions of potassium?
metabolism?
Besides being important for the osmotic
Deficiency of vitamin K predisposes to regulation and for the acid-base
hemorrhages since this vitamin is equilibrium (pH) potassium is
fundamental for the formation of fundamental for the excitatory
prothrombin in the blood clotting mechanisms of nerves and in muscle
process. contraction.
15. What are the functions of 18. What are some examples
biotin and pantothenic acid for of mineral salts from the diet
the body? How are these that act as coenzymes?
vitamins obtained?
Magnesium, zinc and copper are
Biotin (also know as vitamin B8) is a examples of biological coenzymes.
vitamin that acts in the metabolism of
amino acids and other acids.
Pantothenic acid (also known as vitamin
B5) is important for the aerobic cellular 19. What is the disease
respiration since it acts in the transport caused by dietary iodine
of acetyl and acyl radicals.
deficiency?
Biotin is made by bacteria that live in
the human digestive tube (under
interspecific harmonious ecological Iodine deficiency causes
interaction) and this supply in general is hypothyroidism, an abnormally lower
enough for the body. Biotin and production of thyroid hormones that
pantothenic acid are found in need iodine to be synthesized.
vegetables, cereals, eggs, fish, milk and
lean meat.
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20. What is the importance of
iron in diet? What is the
disease caused by iron
deficiency?
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3. How is extracellular
Digestive System digestion related to cellular
and tissue specialization?
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5. What are some evolutionary digestion of food. In earthworms and
advantages of animals with birds, the mechanical digestion is made
by an internal muscular organ. In
complete digestive tube? mandibulate vertebrates there are
mandibles and chewing muscles to
The complete digestive tube allows triturate food previous to the chemical
animals to continuously feed themselves digestion.
without waiting for residuals to be
eliminated before beginning the
digestion of new foods. In this way the
absorption of larger amount of nutrients 7. Concerning extracellular
is possible and therefore bigger and
digestion what is meant by
more complex species can develop.
Digestive tubes with two openings also chemical digestion?
make digestion more efficient since they
provide different sites with different Chemical digestion is the series of
physical and chemical conditions enzymatic reactions to break
(mouth, stomach, bowels) for the action macromolecules into smaller ones.
of different complementary digestive
enzymatic systems.
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digestive adnexal glands. The digestive for the intestinal absorption),
tube is composed of mouth, pharynx, submucosa (connective tissue beneath
esophagus, stomach, small intestine the mucous membrane and where blood
(duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large and lymphatic vessels and neural fibers
intestine (caecum, colon, rectum) and are located), muscle layers (smooth
anus. muscle tissue, two layers, one interior
circular and other exterior longitudinal,
structures responsible for the peristaltic
movement), serous membrane
10. What are peristaltic (associated epithelial and connective
movements? What is their role tissue forming the external surface of
the organ). In the bowels the serous
in human digestion?
membrane prolongs to form the
mesentery, a serosa that encloses blood
Peristalsis is the process of vessels and supports the bowels within
synchronized contractions of the the abdominal cavity.
muscular wall of the digestive tube.
Peristaltic movements may occur from
the esophagus until and including the
bowels. 12. What is the location of the
The peristaltic movements are
salivary glands in humans?
involuntary and they have the function
of moving and mixing food along the There are 6 major salivary glands and
digestive tube. Peristaltic movement they are located one in each parotid
deficiency, for example, in case of gland, two beneath the mandibles
injuries of the innervation of the (submandibular) and two in the base of
muscular wall of the digestive tube the tongue (sublingual). More than 700
caused by Chagas’ disease, can lead to other minor salivary glands exist
the interruption of the food traffic inside dispersed on the lip mucosa, gingiva,
the bowels and to severe clinical palate and pharynx.
consequences like megacolon (abnormal
enlargement of the colon) and
megaesophagus (enlargement of the
esophagus). 13. What is the approximate
pH of the salivary secretion?
Is it an acid or basic fluid?
What are the main functions
11. From the lumen to the
of saliva?
external surface what are the
tissues that form the digestive The saliva pH is approximately 6.8. It is
tube wall? thus a slightly acid pH.
From the internal surface to the external Saliva lubricates the food bolus and
surface, the digestive tube wall is made initiates the enzymatic extracellular
of mucosa (epithelial tissue responsible digestion of food. It also works as a
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buffer for the mouth pH and it has an The esophagus is a predominantly
important role of having IgA antibodies muscular organ so the assertion is
(also present in tears, colostrum, correct. The esophagus is a muscular
mother’s milk and in the mucosae of the tube formed in its superior third of
intestine and airways) that protect the striated muscle tissue, in its middle
organism against pathogens. third of mixed muscle tissue (striated
and smooth) and in its lower third of
smooth muscle tissue. The peristalsis of
the esophagus provides the movement
14. What is the salivary of the food towards the stomach even
digestive enzyme? Which type without gravitational help.
of food does it digest and into
which smaller molecules does
it transform the food? 17. What is the route of the
ingested food from swallowing
The salivary hydrolase is known as until the duodenum?
salivary amylase, or ptyalin. Ptyalin
digests carbohydrates breaking starch
and glycogen, glucose polymers, into Until reaching the duodenum the food
maltose (a glucose disaccharide) and enters the mouth, passes the pharynx,
dextrin. goes down the esophagus and passes
the stomach.
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19. What is the valve that With its corrosive effect, HCl also helps
separates the duodenum from the rupture of the adhesion between
food particles, facilitating the digestive
the stomach called? What is process.
its function?
It is necessary for the gastric pH to be The digestive enzyme that acts in the
kept acid for the activation of stomach is pepsin. Pepsin has the
pepsinogen (a proenzyme secreted by function of breaking proteins into
the gastric chief cells) into pepsin, the smaller peptides. The gastric cells that
digestive enzyme that acts only under produce pepsinogen (the zymogen
low pH. This pH level is attained by the precursor of pepsin) are the chief cells.
secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by
the parietal cells.
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25. Which are the three parts gallbladder and released in the
of the small intestine? duodenum.
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Besides making bile for release in the 31. How does the pancreatic
duodenum, the liver has other digestive juice participate in the
functions.
digestion of proteins? What
The venous network that absorbs are the involved enzymes?
nutrients from the guts, called
mesenteric circulation, drains its blood The pancreas secretes trypsinogen that,
content almost entirely to the hepatic undergoing action of the enzyme
portal vein. This vein irrigates the liver enterokinase secreted by the
with absorbed material from the duodenum, is transformed into trypsin.
digestion. So the liver has the functions Trypsin in its turn catalyzes the
of storing, processing and inactivating activation of pancreatic
nutrients. chymotrypsinogen into chymotrypsin.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are proteases
Glucose is polymerized into glycogen in that break proteins into smaller
the liver; this organ also stores many peptides. The smaller peptides are then
vitamins and the iron absorbed in the broken into amino acids by the enzyme
intestine. Some important metabolic carboxipeptidase (also secreted by the
molecules, like albumin and clotting pancreas in a zymogen form and
factors, are made in the liver from activated by trypsin) helped by the
amino acids of the diet. In the liver enzyme aminopeptidase made in the
ingested toxic substances, like alcohol intestinal mucous membrane.
and drugs, are inactivated too.
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33. How does the pancreatic 35. Coming from the acid pH
juice help the digestion of of the stomach which pH level
lipids? What is the involved does the chyme find when it
enzyme? enters the duodenum? Why is
it necessary to maintain that
The enzyme pancreatic lipase is present pH level in the small intestine?
in the pancreatic juice. This enzyme What are the organs
breaks triacylglycerol (triglyceride) into
responsible for that pH level
fatty acids and glycerol.
and how is it kept?
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secretions only the bile does not contain intestinal villi and the microvilli of the
digestive enzymes. mucosal membrane cells.
Evolution tried to solve this problem in 40. From the intestinal lumen
two ways. The simplest is the long and through to the tissues - what
tubular shape of the bowels is the route of nutrients after
(approximately eight meters in
digestion?
extension), making possible that
numerous small intestine loops fold
closely. More efficient solutions are the
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Monosaccharides, amino acids, mineral The lymphatic circulation drains its
salts and water are absorbed by the content to the venous blood circulation.
intestinal epithelium and collected by In that manner chylomicrons reach the
capillary vessels of the intestinal villi. liver where their lipid content is
From the capillaries, nutrients go to the processed and released in the blood
mesenteric circulation, a system of under the form of protein-containing
vessels that drains the intestinal loops. complexes called lipoproteins, like HDL,
The blood of the mesenteric circulation VLDL and LDL.
is drained to the portal hepatic vein and
some nutrients are processed by the
liver. From the liver, nutrients are
gathered by the hepatic veins that 42. What are the so-called
discharge its blood content into the “good” and “bad” cholesterol?
inferior vena cava. Blood from the
inferior vena cava then gains the right
Lipoproteins are complexes made of
chambers of the heart and is pumped to
lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol) and
the lungs for oxygenation. From the
proteins. The lipoproteins present
lungs the blood then returns to the
different densities according to the
heart where it is pumped to the tissues
relationship between their protein and
distributing nutrients and oxygen.
lipid quantities since lipids are less
dense than proteins. Low-density
lipoproteins (LDL) are those with a low
protein/lipid relation; high-density
41. What is the special route lipoproteins (HDL) have a high
that lipids follow during protein/lipid relation; another group is
digestion? What are the very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL)
chylomicrons? with very low protein/lipid relation.
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43. Why does the ingestion of compete with other species preventing
vegetable fibers improve the excessive proliferation of these bacteria.
bowel habit in people that
suffer from hard stools?
45. The releasing of digestive
Some types of plant fibers are not secretions is controlled by
absorbed by the intestine but play an
hormones. What are the
important role in the functioning of the
organ. They retain water inside the hormones that participate in
bowels and thus contribute to the this regulation?
softening of the fecal bolus. A softer
fecal bolus is easier to be eliminated The hormones that participate in the
during defecation. People that eat less regulation of digestion are gastrin,
dietary fiber may suffer from hard stools secretin, cholecystokin and
and constipation. enterogastrone.
Bacteria that live inside the gut have The presence of food in the stomach
great importance in digestion. Some stimulates the secretion of gastrin that
polysaccharides like cellulose, in its turn triggers the releasing of the
hemicellulose and pectin are not gastric juice.
digested by the digestive enzymes
secreted by the body, instead, they are
broken by enzymes released by bacteria
of the gastrointestinal tract. The 47. Where is it produced and
intestinal bacterial flora also make vital what is the function of
substances for the functioning of the
secretin in the digestive
bowels facilitating or blocking the
absorption of nutrients and stimulating process?
or reducing peristalsis. Some gut
bacteria are the main source of vitamin Secretin is made in the duodenum. The
K for the body and so they are essential chyme acidity causes the duodenum to
for the blood clotting process. release this hormone that in its turn
stimulates the secretion of the
In the intestinal flora there are utile but pancreatic juice.
also potentially harmful bacteria. It is
estimated that more than 100 trillion
bacteria live in a human gut. Some
bacteria are useful too because they
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48. How is it produced and gizzard is a muscular pouch that serves
what is the function of as a mechanical stomach where the
food is ground to increase the exposure
cholecystokin in the digestive area of the food particles for the
process? digestive enzymes to act.
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53. Cows swallow their food
once and then this food goes
back to the mouth to be
chewed again. How can this
phenomenon be explained?
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3. Considering the chemical
Respiratory System equation of the aerobic
cellular respiration which
molecules does the cell need
1. What is the difference and which molecules does it
between respiration meaning liberate in the process?
gas exchange and cellular
respiration? Considering the chemical equation of
the aerobic cellular respiration it is
observed that glucose and molecular
Respiration meaning gas exchange is
oxygen are needed as reagents and
the process in which an organism
carbon dioxide and water are released.
absorbs from the environment gases
The process also spends ADP and
necessary for its cellular metabolism
phosphate that turn into ATP.
and expels gases that are products of
this metabolism. Cellular respiration
(aerobic or anaerobic) is the chemical
reaction in which organic molecules are
4. What are the different types
degraded to make ATP molecules, the
main energy source for the metabolism. of gas exchange that occur in
animals?
Gas exchange is fundamental for
cellular respiration since the supplying In beings from the kingdom Animalia
of some reagents (oxygen, in aerobic the gas exchange may occur either by
cellular respiration) and the expelling of diffusion, tracheal respiration,
some products (e.g., carbon dioxide) of cutaneous respiration, branchial
this chemical reaction depends on gas respiration or pulmonary respiration.
exchange.
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environment, like cnidarians and expelled. The tracheae ramify into
poriferans, make gas exchange by tracheoles that reach all tissues of the
diffusion. animal.
Larger animals with cells without direct In the circulatory system of insects the
contact with the environment or far blood only transports nutrients; gases
from it need special gas transportation are independently transported by the
systems. In these animals the tracheal system.
respiratory and the circulatory systems
play this role.
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The thin skin and the need for living in 12. Besides vertebrates two
moist surrounds are typical features of invertebrate phyla contain
these animals are.
species that make pulmonary
respiration. Which are these
phyla?
10. What are branchiae? What
are examples of animals that Terrestrial molluscs and the arachnid
“breath” through branchiae? arthropods are the invertebrates that
present pulmonary-like respiration.
Some terrestrial molluscs have a mantle
Branchiae, also known as gills, are small
cavity filled with air that makes contact
portions of richly vascularized tissues
with richly vascularized tissues that
internal or external to the body and in
work as rudimentary lungs. Besides
direct contact with the surrounding
their tracheal respiration some
water. The gills are organs that make
arachnids have book lungs (thin folds
gas exchange in aquatic annelids,
resembling leaves of a book) that make
crustaceans, fishes and amphibian
gas exchange.
larvae (e.g., tadpoles).
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Respiratory pigments are molecules 16. What is the anatomical
present in the blood that bind to oxygen reason for the left bronchus to
transporting it to the tissues.
be more elevated than the
In vertebrates the respiratory pigment right bronchus? Why in most
is hemoglobin, reddish due to the iron cases of aspiration of foreign
of its composition. In crustacean and material by children is the
arachnid arthropods and in some object found in the right
molluscs the respiratory pigment is
bronchus?
hemocyanin, blue due to the copper of
its composition. Annelids have
hemoglobin, hemerythrin and The left bronchus is more elevated than
chlorocruorin as respiratory pigments. the right bronchus because of the
position of the heart in the left side of
the chest, anterior and inferior to the
left bronchus.
15. What are the organs that
Accidentally aspired objects are
form the human respiratory frequently found in the right bronchus
system? because the inferior angle between the
trachea and this bronchus is lower than
The organs that are part of the human the inferior angle between the trachea
respiratory system can be divided into and the left bronchus since the left
three groups: lungs, airway and bronchus is more horizontalized.
respiratory muscles. Therefore aspired objects tend to fall in
the right side (bronchus) and not in the
The lungs are the right and the left left.
lungs made of alveoli where gas
exchange (entrance of oxygen and exit
of carbon dioxide) takes place; the
lungs are covered by the pleura (a 17. How does the body defend
serous membrane). The airway itself from microorganisms
comprehends the nose, the pharynx,
and other harmful substances
the larynx (including the vocal cords),
the trachea, the bronchi and the that enter the airway during
bronchioles. The muscles upon which the breathing process?
the breathing process depends are
mainly the diaphragm and the The epithelium of the airway is a ciliated
intercostal muscles (muscles between epithelium and has mucus-secreting
the ribs). specialized cells. The secreted mucus
covers the internal wall of the airway
retaining organisms and foreign
particles that then are swept by the cilia
of the epithelium.
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the immune system with antibodies and 20. What is the difference
leukocytes inactivating and destroying between arterial and venous
foreign agents.
blood?
Other defense mechanisms of the
airway are the sneeze and the cough. Arterial blood is the oxygen-rich and
They help the elimination of solid and carbon dioxide-poor blood that irrigates
semifluid particles like pathologic the tissues. Venous blood is the oxygen-
residuals (sputum) and accidentally poor and carbon dioxide-rich blood
aspired objects. collected from the tissues.
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The gas exchange units of the 26. What is the chemical
mammalian lungs are the alveoli. equation of the formation of
bicarbonate from carbon
dioxide and water? What is
24. What is the physical the enzyme that catalyzes this
process through which gas reaction?
exchange is accomplished in
the pulmonary alveoli? The chemical equation of the chemical
equilibrium of the formation of
bicarbonate having as reagents carbon
The gas exchange (entry of oxygen and
dioxide and water is as follows:
exit of carbon dioxide) in the pulmonary
alveoli occurs by simple diffusion in
CO2 + H20 --> H2CO3 --> H+ + HCO3-
favor of the partial pressure gradient.
The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme
When the oxygen partial pressure in the
carbonic anhydrase present in red blood
inhaled air is higher than the oxygen
cells.
partial pressure of the capillaries of the
alveoli the air diffuses to the circulatory
system. If the oxygen partial pressure
in the air is lower (a rare situation since
the blood that reaches the alveoli is
27. What are the
venous blood) the oxygen exits the consequences of shifting the
circulatory system. The same is true for chemical equilibrium of the
carbon dioxide. formation of bicarbonate from
carbon dioxide and water
towards the increase of
25. What is the structure of product (bicarbonate)
the central nervous system formation?
that regulates pulmonary
The increase in product formation in the
respiration? chemical equilibrium of the formation of
bicarbonate from carbon dioxide and
The pulmonary respiration is controlled water heightens the concentration of
by the neural respiratory center located hydrogen ions and thus lowers the pH of
within the medulla (the lower part of the the solution.
brain continuous to the spinal cord).
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28. What are the of the solution is lowered; if the carbon
consequences of shifting the dioxide concentration is lowered the
equilibrium shifts reversely towards the
chemical equilibrium of the formation of water and carbon dioxide
formation of bicarbonate from and also of more hydrogen ions
carbon dioxide and water spending and the pH of the solution is
towards the consumption of raised.
products of the reverse
reaction?
30. What are acidosis and
The shifting of the chemical equilibrium
of the formation of bicarbonate from
alkalosis?
carbon dioxide and water into the
reverse reaction (production of water Acidosis is the condition in which the
and carbon dioxide) means spending of blood pH is abnormally low. Alkalosis is
hydrogen ions and thus it increases the the condition in which the blood pH is
solution pH. abnormally high. Normal pH levels for
the human blood are between 7.35 and
7.45 - slightly alkaline.
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The reduction of the respiratory 34. Where are the
frequency makes the body retain more chemoreceptors that detect
carbon dioxide and to shift the
the acidity of the blood and
equilibrium of the formation of
bicarbonate towards the production of trigger the respiratory
more hydrogen ions and thus the blood compensation located?
pH lowers.
The chemoreceptors that participate in
the ventilation control are structures
that collect information about the acidity
33. What is the difference and alkalinity of the blood. The
between respiratory acidosis information is then transmitted by
and metabolic acidosis and nervous fibers to the respiratory center
located within the medulla. The center
what is the difference
then commands the respiratory muscles
between respiratory alkalosis to compensate the abnormal pH.
and metabolic alkalosis?
There are central and peripheral
Respiratory acidosis is that in which the chemoreceptors. Peripheral
blood pH is low due to increased chemoreceptors of pH, carbon dioxide
retention of carbon dioxide caused by partial pressure and oxygen partial
the lowering of the respiratory pressure are located in the walls of the
frequency or by pulmonary diseases aorta and of the carotid arteries. Central
that impair the gas exchange. So the chemoreceptors that get pH information
cause of the respiratory acidosis is the are located within the medulla in the
pulmonary respiration. Metabolic respiratory center. (The pulmonary
acidosis is that in which the blood pH is ventilation is also controlled by
low not due to the pulmonary retention receptors that receive pH information
of carbon dioxide but due to metabolic from the cerebrospinal fluid.)
disturbances. Some metabolic
disturbances result in liberation in the
blood of nonvolatile acids that release
hydrogen ions lowering the blood pH
(e.g., diabetic ketoacidosis).
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environment thus making diffusion
Circulatory System impossible.
Not all animals have a circulatory Open circulatory system is the one in
system. which blood does not circulate only
inside blood vessels but it also falls in
Poriferans, cnidarians, platyhelminthes cavities that irrigate tissues. In the open
and nematodes (in these there are the circulatory system the blood pressure is
pseudocoelom fluid but no vessels) are low and generally the blood (called
avascular animals. Echinoderms do not hemolymph) has low cellularity.
have true circulatory systems either.
Arthropods, molluscs (the cephalopods
are exception) and protochordates have
open circulatory system.
3. What is the alternative
means for transport of
substances in animals without
a circulatory system? Why is 6. What is a closed circulatory
blood important for larger system?
animals?
A closed circulatory system is one in
which blood circulates only inside blood
In animals that do not present the vessels. For this reason the blood
circulatory system the transport of pressure is higher in animals with closed
substances occurs by cell to cell circulatory system. The cellularity of the
diffusion. blood is also higher with many specific
blood cells.
The blood is a fundamental means of
substance transport for larger animals The closed circulatory system is a
since in these animals there are tissues feature of annelids, cephalopod molluscs
distant from each other and from the and vertebrates.
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7. What are the advantages of are smaller, slow and some are
the closed circulatory system practically sessile.
over the open circulatory
system?
9. Why, even thoough they
The closed circulatory system is more have an open circulatory
efficient. Since blood circulates only
system, can flying insects like
inside blood vessels it can do it with
more pressure reaching farther flies beat their wings with
distances between the organs where great speed?
hematosis happens and the peripheral
tissues. In addition the circulatory speed In insects the circulatory system is open
also heightens making possible more but this system does not participate in
oxygen supply to great consuming the gas exchange process and in oxygen
tissues, like the muscle tissues that supply to the tissues. Gases go in and
then can perform faster movements. out through the independent tracheal
Animals with an open circulatory system system that allows direct contact of cells
(with the exception of insects that do with the ambient air. Therefore an
gas exchange independently from the insect can supply the great oxygen
circulation) are generally slower and demand of its fast-beating wing muscles
have a low metabolic rate. even having open circulatory system.
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goes to the ventricles and then leaves heart ventricle to the lungs, contain
the organ. venous blood.
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Only capillaries perform exchange of favor of gravity. The valves close when
gases and other substances with the the pressure of the fluid column above
tissues. (after, regarding normal flux) is higher
than the fluid pressure before them.
Valves are thus fundamental for the
returning of blood to the heart.
17. Are the arteries or the
veins constituted of more
muscle tissue? How different
19. How do the muscles of the
are the walls of these two
legs and of the feet contribute
types of blood vessels?
to the venous return?
The arterial system has thicker muscle
walls since within arteries the blood The muscles of the legs, mainly the
circulates under higher pressure. The muscles of the calves, contract and
veins are more flaccid than arteries. compress the deep veins of the legs
impelling the blood to the heart.
From the lumen to the external layer
both types of vessels are made of The plantar portion of the feet retains
endothelium, muscle tissue and blood and when it is compressed against
connective tissue. In both the the ground it impels its blood volume
endothelium is a single layer of cells. In and aids venous return.
arteries the muscle tissue portion is
thicker than in veins and in these
vessels the external connective tissue is
thicker than in arteries. 20. What are varices? Why are
they more common in the
Arteries are the pulsating blood vessels. inferior limbs?
The arterial pulse can be felt in a
medical examination, for example, by Varix means abnormal enlargement of
the palpation of the radial artery in the veins. Varices occur when excessive
internal and lateral face of the wrist pressure against the normal blood flux
near the base of the thumb. creates enlargement of the vein and
thus insufficient functioning of its valves
(venous insufficiency).
18. What are the valves of the Varices are more common in the veins
venous system? What is their of the inferior limbs since the fluid
function? column above these vessels is higher.
This is the reason why people that
The valves of the venous system are spend much time standing (e.g.,
structures inside the veins that permit surgeons) are more susceptible to
blood to flow only in the normal way varices.
(from the tissues to the heart) and
forbid it to return in the reverse way in In general varices are not the apparent
superficial veins that appear in the leg
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of varix patients. These apparent the enlargement of lymph nodes of the
vessels are the consequences of internal lymphatic circuits that drain the affected
varices (venous insufficiency) in the region due to the reactive proliferation
deep internal veins of the legs and they of leukocytes is common. This
appear because the blood flux is enlargement is known as
diverted to superficial veins. (Popularly lymphadenomegaly and sometimes it is
however apparent superficial veins are accompanied by pain. The search for
called varices.) enlarged or painful lymph nodes is part
of the medical examination since these
findings may suggest inflammation,
infection or other diseases.
21. What is the lymphatic
system?
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blood to the lungs (the right ventricle atrium during systole (contraction of
task) is easier (needs less pressure) ventricles).
than pumping blood to the other tissues
of the body (the left ventricle task).
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Arteries of the pulmonary circulation are atrium during systole (contraction of the
arteries that carry venous blood and not ventricles).
arterial blood.
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Systole is the stage of the cardiac cycle The main metabolic gases transported
on which the ventricles contract. So the by the blood are molecular oxygen (O2)
lumen of these chambers is reduced and and carbon dioxide (CO2).
the pressure upon the blood within
them is heightened.
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40. What is hemoglobin F? 42. What is the substance that
Why does the fetus need a stimulates the production of
different hemoglobin? red blood cells? Which is the
organ that secretes it? Under
Hemoglobin F is the hemoglobin found what conditions does this
in the mammalian fetus and hemoglobin secretion increase?
A is the normal hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin F has higher affinity for
The substance that stimulates the
oxygen.
production of red blood cells by the
bone marrow is erythropoietin.
The fetus needs hemoglobin capable of
Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted by
extracting oxygen from the mother’s
the kidneys. Its secretion is increased
circulation. Therefore the fetus uses
when there is deficient tissue
hemoglobin F since it has higher affinity
oxygenation (tissue hypoxia) caused
for oxygen than the mother’s
either by reduced oxygen availability (as
hemoglobin.
it occurs in high altitudes) or by internal
diseases, as in pulmonary diseases.
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44. What is the stage of (pulmonary circulation). Double
cellular respiration during circulation occurs in amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals.
which carbon dioxide is
liberated? Simple closed circulation, or simple
circulation, is the one in which the
In aerobic cellular respiration the tissues that perform gas exchange are
release of carbon dioxide happens in the associated in series with the systemic
transformation of pyruvic acid into circulation, as in fishes.
acetyl-CoA (two molecules) and in the
Krebs cycle (four molecules). For each
glucose molecule, six carbon dioxide
molecules are made. 47. How many chambers does
the fish heart have?
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circulation). In fishes the circulatory The reptiles have double and incomplete
system is simple and complete. circulation too, three heart chambers
(two atria and one ventricle). The reptile
heart however presents the beginning of
a ventricular septation that partially
50. How many heart chambers separates a right and left region of the
does the amphibian heart chamber. With the partial ventricular
septation the mixture of arterial with
have?
venous blood in the reptile heart is less
than in amphibians.
The amphibian heart has three heart
chambers: two atria and one ventricle.
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54. Concerning the mixture of electric impulse to the ventricles
arterial with venous blood through specialized conduction bundles
of the interventricular septum (the
what is the difference bundle of His) and then to the Purkinje
between the human fetal fibers of the ventricle walls causing
circulation and the adult ventricular contraction. (The atrial
circulation? contraction precedes the ventricular
contraction for blood to fill the ventricles
In the human fetal circulation there are before the ventricular contraction.)
two communications between arterial
and venous blood characterizing an The repolarization of the SA node makes
incomplete circulation. One of them is the atria relax and then the ventricles
the oval foramen, an opening between relax too.
the right and the left atria of the fetal
heart. The other is the arterial duct, a
short vessel connecting the pulmonary
artery to the aorta. These
communications close a few days after
birth and so they are not present in the
adult heart.
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membranes and it is more water-soluble
Excretory System than the other nitrogen wastes.
Ammonia is still the most energetically
economical nitrogen waste to be
synthesized.
1. What is excretion?
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7. What is the nitrogen waste 11. How is urea formed in the
in amphibian larvae and in the human body?
adult animal?
Urea is a product of the degradation of
Since amphibian larvae are aquatic they amino acids. In the process amino acids
excrete ammonia. The terrestrial adult lose their amine group which is then
excretes urea. transformed into ammonia. In the liver
ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to
form urea and water, a process called
ureogenesis.
8. Why is the uricotelic
In the intermediary reactions of the
excretion essential for avian
ureogenesis a molecule of ornithine is
and reptile embryos? consumed and another is produced. For
this reason ureogenesis is also known
In reptiles and birds the excretory as the ornithine cycle.
system is uricotelic since uric acid is
insoluble, less toxic and suitable to be
stored within the eggs where their
embryos develop. 12. Which are the organs of
the excretory system?
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The venous vessels that collect the secrete other substances inside the
blood filtered by the kidneys are the tubules. The urine is formed of not
renal veins. The renal veins carry the resorbed filtered substances and of
blood that has been reabsorbed in the secreted (by the tubules) substances.
nephron tubules. Urine is drained by the collecting ducts
to the ureter of each kidney, then it
enters the bladder and later it is
discharged through the urethra.
15. What is the functional
unity of the kidneys? The nephron tubules are surrounded by
an extensive capillary network that
collects resorbed substances and
The functional (filtering) unity of the
provides others to be secreted.
kidneys is the nephron. A nephron is
made of afferent arteriole, efferent
arteriole, glomerulus, Bowman's
capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle,
distal tubule and collecting duct.
17. What is the main
transformation presented by
In each kidney there are about one the glomerular filtrate in
million nephrons. comparison to the blood?
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absent in the urine (the few filtered The cells of the tubule wall have high
proteins may also be resorbed in the number of mitochondria because many
nephron tubules). Proteinuria is an substances are resorbed or secreted
indication that a more than expected through them by means of active
amount of proteins is passing the transport (a process that spends
glomerulus suggesting glomerular energy). Therefore many mitochondria
disease, e.g., in diabetic nephropathy. are necessary for the energetic supply
(ATP supply) of this type of transport.
The glomerulus also blocks the passage
of blood cells and platelets (hematuria is
often a sign of urinary disease although
less specific of kidneys since the blood 21. What is tubular secretion?
may come from the lower parts of the What are some examples of
excretory tract). substances secreted through
the renal tubules?
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23. How do kidneys excreted in urine the more the blood
participate in the regulation of volume lowers.
the acid-basic equilibrium of The blood volume in its turn has a direct
the body? How are alkalosis relation to blood pressure. The blood
and acidosis respectively pressure increases when the blood
corrected by the kidneys? volume increases and it lowers when
the blood volume lowers. That is the
Kidneys can regulate the acidity or reason why one of the main groups of
alkalinity of the plasma varying the antihypertensive drugs is the diuretics.
excretion of hydrogen and bicarbonate Doctors often prescribe diuretics for the
ions. hypertensive patients to excrete more
water and thus lower their blood
In alkalosis (abnormally high level of pressure.
the plasma pH) the kidneys excrete
more bicarbonate and the equilibrium of
formation of bicarbonate from water
and carbon dioxide shifts towards 25. Which are the three
formation of more hydrogen ions and hormones that participate in
bicarbonate and then the plasma pH is the regulation of the renal
lowered. When the body undergoes function?
acidosis (abnormal low level of the
plasma pH) the kidneys excrete more
Antidiuretic hormone (or ADH, or
hydrogen ions and retain more
vasopressin), aldosterone and atrial
bicarbonate thus the equilibrium of
natriuretic factor (or ANF) are hormones
formation of bicarbonate from water
that participate in the regulation of the
and carbon dioxide shifts towards more
excretory system.
hydrogen consumption and the plasma
pH is increased.
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osmolarity, there is stimulus for ADH 29. What is an evolutionary
secretion. explanatory hypothesis for the
secretion by the heart of a
When the body has an excess of water,
as in cases of excessive ingestion or in hormone that regulates the
abnormally low blood osmolarity, the renal function? Which is that
secretion of ADH is blocked and the hormone?
diuresis increases. ADH is also known as
vasopressin since it increases the blood The renal regulator hormone secreted
volume and thus heightens the blood by the heart is the atrial natriuretic
pressure. factor (or ANF). The ANF increases the
excretion of sodium in the nephron
tubules causing less resorption of water,
more urinary volume, and thus lowering
27. Why does the ingestion of the blood pressure. The atrial natriuretic
alcohol increase diuresis? factor is secreted when there is an
increase of the length of the heart
Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH muscle fibers in response to high blood
(antidiuretic hormone) by the pituitary. pressure. The ANF is a natural
That is why when it is drunk to excess antihypertensive substance. Since the
the person urinates too much. health of the heart depends largely
upon the stability of the normal blood
pressure the evolution should have
preserved the atrial natriuretic factor to
28. How does aldosterone act allow information from the heart to be
and where is it produced? an additional mechanism for the renal
control of the blood pressure.
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that takes several hours. Sometimes
kidney transplantation is an alternative
to hemodialysis.
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urethra and the blood vessels. The
Epithelia glands and the serous membranes are
made of epithelial tissue too.
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6. What are the specialized cells are placed in the tissue (into
structures that help the simple or stratified).
adhesion between cells? The main types of epithelial tissues are
simple cuboidal, simple columnar,
The structures responsible for the union simple squamous, stratified squamous
of the epithelial cells are called cell and pseudostratified columnar
junctions. The main cell junctions are (resembling more than one layer but
interdigitations, desmosomes, zonula actually having only one). There are
adherens (adherens junction), tight also stratified cuboidal and stratified
junctions (zonula occludens) and gap columnar epithelia (rare).
junctions.
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squamous epithelium is made of the In amphibians there is already a slight
same type of flat cells placed in several keratinization of the skin, probably an
superimposed layers. additional adaptation to the terrestrial
environment. Amphibians have smooth
The simple squamous epithelium is and wet epidermis without scales. These
found in the pulmonary alveoli. The features facilitate their cutaneous
stratified squamous epithelium can be respiration.
found in the moist mucosae, like the
mucosae of the mouth, esophagus and
vagina, and it is the epithelium of the
skin. 13. Which are the glands
present in the epidermis of
mammals, birds and reptiles?
11. What is the function of
In the epidermis of birds and reptiles
keratin in the epidermis? there are practically no glands. In
mammals there are sweat glands and
The epidermis is the outer layer of the sebaceous glands.
skin made of epithelial tissue. In the
epidermis there are keratin-secreting
cells (keratinocytes). Keratin is an
insoluble protein that impregnates the 14. What are melanocytes?
surface of the skin providing protection
and impermeability. In mammals
Melanocytes are epithelial cells of the
keratin also forms the hairs.
skin specialized in secretion of melanin.
Melanin is a pigment that besides
The keratinized cells of the skin surface
coloring the skin, the iris of the eye and
form the corneal layer. These cells die
the hair, also works as a filter against
and are continuously replaced by
the ultraviolet radiation of the sun thus
others.
protecting the body against the harmful
effects of this radiation (mainly burns
and carcinogenic mutations).
12. How different is the fish Melanocytes are the cells affected in one
epidermis from the amphibian of the more deadly skin cancers:
epidermis? melanoma.
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4. What are the cells that form
Musculoskeletal the cartilaginous tissue?
System
The main cells of the cartilages are the
chondrocytes, originated from the
chondroblasts that secrete the
1. Which are the organs that intersticial matrix. There are also
chondroclasts, cells with many
are part of the
lisosomes and responsible for the
musculoskeletal system? digestion and remodelation of the
cartilaginous matrix.
The main organs and tissues that are
part of the musculoskeletal system in
humans are the cartilages, the bones
and the muscles. 5. What is the constitution of
the cartilaginous matrix?
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7. What are the three main 9. What are the Haversian
cell types that form the canals and the Volkmann’s
osseous tissue? What are their canals of the bones? Is the
functions? osseous tissue vascularized?
The three main cell types of the osseous The Haversian canals are longitudinal
tissue are the osteoblasts, the canals present in the osseous tissue
osteocytes and the osteoclasts. within which blood vessels and nerves
pass. The osseous tissue distributes
Osteoblasts are known as bone-forming itself in a concentric manner around
cells since they are the cells that secrete these canals. The Volkmann’s canals are
the proteinaceous part of the bone communications between the Harvesian
matrix (collagen, glycoproteins and canals.
proteoglycans). The bone matrix is the
intercellular space where the mineral The osseous tissue is highly
substances of the bones are deposited. vascularized in its interior.
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categories). Examples of flat bones are 14. Which is the type of
the skull, the ribs, the hipbones, the muscle tissue that contracts
scapulae and the sternum. Examples of
and relaxes the heart
long bones are the humerus, the radius,
the ulna, the femur, the tibia and the chambers?
fibula.
The myocardium of the heart is made of
cardiac striated muscle tissue.
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sarcomeres blocks of actin and myosin molecules. This interaction between
molecules are posed in organized actin and myosin shortens the myofibrils
manner. The sarcomeres align in originating the phenomenon of muscle
sequence forming myofibrils that are contraction.
longitudinally placed in the cytoplasm of
the muscle fibers (cells). The grouping
of consecutive blocks of actin and
myosin in parallel filaments creates the 20. What are the positions of
striped pattern of the striated muscle actin and myosin molecules in
tissue seen under the microscope. the sarcomere before and
during the muscle
contraction?
18. What are sarcomeres?
Schematically actin filaments attached
Sarcomeres are the contractile units of perpendicularly to both sarcomere
the muscle tissue formed of alternating extremities (longitudinal sides) make
actin blocks (thin filaments) and myosin contact with myosin filaments
blocks (thick filaments). Several positioned in the middle of the
sarcomeres placed in linear sequence sarcomere and in parallel to the actin
form a myofibril. Therefore one muscle filaments.
fiber (cell) has many myofibrils made of
sacomeres. Before the contraction the sarcomeres
are extended (relaxed) since the contact
The compartments where myofibrils are between actin and myosin filaments is
inserted are delimited by an excitable only made by their extremities. During
membrane known as sarcolemma. The contraction actin filaments slide along
sarcolemma is the plasma membrane of the myosin filaments and the
the muscle cell. sarcomeres shorten.
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The excitation is conduced to the Phosphocreatine is the main means of
sarcoplasmic reticulum that then energy storage of the muscle cells.
realeases calcium ions into the
sarcomeres. During relaxed periods ATP molecules
made by the aerobic cellular respiration
In the sarcomeres the calcium ions bind transfer highly energized phosphate
to troponin molecules associated to groups to creatine forming
actin activating myosin binding sites of phosphocreatine. In exercise periods
actin. The myosin, then able to bind to phosphocreatine and ADP resynthesize
actin, pulls this protein and the ATP to dispose energy for the muscle
sarcomere shortens. The summation of contraction.
simultaneous contraction of sarcomeres
and myofibrils constitutes the muscle
contraction. During muscle relaxation
the calcium ions return back to the 24. What happens when the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. oxygen supply is insufficient
to maintain aerobic cellular
For myosin to bind to actin, and thus for
the contraction to occur, hydrolysis of respiration during muscle
one ATP molecule is necessary. During exercise?
relaxation the return of calcium ions to
the sarcoplasmic reticulum is an active If oxygen from hemoglobin or
process that spends ATP too. So both myoglobin is not enough for the energy
muscle contraction and relaxation are supply of the muscle cell the cell then
energy-spending processes. begins to do lactic fermentation in an
attempt to compensate the deficiency.
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axon until reaching the synapse at the
neuromuscular junction (the neural
impulse passage zone between the axon 27. What is the difference
extremity and the sarcolemma). Near between spatial summation
the axonal extremity the depolarization
and temporal summation of
allows the entrance of calcium ions into
the axon (note that calcium also has a muscle fibers? What is tetany?
relevant role here). The calcium ions
stimulate the neuron to release Spatial summation is the recruiting of
acetylcholine in the synapse. new muscle fibers to increase the
muscle strength. Temporal summation
Acetylcholine then binds to special occurs when a muscle fiber is
receptors in the outer surface of the continuously stimulated to contract
sarcolemma, the permeability of this without being able to conclude
membrane is altered and an action relaxation.
potential is created. The depolarization
is then conduced along the sarcolemma The permanence of a muscle fiber under
to the sarcoplasmic reticulum that thus a continuous state of contraction by
releases calcium ions for the sarcomere temporal summation is known as tetany
contraction. (e.g., the clinical condition of patients
contaminated by the toxin of the
tetanus bacteria). Tetany ends when all
available energy for contraction is spent
26. To increase the strength of or when the stimulus ceases.
the muscle work is the muscle
contraction intensely
increased?
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3. Which are the main cells of
Nervous System the nervous system?
The integrative systems are the nervous 4. What are the functional
system and the endocrine system. The differences between neurons
designation is justified since both and glial cells?
systems control and regulate biological
functions and act at distance receiving Glial cells and neurons are the cells that
information from organs and tissues and form the nervous system. Neurons are
sending effector commands (nervous cells that have the function of receiving
impulses or hormones) to organs and and transmitting the neural impulses
tissues thus integrating the body. and glial cells (astrocytes,
microgliacytes, ependymal cells and
oligodendrocytes) are the cells that
support, feed and insulate (electrically)
2. Which are the structures the neurons. The Schwann cells that
that are part of the nervous produce the myelin sheath of the
system? peripheral nervous system can also be
considered glial cells.
The structures that form the nervous
system can be divided into the central
nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). 5. What are the three main
parts into which a neuron can
The organs of the CNS are the brain be divided? What are their
(cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum) respective functions?
and spinal cord. The PNS is made of
nerves and neural ganglia. Besides
The three mains parts into which a
these organs the meninges (dura-
neuron can be didactically divided are:
mater, arachnoid and pia-mater) are
dendrites, cell body and axon.
part of the nervous system too since
they cover and protect the encephalon
Dendrites are projections of the plasma
and the spinal cord.
membrane that receive the neural
impulse from other neurons. The cell
body is where the nucleus and the main
cellular organelles are located. Axon is
the long membrane projection that
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transmits the neural impulse at distance nervous system) in places known as
to other neurons, to muscle cells and to neural nuclei. Neural ganglia, or simply
other effector cells. ganglia, are structures of the peripheral
nervous system located beside the
spinal column or near some organs
where neuron cell bodies are also
6. What is the name of the located.
terminal portion of the axon?
Neurons situated at specific points can
present distant axonal terminations and
The terminal portion of the axon is
they also can receive impulses from
called presynaptic membrane. Through
axons of distant neurons. The inferior
this membrane neurotransmitters are
motor neurons situated in the spinal
released into the synaptic junction.
cord are examples since their axons can
transmit information to the extremities
of the inferior limbs triggering
contractions of the foot.
7. What are synapses?
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(impulses that command some body 12. What is meant by the
action). peripheral nervous system
(PNS)?
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consecutive Schwann cell membranes 17. What is the difference
covering segments of a single axon. The between brain and cerebrum?
Ranviers’ nodes appear in the
What are the main parts of
intercellular space between these cells.
these structures?
The myelin sheath is rich in lipids but it
also contains proteins. The concept of brain, or encephalon,
comprehends the cerebrum (mostly
referred to as the hemispheres, but
actually the concept also includes the
15. What are some diseases thalamus and the hypothalamus), the
characterized by progressive brainstem (midbrain, pons and medulla)
and the cerebellum. Brain and spinal
loss of the axonal myelin
cord form the central nervous system
sheath? (CNS).
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motor coordination and equilibrium of In the brain conscious sensory
the body. (Do not confuse this with information is received by the neurons
muscle command, performed by the situated in a special region called
cerebral hemispheres). postcentral gyrus (or sensory gyrus).
Gyri are the convolutions of the
cerebrum. Each of the two postcentral
gyri are located in one of the parietal
20. Why is the cerebellum lobes of the cerebrum.
more developed in mammals
The voluntary motor activity (voluntary
that jump or fly?
muscle movement) is commanded by
neurons situated in the precentral gyrus
The cerebellum is the main brain (or motor gyrus). Each of the two
structure that coordinates the precentral gyri are located in one of the
movement and the equilibrium of the frontal lobes of the cerebrum.
body. For this reason it appears more
developed in mammals that jump or fly The names post- and pre-central refer
(like bats). The cerebellum is also very to the fact that the motor and sensory
important for the flight of birds. gyri are spaced apart in each cerebral
hemisphere by the sulcus centralis, a
fissure that separates the parietal and
frontal lobes.
21. Which is the brain region
responsible for the regulation
of breathing and blood
pressure? 23. What is the spinal cord? Of
which elements is the spinal
The neural regulation of breathing, cord constituted?
blood pressure and other physiological
parameters like heartbeat, digestive The spinal cord is the dorsal neural cord
secretions, peristaltic movements and of vertebrates. It is the part of the
transpiration is performed by the central nervous system that continues
medulla. in the trunk to facilitate the nervous
integration of the whole body.
The medulla, together with the pons
and the midbrain, is part of the The spinal cord is made of groups of
brainstem. neurons situated in its central portion
forming the gray matter and of axon
fibers in its exterior portion forming the
22. Which is the brain region white matter. Neural bundles connect to
that receives conscious both lateral sides of the spinal cord
sensory information? Which is segments to form the dorsal and ventral
spinal roots that join to form the spinal
the brain region that triggers
nerves. The dorsal spinal roots present
the voluntary motor activity? a ganglion with neurons that receive
sensory information; the ventral spinal
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roots contain motor fibers. Therefore The fibers cross to the other side in
the dorsal roots are sensory roots and specific areas of those axon paths.
the ventral roots are motor roots. About 2/3 of the fibers that go down the
spinal cord cross at the medullar level
forming a structure known as pyramidal
decussation. The other (1/3) of fibers
24. Which are the brain descend in the same side of their
regions associated with original cerebral hemisphere and cross
only within the spinal cord at the level
memory?
where their associated motor spinal root
exit. The fibers that command the
According to researchers some of the inferior motor neurons of the cranial
main regions of the nervous system nerves cross to the other side just
associated with the memory before the connection with the nuclei of
phenomenon are the hippocampus, these nerves.
situated in the interior portion of the
temporal lobes, and the frontal lobe The motor fibers that descend from the
cortex, both part of the cerebral superior motor neurons to the inferior
hemispheres. motor neurons of the spinal cord form
the pyramidal tract. Injuries in this
tract, for example, caused by spinal
sections or by central or spinal tumors
25. How is it structurally may lead to paraplegia and tetraplegia.
explained that the motor
activity of the left side of the
body is controlled by the right
cerebral hemisphere and the 26. What is meant by the arch
motor activity of the right side reflex?
of the body is controlled by
In some situations the movement of the
the left cerebral hemisphere? skeletal striated muscles does not
depend upon commands of the superior
In the cerebral hemispheres there are motor neurons, i.e., it is not triggered
neurons that centrally command and by volition.
control muscle movements. These
neurons are called superior motor Involuntary movements of those
neurons and they are located in a muscles may happen when sensory
special gyrus of both frontal lobes fibers that make direct or indirect
known as motor gyrus (or precentral connection with inferior motor neurons
gyrus). The superior motor neurons are unexpectedly stimulated in
send axons that transmit impulses to situations that suggest danger to the
the inferior motor neurons of the spinal body. This happens, for example, in the
cord (for neck, trunk and limb patellar reflex, or knee jerk reflex, when
movements) and to the motor nuclei of a sudden percussion on the knee patella
the cranial nerves (for face, eyes and (kneecap) triggers an involuntary
mouth movements). contraction of the quadriceps (the
extension muscle of the thigh). Another
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example of the arch reflex occurs when 29. Is the neural impulse
someone steps on a sharp object: one generated by the stimulus
leg retracts and the other, by the arch
that triggers the arch reflex
reflex, distends to maintain the
equilibrium of the body. restricted within the neurons
of this circuit?
28. What are the respective The arch reflex depends only on the
constituents of the gray integrity of the fibers at a single spinal
matter and of the white level. In the arch reflex the motor
matter of the spinal cord? response to the stimulus is automatic
and involuntary and does not depend
upon the passage of information to the
The gray matter, or gray substance, of
brain. So it happens even if the spinal
the spinal cord contains predominantly
cord is damaged at other levels.
neuron bodies (inferior motor neurons,
secondary sensory neurons and
interneurons). The white matter is
mainly made of axons that connect
neurons of the brain with spinal
31. How does poliomyelitis
neurons. affect the neural transmission
in the spinal cord?
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of the muscles that depend on these The efferent portion of the visceral
neurons. nervous system is called the autonomic
nervous system.
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between them serves to modulate their In vertebrates the nervous system is
effects. For example, the well-characterized, having the brain and
parasympathetic stimulates salivation dorsal neural cord protected by rigid
while the sympathetic inhibits it; the skeletal structures. In most
parasympathetic constricts pupils while invertebrates the nervous system is
the sympathetic dilates it; the predominantly ganglial, with ventral
parasympathetic contracts the bronchi neural cords.
while the sympathetic relaxes them; the
parasympathetic excites the genital
organs while the parasympathetic
inhibits the excitation. 38. What are the protective
structures of the central
nervous system present in
36. Using examples of vertebrates?
invertebrate nervous systems
In vertebrates the brain and the spinal
how can the process of cord are protected by membranes, the
evolutionary cephalization be meninges, and by osseous structures,
described? respectively the skull and the vertebral
column. These protections are
Considering the example of fundamental for the integrity of those
invertebrates it is observed that important organs that command the
evolution makes the increasing of the functioning of the body.
complexity of the organisms to be
accompanied by convergence of nervous
cells to special structures for controlling
and commanding: the ganglia and the 39. What is the nature of the
brain. In simple invertebrates, like stimulus received and
cnidarians, the nervous cells are not transmitted by the neurons?
concentrated but they are found
dispersed in the body. In
Neurons receive and transmit chemical
platyhelminthes a beginning of
stimuli through neurotransmitters
cephalization with the anterior ganglion
released in the synapses. Along the
concentrating neurons is already
neuron body however the impulse
verified. In annelids and arthropods the
transmission is electrical. So neurons
existence of a cerebral ganglion is
conduct electric and chemical stimuli.
evident. In cephalopod molluscs the
cephalization is even greater and the
brain commands the nervous system.
40. What are the two main
37. What are some main
ions that participate in the
differences of the vertebrate
electrical impulse
nervous systems comparing to
transmission in neurons?
invertebrates?
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The two main ions that participate in the The membrane is permeable to
electrical impulse transmission in potassium ions but not to sodium ions.
neurons are the sodium cation (Na+) At rest the positive potassium ions exit
and the potassium cation (K+). the cell in favor of the concentration
gradient since within the cell the
potassium concentration is higher than
in the extracellular space. The positive
41. Which is the normal sign sodium ions cannot however go into the
of the electric charge between cell. As positive potassium ions exit the
cell with not enough compensation of
the two sides of the neuron
positive ions entering the cell, the
plasma membrane? What is intracellular space becomes more
the potential difference negative and the cell stays polarized.
(voltage) generated between
these two sides? What is that
voltage called?
43. How is the depolarization
As in most cells the region just outside of the neuronal plasma
the surface of the neuron plasma membrane generated? How
membrane presents a positive electrical does the cell return to its
charge in relation to the region just original rest?
inside that thus is negative.
When the neuron receives a stimulus by
The normal (at rest) potential difference
the binding of neurotransmitters to
across the neuron membrane is about –
specific receptors sodium channels open
70 mV (millivolts). This voltage is called
and the permeability of the plasma
the resting potential of the neuron.
membrane in the postsynaptic region is
altered. Sodium ions then go into the
cell causing lowering (less negative) of
the membrane potential. If this
42. How do the sodium and reduction of the membrane potential
potassium ions maintain the reaches a level called the excitation
resting potential of the threshold, or threshold potential, about
neuron? –50 mV, the action potential is
generated, i.e., the depolarization
The plasma membrane of the neuron intensifies until reaching its maximum
level and the depolarization current is
when at rest maintains an electric
potential difference between its external transmitted along the remaining length
of the neuronal membrane.
and internal surfaces. This voltage is
called resting potential. The resting
If the excitation threshold is reached
potential about –70 mV indicates that
the interior is more negative than the voltage-dependent sodium channels in
the membrane open allowing more
exterior (negative polarization). This
condition is maintained by transport of sodium ions to enter the cell in favor of
the concentration gradient and an
sodium and potassium ions across the
plasma membrane. approximate –35 mV level of positive
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polarization of the membrane is 45. How does the
achieved. The voltage-dependent depolarization of the neuronal
sodium channels then close and more
membrane start?
voltage-dependent potassium channels
open. Potassium ions then exit the cell
in favor of the concentration gradient The primary cause of the neuronal
and the potential difference of the depolarization is the binding of
membrane decreases, a process called neurotransmitters released in the
repolarization. synapse (by the axon of the neuron that
sent the signal) to specific receptors in
The action potential triggers the same the membrane of the neuron that is
electrical phenomenon in neighboring receiving the stimulus. The binding of
regions of the plasma membrane and neurotransmitters to those receptors is
the impulse is thus transmitted from the a reversible phenomenon that alters the
dendrites to the terminal region of the membrane permeability of the region
axon. since the binding causes sodium
channels to open. When positive sodium
ions enter the cell in favor of their
concentration gradient, the membrane
44. What is the excitation voltage increases, thus lessening the
negative polarization. If this
threshold of a neuron? How
depolarization reaches the excitation
does this threshold relate to threshold (about –50 mV) the
the “all-or-nothing” rule of the depolarization continues, the action
neural transmission? potential is reached and the impulse is
transmitted along the cell membrane.
The excitation threshold of a neuron is
the depolarization level that must be
caused by a stimulus to be transmitted
as a neural impulse. This value is about 46. How different are the
–50 mV. concepts of action potential,
resting potential and
The transmission of the neural impulse excitation threshold
along the neuronal membrane obeys an
concerning neurons?
all-or-nothing rule: or it happens with
maximum intensity or nothing happens.
Always and only when the excitation Action potential is the maximum
threshold is reached the depolarization positive voltage level achieved by the
continues and the membrane reaches neuron in the process of neuronal
its maximum possible positive activation, around + 35 mV. The action
polarization, about +35 mV. If the potential triggers the depolarization of
excitation threshold is not reached the neighboring regions of the plasma
nothing happens. membrane and thus the propagation of
the impulse along the neuron.
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Resting potential is the membrane depolarized it becomes more positive in
voltage when the cell is not excited, relation to the neighboring internal
about –70 mV. region. So positive electrical charges
(ions) move towards this more negative
Excitation threshold is the voltage level, region and voltage-gated sodium
about –50 mV, that the initial channels are activated and open. The
depolarization must reach for the action action potential then linearly propagates
potential to be attained. along the membrane until near the
presynaptic region of the axon.
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cleft. The neurotransmitters then bind called neurotransmitter re-uptake. They
to specific receptors of the postsynaptic can also be destroyed by specific
membrane. (The binding of enzymes, like acetylcholinesterase, an
neurotransmitters to their receptors is enzyme that destroys acetylcholine. Or
reversible, i.e., the neurotransmitters they can simply diffuse out of the
are not consumed after the process.) synaptic cleft.
With the binding of neurotransmitters to
the postsynaptic receptors the
permeability of the postsynaptic
membrane is altered and the 53. Fluoxetine is an
depolarization that will lead to the first antidepressant drug that
action potential of the postsynaptic cell presents an action mechanism
begins.
related to the synaptic
transmission. What is that
mechanism?
51. What are some important
neurotransmitters? Fluoxetine is a substance that inhibits
the re-uptake of serotonin, a
The following are some neurotransmitter that acts mainly in the
neurotransmitters: adrenaline central nervous system. By inhibiting
(epinephrine), noradrenaline the re-uptake of the neurotransmitter
(norepinephrine), acetylcholine, the drug increases its availability in the
dopamine, serotonin, histamine, gaba synaptic cleft thus improving the
(gamma aminobutyric acid), glycine, neuronal transmission.
aspartate, nitric oxide.
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reticulum that releases calcium ions into skin. In this last case they transmit
the sarcomeres of the myofibrils thus information to dendrites of sensory
triggering contraction. neurons connected to them. There are
also sensory receptors that are
specialized terminations of neuronal
dendrites (e.g., the olfactory receptors).
55. How does the nervous
system get information about
the external environment, the
57. According to the stimuli
organs and the tissues?
they collect how are the
Information about the conditions of the
sensory receptors classified?
external and internal environments, like
temperature, pressure, touch, spatial The sensory receptors are classified
position, pH, metabolite levels (oxygen, according to the stimuli they get:
carbon dioxide, etc.), light, sounds, etc., mechanoreceptors are stimulated by
are collected by specific neural pressure (e.g., touch or sound);
structures (each for each type of chemoreceptors respond to chemical
information) called sensory receptors. stimuli (olfactory, taste, pH, metabolite
Sensory receptors are distributed concentration, etc.); thermoreceptors
throughout the tissues according to are sensitive to temperature changes;
their specific roles. The receptors get photoreceptors are stimulated by light;
that information and transmit them nocireceptors send pain information;
through their own axons or through proprioceptors are sensitive to the
dendrites of neurons that connect to spatial position of muscles and joints
them. The information reaches the (they generate information for the
central nervous system that interprets equilibrium of the body).
and uses it to control and regulate the
body.
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In the animals of the second group the
Visual System photoreceptor cells are part of more
sophisticated structures, the eyes, able
to form images and to send them to the
nervous system.
1. What is vision? Why is
vision important for life on
earth?
3. What are the structures
that compose the human
Vision is the ability of some living beings
to perceive, to distinguish and to vision apparatus?
interpret luminous stimuli.
The organs of the human visual
Vision is important on earth mainly in apparatus are the eyes, the optical
the terrestrial and in the superficial nerves and the visual areas of the brain
aquatic habitats because our planet is (located in the occipital lobes of both
intensely exposed to sunlight and thus hemispheres).
light and colors become distinguishing
factors of objects present in the
environment, even at distance. This
distinction provided new survival 4. What are the main
strategies for the organisms, new structures of the human eye?
protection mechanisms against external
dangers, new ways to find food and to
The main structures of the human eye
communicate with other individuals,
are the cornea, the iris, the pupil, the
new types of courting and reproduction
ciliary muscles, the crystalline lens and
behaviors, etc. That is, it created new
the retina (the space between the
possibilities of interaction with the
crystalline lens and the retina within the
surrounds and increased capacity to
eyeball is filled with vitreous humor).
explore new ecological niches.
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of the pupils. These movements depend 8. What type of structure is
upon the muscles of the iris. the crystalline lens? What is
its function?
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object can be placed and its image is 12. What are presbyopia and
still focused, i.e., it is the situation of astigmatism?
maximum relaxation of the ciliary
muscles. The zone between the near
point and the far point is called the Presbyopia is the visual impairment in
which there is loss of the cililary muscle
accommodation zone.
strength thus reducing the capability of
the crystalline lens to adjust images of
near objects onto the retina. In
presbyopia the near point of vision
11. How can the visual
becomes more distant. The disease
deficiencies known as myopia generally occurs in old people.
and hypermetropia be
optically explained? Astigmatism is caused by irregular
shape of the refractive structures,
Myopia is the visual condition in which mainly the cornea. In astigmatism a
the images are formed before (in front single object-point may produce more
of) the retina. Hypermetropia is the than one image onto the retina and so
visual condition in which the point of the vision becomes distorted.
image formation is beyond (behind) the
retina. Actually myopia is due to an
increase in the distance between the
retina and the crystalline lens, mainly
caused by a slight flattening of the
eyeball. In hypermetropia the retina is
too close to the crystalline lens due to
slight shortening of the eyeball.
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4. What are the elements that
Hearing System form the middle ear? What are
the names of the three middle
ear ossicles that participate in
1. What are the structures the phonosensitivity?
that participate in the human
auditory sensitivity? The middle ear is formed by the
tympanum, the ossicular chain and the
oval window. The functional ossicles of
The structures of the human auditory
the middle ear are the hammer
sensitivity are the ears (external, middle
(malleus), the incus and the stapes.
and internal), the vestibulocochlear
nerves and the auditory areas of the
brain (located in the temporal lobes of
both hemispheres).
5. What is the tympanum? In
which part of the ear is it
located and what is its
2. What are the main parts of function?
the human ear?
The tympanum (or ear drum) is a
The human ear is divided into three membrane located in the middle ear
mains parts: the external ear, the just after the auditory canal and so it
middle ear and the internal ear. separates the middle ear from the
external ear. The function of the
tympanum is to vibrate with the same
frequency of the sound waves that
3. What are the structures reach it.
that form the external ear?
What is its function?
6. How is the sound vibration
The internal ear comprises the pinna, or captured by the tympanum
auricle, and the auditory canal. Its
function is to conduct the sound waves
transmitted through the
to the tympanum. ossicular chain of the middle
ear?
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vibrate. The incus then causes the 9. What is the vestibular
stapes to vibrate. system? How does it operate?
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endocrine glands the invagination is
Endocrine System complete and there are no secretion
ducts.
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Hormones are effectors of the endocrine 9. What are the main
system. endocrine glands of the
human body?
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12. What are the main hormone. When the blood level of an
divisions of the hypophysis? adenohypophyseal hormone is low the
hypothalamus stimulates the secretion
What are their functions? of the hormone.
The hypophysis is divided into two The hypothalamic cells produce the
portions: the adenohypophysis, or hormones released by the
anterior hypophysis, and the neurohypophysis. These hormones are
neurohypophysis, or posterior transported by their axons to the
hypophysis. hypophysis and then released in the
circulation.
In the adenohypophysis two hormones
that act directly, the growth hormone
(GH) and the prolactin, and four tropic
hormones, i.e., hormones that regulate 14. What are the hormones
other endocrine glands, the
secreted by the
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adenohypophysis? What are
the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the their respective functions?
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are
produced. The adenohypophisys secretes GH
(growth hormone), prolactin, ACTH
The neurohypohysis stores and releases (adrenocorticotropic hormone), TSH
two hormones produced in the (thyroid-stimulating hormone), FSH
hypothalamus, oxytocin and the (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH
antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or (luteinizing hormone).
vasopressin).
GH, also known as somatotropic
hormone (STH), acts upon bones,
cartilages and muscles promoting the
13. What is the relation growth of these tissues. Prolactin is the
between the hypothalamus hormone that in women stimulates the
and the hypophysis? production and secretion of milk by the
mammary glands. The ACTH is the
hormone that stimulates the cortical
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain portion of the adrenal gland to produce
situated just above the hypophysis. The and secrete the cortical hormones
hypothalamus gets peripheral and (glucocorticoids). The TSH is the
central neural impulses that trigger hormone that stimulates the activity of
response of its neurosecretory cells. The the thyroid gland increasing the
axons of these cells go down to the production and secretion of its
adenohypophysis to regulate the hormones T3 and T4. The FSH is a
hipophyseal secretions by means of gonadotropic hormone, i.e., it
negative feedback. When the plasma stimulates the gonads and in women it
levels of adenohypophyseal hormones acts upon the ovaries inducing the
are too high the hypothalamus detects growth of follicles, in men it stimulates
this information and commands the spermatogenesis. The LH is also a
interruption of the production of the
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gonadotropic hormone that acts upon cases to nanism (dwarfism). Excessive
the ovaries of women to stimulate production of GH in children may cause
ovulation and the formation of the exaggerated osseous growth and
corpus luteum (that secretes estrogen) gigantism. In adults GH excess (for
and in men upon the testicles to example, in hypophiseal cancer or in
stimulate the production of people that wrongly ingest GH as a
testosterone. nutritional supplement) may lead to
acromegaly, excessive and
disproportional growth of the bone
extremities, like the skull, the
15. What is the relation maxillaries, the hands and the feet.
between the thyroid and the
hypophysis?
17. What are the target
The hypophysis secretes TSH, thyroid-
stimulating hormone. This hormone
tissues and target organs of
hastens the secretion of thyroid each adenohypophyseal
hormones (triiodothyronine and hormone?
thyroxine, or T3 and T4).
GH: bones, cartilages and muscles.
When the plasma concentration of Prolactin: mammary glands. ACTH: the
thyroid hormones is high this cortical portion of the adrenals. TSH:
information is detected by the thyroid gland. FSH and LH: ovaries and
hypothalamus and by the hypophysis testicles.
and this gland reduces the TSH
secretion. When the thyroid hormone
levels are low the TSH secretion
increases. It is thus a negative 18. What are the hormones
feedback.
secreted by the
Injuries of the hypophysis that cause neurohypophysis? What are
TSH hyposecretion (for example, in case their respective functions?
of tissue destruction) or hypersecretion
(in case, e,g., of excessive cell The neurohypophysis secretes oxytocin
proliferation or cancer) can change the and the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
functioning of the thyroid gland
completely. Oxytocin is secreted in women during
delivery to increase the strength and
frequency of the uterine contractions
and thus to help the baby’s birth.
16. What are some diseases During the lactation period the infant’s
caused by abnormal GH sucking action on the mother’s nipples
secretion by the hypophysis? stimulates the production of oxytocin
that then increases the secretion of milk
by the mammary glands.
In childhood deficient GH secretion may
lead to delayed growth and in severe
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Vasopressin, or ADH, participates in the Low ADH reduces the tubular resorption
water regulation of the body and thus in of water in the kidneys and thus the
the control of the blood pressure since it urinary volume increases.
allows the resorption of free water
through the renal tubules. As water
goes back to the circulation the blood
volume increases. 21. Which are the target
organs and target tissues of
the neurohypophysis?
19. What is the difference
The target organs of oxytocin are the
between diabetes mellitus and uterus and the mammary glands. The
diabetes insipidus? What are target organs of ADH are the kidneys.
the characteristic signs of
diabetes insipidus?
Diabetes mellitus is the disease caused 22. Where in the body is the
by deficient insulin secretion by the thyroid gland located?
pancreas or by impaired capturing of
this hormone by the cells. Diabetes The thyroid is located in the anterior
insipidus is the disease caused by cervical region (frontal neck), in front of
deficient ADH secretion by the pituitary the trachea and just below the larynx. It
(hypophysis) or also by impaired is a bilobated mass below the Adam’s
sensitivity of the kidneys to this apple.
hormone.
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24. Why is the dietary 26. What happens to the TSH
obtainment of iodine so (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
important for thyroid blood level in hypothyroidism?
functioning? Why is there enlargement of
the thyroid in the endemic
The obtainment of iodine from the diet goiter disease?
is important for the thyroid because this
chemical element is necessary for the When there is low T3 and T4 secretion
synthesis of the thyroid hormones T3 by the thyroid the TSH secretion by the
and T4. The iodine supply often comes hypophysis is very stimulated and the
from the diet. TSH blood level increases. The increase
in the TSH availability promotes the
enlargement of the thyroid gland.
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28. What are some signs and together with calcitonin and vitamin D
symptoms found in patients regulates the calcium blood level.
with hypothyroidism?
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33. What are the pancreatic 35. What are the functions of
tissues involved respectively insulin and glucagon for the
in the exocrine and endocrine blood glucose control?
secretions? What are their
respective hormones and Glucagon increases glycemia and insulin
enzymes? reduces it. They are antagonistic
pancreatic hormones. Glucagon acts
stimulating glycogenolysis and thus
The exocrine secretion of the pancreas
forming glucose from glycogen
is produced in the pancreatic acini,
breaking. Insulin is the hormone
aggregates of secretory cells that
responsible for the entrance of glucose
surround small exocrine ducts. The
from the blood into the cells.
exocrine pancreas secretes digestive
enzymes of the pancreatic juice:
When glycemia is low, for example,
amylase, lipase, trypsin, chymotrypsin,
during fasting, glucagon is secreted and
carboxypeptidase, ribonuclease,
insulin is inhibited. When glycemia is
deoxyribonuclease, elastase and
high, as after meals, there are inhibition
gelatinase.
of glucagon and more secretion of
insulin.
The endocrine secretion of the pancreas
is produced and secreted by small
groups of cells dispersed throughout the
organ called islets of Langerhans. The
36. What are the target
pancreatic islets make insulin, glucagon
and somatostatin. organs upon which insulin and
glucagon act?
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38. What is diabetes mellitus? The main complications of diabetes are
tissue injuries that occur in vaious
organs caused by the chronic increased
Diabetes mellitus is the disease caused
by deficient production or action of blood osmolarity: in the peripheral
nerves (diabetic neuropathy), resulting
insulin and the consequent low glucose
uptake by the cells and high blood in sensitivity loss, increased wounds
(the person does not feel that the tissue
glucose level.
is being wounded and the wound
expands) and muscle fatigue; in the
kidneys (diabetic nephropathy), causing
glomerular lesions that may lead to
39. What are the three main
renal failure; in the retina (diabetic
signs of diabetes? retinopathy), leading to vision
impairment and blindness; in the skin,
The three main signs of diabetes as a consequence of the neuropathy.
mellitus are known as the diabetic triad: Diabetes mellitus also is one of the
polyuria, polydipsia and polyphagia. major risk factors for cardiovascular
diseases like embolism, myocardial
Polyuria is the excessive elimination of infarction and stroke.
urine; in diabetes it is caused by
reduced water resorption in the renal
tubules due to increased osmolarity of
the glomerular filtrate (caused by 41. What is the difference
excessive glucose). Polydipsia is the between type I diabetes
exaggerated ingestion of water; the
thirst is due to the excessive water loss
mellitus and type II diabetes
in the urine. Polyphagia is the mellitus?
exaggerated ingestion of food caused by
deficiency in energy generation by Type I diabetes, also known as juvenile
glucose-lacking cells. diabetes, or insulin-dependent diabetes
(this name is not adequate as type II
diabetes may become insulin-
dependent), is the impaired production
40. Why do diabetic patients of insulin by the pancreas believed to be
often undergo dietary sugar caused by destruction of cells of the
islets of Langerhans by autoantibodies
restriction? What are the main
(autoimmunity).
complications of diabetes
mellitus? Type II diabetes occurs in the adult
individual and it is often diagnosed in
Diabetic patients are often advised to people of more advanced age. In type II
ingest less carbohydrates since these diabetes there is normal or low
substances are degraded into glucose secretion of insulin by the pancreas but
and this molecule is absorbed in the the main cause of the high glycemia is
intestines. The dietary sugar restriction the peripheral resistance of the cells to
goal is to control glycemia to maintain it the action of the hormone.
at normal levels.
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42. In ancient Greece the metabolism or in more severe cases
father of Medicine, with parenteral administration of insulin.
The moderation of carbohydrate
Hypocrates, described a ingestion is an important aid to diabetes
method of diagnosing diabetes treatment.
mellitus by tasting the
patient's urine. What is the The diabetes treatment with the use of
physiological explanation for hypoglycemic agents, like insulin or oral
medicines, must be carefully and
this archaic method?
medically supervised since if wrongly
used these drugs may abruptly decrease
Under normal conditions the glucose the glucose blood level, cause
filtered by the renal glomeruli is almost hypoglycemia and even death.
entirely resorbed in the nephron tubules
and not excreted in urine. With the Many other forms of diabetes treatment
elevated glucose blood level the renal are under research worldwide.
tubules cannot resorb all the filtered
glucose and some amount of the
substance appears in the urine. This
amount is enough to provide the sweet 44. How can bacteria produce
taste that helped Hypocrates to
diagnose diabetes and to differentiate it
human insulin on an industrial
from other diseases accompanied by scale? What are the other
polyuria. Nowadays the method is forms of insulin made
inconceivable due to the danger of available by the
contamination of the tester by disease pharmaceutical industry?
agents possibly present in the patient's
urine.
Bacteria do not naturally synthesize
insulin. It is possible however to implant
human genetic material containing the
insulin gene into the bacterial DNA. The
43. What are the main
mutant bacteria then multiply and
treatments of diabetes produce human insulin. The insulin is
mellitus? isolated and purified for later
commercialization. This biotechnology is
The general goal of the diabetes known as the recombinant DNA
treatment is to maintain normal technology.
glycemic levels.
Besides human insulin the
Type I diabetes is treated with pharmaceutical industry also produces
parenteral administration of insulin. insulin to be used by humans made
Insulin must be administered from the pancreas of pigs and cows.
intravenously or intramuscularly
because as a protein it would be
digested if ingested orally. In type II
diabetes treatment is done with oral
drugs that regulate the glucose
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45. Where are the adrenal supply to the brain, the muscles and the
glands located? How many are heart and by vasoconstriction they
reduce the blood supply to the kidneys,
they and what are their the skin and the gastrointestinal tract.
portions?
Substances like adrenaline and
Each adrenal gland is located on the top noradrenaline that promote vasodilation
of each kidney (forming a hat-like or vasoconstriction are called vasoactive
structure for the kidneys), so there are substances.
two glands. The adrenal parenchymal
structure is divided into two portions:
the most peripheral is the cortical
portion, or adrenal cortex, and the 47. What are the hormones
central is the medullary portion, or secreted by the adrenal
adrenal medulla.
cortex? What are their
respective functions?
46. What are the hormones The cortical portion of the adrenals
secreted by the adrenal secretes hormones of the corticoid (or
corticosteroid) group, derived from
medulla? What are their cholesterol: glucocorticoid,
respective functions? mineralocorticoids and cortical sex
hormones.
The medullary portion of the adrenals
secretes hormones of the catecholamine The glucocorticoids are cortisol and
group: adrenaline (also known as cortisone. The glucocorticoids stimulate
epinephrine) and noradrenaline (also the formation of glucose from the
known as norepinephrine). Besides their degradation of proteins of the muscle
hormonal function, adrenaline and tissue (gluconeogenesis) and so they
noradrenaline act as neurotransmitters help to increase glycemia. These
too. The neurons that use them as hormones play an important
neurotransmitters are called adrenergic immunosuppressant role, i.e., they
neurons. reduce the action of the immune system
and for this reason they are used as
Adrenaline increases the glycogen medicine to treat inflammatory and
breaking into glucose (glycogenolysis) autoimmune diseases and rejection of
thus increasing glycemia and the basal transplanted organs.
metabolic rate of the body. Adrenaline
and noradrenaline are released during The mineralocorticoids aldosterone and
situations of danger (fightfight or flight deoxycorticosterone regulate the
response) and they intensify the sodium and potassium blood
strength and rate of the heartbeat and concentration and thus they control the
selectively modulate the blood irrigation water level of the extracellular space.
in some tissues by selective vasodilation Aldosterone increases the sodium
and selective vasoconstriction. By resorption and thus the water resorption
vasodilation they increase the blood in the renal tubules and it also
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stimulates the renal excretion of 49. What are the hormones
potassium and hydrogen. produced by the testicles and
the ovaries?
The adrenal cortical sex hormones are
androgens, male sex hormones present
in men and women. In men their main The testicles make androgenic
site of production is the testicle and hormones, the main of them being
they promote the appearance of testosterone. The ovaries produce
secondary male sex characteristics, like estrogen and progesterone.
body hair and beard, deep voice, the
male pattern of fat distribution and
maturation of the genitalia. If
abnormally high in women they cause 50. What is the endocrine
inhibited maturation of the female function of the placenta?
genitalia and disturbances of the
menstrual cycle. The placenta is not a permanent gland
of the endocrine system but it also has
endocrinal function. The placenta
produces estrogen and progesterone. It
48. Why are glucorticoids also secretes human chorionic
used in transplant patients? gonadotropin (HCG, that acts similarly
to the hypophyseal LH), human
Patients with transplanted organs are placental lactogen, similar to prolactin
prone to host versus graft rejection and stimulant of the mammary glands,
since their own immune system tends to and a series of hormonal peptides
attack the grafted organ because of similar to the hormones of the
recognition of the grafted tissue as hypothalamus-hypophysis axis.
foreign matter. In the prevention and
treatment of this common problem
patients are given glucorticoids or other
immunosupressants. Glucocorticoids
have an immunosuppressant action and
so they reduce the aggression of the
immune system against the graft.
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proteins and defense cells (e.g.,
Immune System interferons and macrophages).
The body has many defense When some tissue injury occurs
mechanisms against foreign pathogenic histamine and other vasoactive
agents. These mechanisms are divided substances (called mediators of
into two groups: the specific inflammation) are released, they cause
mechanisms and the unspecific vasodilation and the blood flow to the
mechanisms. The specific mechanisms affected site increases. Granulocyte
are part of the immune system and leukocytes present in the blood are
comprehend the humoral immune attracted to the site of the injury by
response and the cellular immune substances known as chemotactic
response that respectively produce factors also released by the injured
antibodies and defense cells against tissue and by the active granulocytes in
specific antigens. The unspecific the area. The granulocytes exit the
mechanisms fight in a general manner capillaries by diapedesis, i.e., using
any type of antigen (they do not have pseudopods. Macrophages present in
specificity) and in them a series of the region are activated too. These cells
defense means are included, like the flood the extracellular space of the
skin barrier against foreign agents, the affected area trying to kill or eliminate
mucous and ciliated epithelium of the harmful agents, to prevent tissue
airway, inflammation (the inflammatory
response) and the action of unspecific
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necrosis and to isolate the damaged these cells are increased, a clinical
tissue. condition known as neutrophilia.
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If the inflammatory attack is not enough 14. What are
to halt the infectious process the body immunoglobulins?
still relies on a specific defense, the
immune response proper (humoral and
cellular) performed by the lymphocytes. Immunoglobulin is the alternate name
given to antibody. Immunoglobulins are
complex proteins containing an
invariable portion and a variable portion
and made of four polypeptide chains.
11. What is the difference
The variable portion of each
between humoral specific immunoglobulin is responsible for the
immune response and cellular high specificity of the antigen-antibody
specific immune response? bond.
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entire life of the individual, and they mastocytes whose cytoplasm is full of
become the memory cells of the histamine granules. The antibody-
immune system. When the body is mastocyte bond causes these cells to
exposed in the future to the same release a great amount of histamine in
antigen the production of antibodies will the circulation, stimulating inflammation
be faster and more intense since the and generating the allergic symptoms
immune system is already prepared to and signs. For this reason allergy is
react against that antigen. This is called treated with antihistamines, drugs that
the secondary response. block the histaminic reaction.
Exacerbated allergic reactions, for
example, in hypersensitivity to some
medicines like penicillin and sulfas, may
17. How can the immune cause anaphylactic shock, a severe
memory lead to the efficacy of clinical condition that sometimes leads
to death.
vaccines and also produce
allergies?
The IgE antibodies that cause allergy The lymphocytes that participate in the
bind to receptors of leukocytes called cellular immune response are the T
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lymphocytes. T lymphocytes 21. What are passive and
differentiate into three main types: active immunization?
cytotoxic T lymphocytes (cytotoxic T
According to the duration of
cell), helper T lymphocytes (helper cell)
and suppressor T lymphocytes. The the protection how do these
cytotoxic cells are the effectors of the types of immunization differ?
system, i.e., they directly attack other
cells recognized as foreign (for example, Active immunization is that in which an
fungi cells, cells infected by virus, antigen penetrates the body triggering
neoplastic cells, graft cells, etc.). The the primary immune response and the
helper cells and the suppressor T production of memory lymphocytes and
lymphocytes act as regulators of the antibodies that provide faster and more
system releasing substances that effective immune defense in future
respectively stimulate and inhibit the infections by the same antigen. Passive
immune action of T and B lymphocytes. immunization is that in which
After the primary immune response immunoglobulins against an antigen are
memory T lymphocytes also remain in inoculated in the body to provide
the circulation to provide faster and protection in case the body becomes
more effective reaction in case of future infected by the antigen.
infections.
Active immunization tends to be longer
lasting than passive immunization since
in the active type as well as antibodies,
20. What are the antigen- specific memory lymphocytes remain in
presenting cells of the the circulation. In the passive
immune system? immunization the duration of the
protection is that of the duration of the
antibodies in the circulation.
The antigen-presenting cells of the
immune system, also known as APC
cells, are cells that do phagocytosis and
digestion of foreign (to the body)
22. Why is maternal milk
microorganisms and later expose
antigens derived from these important for the immune
microorganisms in the outer side of protection of the baby?
their plasma membrane. These
processed antigens are then recognized Besides being nutritionally important,
by lymphocytes that activate the maternal milk participates in the
immune response. Several types of defense of the baby against infectious
cells, like the macrophages, can act as agents. Soon after delivery the mother
antigen-presenting cells. produces a more fluid milk called
colostrum that is rich in
immunoglobulins (antibodies). These
antibodies are not absorbed by the
baby’s circulation but they cover the
internal surface of the baby’s bowels
thus attacking possible antigens and
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making more difficult the proliferation of immunoglobulin is that obtained from
pathogenic bacteria within the organ. animals of different species from the
individual into which it will be
inoculated.
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response (and the consequent formation 28. Why doesn't a long lasting
of antibodies and memory cells) vaccine against common cold
concerning a given infection or disease
exist yet?
in order to immunize the individual
against infections by the pathogenic
agent in the future. Viruses that present a high mutation
rate like the virus that causes the
Since each antibody does not act common cold escape easily from the
against a variety of antigens but instead action of vaccines against them. After a
it acts only against its specific antigen, primary immune response (natural or
it is necessary for the immune system artificially induced) against the virus in
to make contact in some way with the the next season of infection new mutant
antigen against which the immunization resistant strains appear and the
is wanted. The reconnaissance of protection obtained with the immune
specific molecular portions of each response of the last season is lost. (One
antigen causes the immune system to could say that the high mutation rate is
produce the specific variable portion of a form of “immunization” found by
the immunoglobulins to attack that these viruses.)
antigen. Therefore to induce the active
immunization it is necessary to
inoculate into the body small parts of
the infectious agent or the agent 29. Why are vaccines used in
entirely (dead or inactivated). the prevention but not in the
treatment of infections? Why
can antivenom serums be
used in prevention and
27. What are the types of
treatment?
antigenic agents that may
constitute vaccines?
Vaccines are not used in the treatment
of infections because they depend on
Vaccines can be constituted of dead the primary immune response that
agents of disease, of inactivated agents takes about a week to occur and is not
of disease, of inactivated toxins or of so intense and effective. Antivenom
fragments of the infectious agent. serums however are inoculated into the
circulation and used as an immediate
Examples of some vaccines and their treatment because they are made of a
type of antigenic agents are: BCG, great amount of immunoglobulin
inactivated tuberculosis bacilli; (antibodies) which is potent against
antitetanic vaccine, inactivated toxin; their respective specific venom.
antidiphtheric, inactivated toxin;
antipolio Salk, dead poliovirus; antipolio
Sabin, attenuated (inactivated)
poliovirus. 30. What is the DNA vaccine?
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genetic engineering. In DNA vaccination
a recombinant plasmid (vector)
containing the gene of a specific antigen
that is part of a given pathogenic agent
is inserted into cells of the individual to
be immunized. These cells then begin to
produce the antigen that triggers the
primary immune response and
theoretically the individual becomes
immunized against that antigen.
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3. What is the name of the
Gametogenesis cells capable of making
gametes? What is the ploidy
of these gamete-forming
1. What are gametes? cells?
Gametes are cells specialized in sexual The cells that form gametes are the
reproduction. They contain half of the germ cells as opposed to the somatic
maximum number of chromosomes of cells. The ploidy (number of
the species and unite with another chromosomes) of the germ cells is the
gamete giving birth to a zygote with same as the somatic cells (only during
double of the number of chromosomes the formation of gametes meiosis occurs
of the gametic cells. and the number of chromosomes is
reduced to half).
In humans gametes are formed by
meiosis; the male gametes are the
sperm cells and the female gametes are
the egg cells. 4. What are gonads? What are
the male and the female
gonads in humans?
2. What is the type of cell Gonads are the organs that produce
division that allows sexual gametes. They contain the germ cells
reproduction? What is that undergo division and generate
gametogenesis? gametes. In males the gonads are the
testicles. In females the gonads are the
Meiosis is the type of cell division that ovaries.
allows sexual reproduction since it
reduces to a half the number of
chromosomes of the species making
possible the combination of two 5. Indicating the name and
gametes to form a new individual. (In respective ploidy of each
some beings meiosis creates haploid involved cell how can the
gametophytes that by means of mitosis formation of sperm cells from
generate gametes. Even in this case the germ cells be described?
function of meiosis is the same: to
provide cells with half of the number of
chromosomes of the species with The formation of sperm cells, or
separation of the homologous.) spermatogenesis, begins with a germ
cell called spermatogonium (2n) that
Gametogenesis is the name given to the suffers mitosis and gives birth to the
process of gamete production. spermatocyte I (2n). The spermatocyte
I undergoes meiosis I and generates
two spermatocyte II (n) that then
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undergo meiosis II and produce four 9. What is the difference
spermatids (n). Each spermatid between spermatids and
undergoes a maturation process called
sperm cells? What is the name
spermiogenesis and four sperm cells
appear. of the transformation of
spermatids into sperm cells?
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12. Why is the cytoplasm of 14. Indicating the name and
sperm cells very reduced? respective ploidy of each
Why do mitochondria of sperm involved cell how can the
cells concentrate in the base formation of egg cells from
of the flagellum? germ cells be described?
The reduced cytoplasm of sperm cells The formation of egg cells begins with a
decreases the cell weight and provides a germ cell called oogonium (2n) that
more hydrodynamic shape for the undergoes mitosis and gives birth to the
locomotion in fluids. oocyte I (2n). The oocyte I undergoes
meiosis I that however is interrupted at
The high concentration of mitochondria prophase. After puberty during each
at the base of the flagellum of the menstrual cycle an oocyte I finishes the
sperm cell is necessary for the energetic meiosis I and generate one oocyte II (n)
supply of the flagellum (for it to beat and the first polar body (n). With
and move the sperm cell). fecundation the oocyte II then
undergoes meiosis II and produces the
mature egg cell (n) and the second
polar body (n).
13. Concerning events during
the periods of life how
different is the gametogenesis
15. What is the first polar
in women and in men?
body? How different is it from
The formation of spermatogonia in men
the oocyte II?
takes place during the embryonic
period. The formation of sperm cells In oogenesis the oogonium
however is a continuous process that differentiates into oocyte I (2n) and this
begins in puberty and goes on until old cell enters meiosis. After finishing the
age and sometimes during all the first meiotic division (meiosis I) the
remaining life of the man. oocyte I forms two cells: the oocyte II
(n) and the first polar body. The oocyte
In women all oogonia are formed before II is bigger because it gets almost all
birth. The oogonia turn into oocytes I the cytoplasm and the cytoplasmic
that enter the first division of meiosis structures of the oocyte I as a strategy
(meiosis I). This division however is for metabolite and nutrient storage. The
interrupted at prophase and continues oocyte II cell goes then to the second
only in puberty. After the beginning of meiotic division. The first polar body is
menses an egg cell is released during very small and almost lacks cytoplasm;
each period and, if fecundated, it it disintegrates or stays attached to the
finishes the meiotic division. The oocyte II.
oogenesis stops after menopause
(cessation of the menstrual activity) and
the climacteric period of life begins.
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16. What is the relation 19. How does the male
between fecundation and the gamete penetrate the egg
end of the meiotic process cell? How does the female
during oogenesis? gamete protect itself from the
entrance of more gametes
The oocyte II only completes the second after the entrance of the first
meiotic division (interrupted at sperm cell?
metaphase) if fecundation by a male
gamete occurs. (One can say therefore
The sperm cell that reaches the egg cell
that in fact the female gamete is the
triggers the acrosome reaction, a
oocyte II).
process in which hydrolytic enzymes of
the acrosome are released on the
external surface of the zona pellucida
(the protective layer that surrounds the
17. What is the second polar
egg cell). A portion of this layer is
body? digested by the acrosomal enzymes
allowing the sperm cell to reach the
After termination of the second meiotic plasma membrane of the egg cell
division of the oocyte II two cells are carrying out fecundation.
generated: the egg cell proper and the
second polar body. The second polar At the moment that the sperm cell
body is a very small cell that almost makes contact with the egg cell
lacks cytoplasm and stays adnexal to membrane a chemical alteration of this
the egg cell. The entire cytoplasmic membrane occurs. Enzymes secreted by
content of the oocyte II passes to the exocytosis (cortical reaction) make the
egg cell. zona pellucida unable to bind to other
sperm cells (zonal reaction) and other
male gametes cannot enter the egg cell.
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21. Concerning their size and
basic morphology how and
why do the male and the
female gametes differentiate
from each other?
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the prostate and the bulbourethral
Reproductive glands and then go through the urethra,
System inside the penis, to the exterior.
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intensifies after the beginning of 8. What is the organ that
puberty, acts in several organs of the releases the female gamete
body and it is responsible for the
under formation? How is this
appearing of the male secondary sex
characteristics (beard, body hair, deep release triggered? What is the
voice, increase of the muscle and organ that collects the
osseous mass, maturation of genitalia, released gametes?
etc.) Testosterone also stimulates
spermatogenesis. The organ that liberates the female
gamete is the ovary, the female gonad.
The releasing of the oocyte is a
response to hormonal stimuli. The
6. What are the organs that immature egg cell (still an oocyte) falls
are part of the female into the abdominal cavity and is picked
reproductive system? up by the Fallopian tube (uterine tube,
or oviduct), a tubular structure that
The organs that constitute the female connects the ovary with the uterus.
reproductive system are the ovaries, the
Fallopian tubes (or uterine tubes), the
uterus, the vagina and the vulva.
9. What are the anatomical
relationships between the
organs of the female
7. In which period of life does reproductive system from the
the formation of gametes external vulva to the ovaries?
begin in women?
The external female genitalia is called
The meiosis that forms female gametes the vulva. The vulva is the external
begins in the cells of the ovarian follicles opening of the vaginal canal, or vagina.
before birth. After the beginning of The vagina is the copulation organ of
puberty, under hormonal stimuli, during the females and its posterior extremity
each menstrual cycle one of the cells is communicates with the uterus through
released on the surface of the ovary and the uterine cervix. The uterus is divided
meiosis resumes. The meiotic process is into two portions: the cervix and the
only concluded however if fecundation uterine cavity. The lateral walls of the
happens. uterine fundus communicate with the
Fallopian tubes. The other extremity of
each Fallopian tube ends in fimbria
forming fringes in the abdominal cavity.
Between the uterine tube and the ovary
there is still intra-abdominal space.
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10. What is the menstrual estrogens and progesterone are in low
cycle? concentration.
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together with FSH promoting the 18. How long after ovulation
maturation of the follicle that at the must fecundation occur to be
14th day ruptures releasing the female
effective?
gamete (ovulation). After the release of
the ovum LH acts stimulating the
formation of the corpus luteum, a If fecundation does not occur
structure made from the remaining approximately 24 hours after ovulation
follicular mass. The LH concentration is the released ovum often dies.
at maximum at the 14th day of the
cycle.
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21. How does the hypophysis- endometrium is a richly vascularized
corpus luteum negative tissue. The rupture of blood vessels of
the uterine mucosa during the
feedback work? What is the menstrual desquamation causes the
name given to the atrophied bleeding.
corpus luteum after this
feedback process?
After ovulation the estrogen and 24. Which are the phases of
progesterone secretions from the corpus the menstrual cycle?
luteum inhibit the hypophyseal FSH and
LH secretions (this happens by inhibition The menstrual cycle is divided into two
of GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing main phases: the follicular (or
hormone, a hypothalamic hormone). menstrual) phase and the luteal (or
The blood concentration of these secretory) phase.
adenohypophyseal hormones falls to
basal levels again. As LH lowers the The menstrual phase begins at the first
corpus luteum (luteum means “yellow”) day of menses and lasts until ovulation
becomes atrophic and turns into the (around the 14th day). The luteal phase
corpus albicans (“white”). With the begins after ovulation and ends when
regression of the corpus luteum the menses begins (around the 28th day).
production of estrogen and
progesterone ceases.
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LH then stimulates the formation of the 27. What is the part of the
corpus luteum. Around 7 o’clock the female reproductive system
corpus luteum is already secreting a
where fecundation occurs?
great amount of estrogen and
progesterone and the endometrium
thickens even more, concomitant Fecundation generally occurs in the
lowering of FSH and LH occurs with the Fallopian tubes but it can also take
increasing of the ovarian hormones. place within the uterus. There are cases
Around 11 o’clock the reduced LH and when fecundation may occur even
FSH levels make the corpus luteum turn before the ovum enters the uterine
into the corpus albicans, the production tube, a fact that may lead to a severe
of estrogen and progesterone ceases medical condition known as abdominal
and the endometrium regresses. At 0 pregnancy.
o’clock again (28th day) the
endometrium desquamates and a new
menstrual cycle begins.
28. How does the sexual
arousal mechanism in women
facilitate fecundation?
26. In general what is the
phase of the menstrual cycle During sexual arousal in women the
when copulation may lead to vagina secretes substances to neutralize
fecundation? its acidity thus allowing the survival of
sperm cells within it. During the female
fertile period hormones make the mucus
Although this is not a rule, to be
effective fecundation in general must that covers the internal surface of the
uterus less viscous to help the passage
occur within about 24 hours after
ovulation (that occurs around the 14th of sperm cells to the uterine tubes.
During copulation the uterine cervix
day of the menstrual cycle).
Fecundation may occur even if advances inside the vagina to facilitate
the entering of male gametes through
copulation took place up to 3 days
before ovulation since the male gametes the cervical canal.
remain viable for about 72 hours within
the female reproductive system.
The fertile period of the women however 29. What is nidation? In which
is considered the period from 7 days phase of the menstrual cycle
before ovulation to 7 days after does nidation occur?
ovulation.
Nidation is the implantantion of the
embryo in the uterus. Nidation occurs
around the 7th day after fecundation,
i.e., 7 to 8 days after ovulation
(obviously, it occurs only if fecundation
also occurs). Since it occurs in the luteal
phase the progesterone level is high and
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the endometrium is in its best condition The functioning of the hypophysis is
to receive the embryo. altered during pregnancy. Since
estrogen and progesterone levels
remain elevated during the gestational
period the production of GnRH
30. What is tubal pregnancy? (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from
the hypothalamus is inhibited. The lack
Many times fecundation takes place in of GnRH thus inhibits the secretion of
the Fallopian tubes. Generally the newly FSH and LH from the hypophysis and a
formed zygote is taken to the uterus new menstrual cycle does not begin.
where nidation and the embryonic
development occur. In some cases If pregnancy does not occur the
however the zygote cannot go down to lowering of estrogen and progesterone
the uterus and the embryo implants levels stimulates the production of
itself in the uterine tube tissue, GnRH by the hypothalamus. This
characterizing the tubal pregnancy. hormone then hastens the
Tubal pregnancy is a severe clinical adenohypophyseal secretion of FHS and
condition since often the tube ruptures LH that in their turn stimulate the
during gestation causing hemorrhage maturation of follicles and the beginning
and even death of the woman. The most of a new menstrual cycle.
common treatment for tubal pregnancy
has been surgery.
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taken daily from the 4th day after allowing the release of seminal fluid
menses the abnormal elevation of these during ejaculation.
hormones acts upon the hypophysis-
hypothalamus endocrine axis inhibiting Surgical sterilization of women is often
the FSH and LH secretions. Since these done by bilateral tubal ligation. With
hormones then do not reach their tubal ligation the ovum does not pass to
normal high levels during the menstrual the uterus so the sperm cells cannot
cycle ovulation does not occur. reach it.
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39. What is the normal Copper is then gradually released (IUD
duration of the menstrual may last 5 to 10 years) and since it has
a spermicidal action sperm cells are
cycle? How does the calendar destroyed before fecundation. Besides
contraceptive method work? this mechanism the movement of the
IUD inside the uterus causes slight
The normal duration of the menstrual endometrial inflammation that helps to
cycle is 28 days but it can vary among prevent nidation.
different women or in different cycles of
the same woman.
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Embryology
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The animal pole of a telolecithal egg is
Embryonic the portion of the egg with little vitellus,
Development it is opposite to the vegetal pole which
is the region where the yolk is
concentrated.
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7. After the morula stage what 10. What are the archenteron
is the next stage? What is the and the blastopore? What is
morphological feature that the stage of the embryonic
defines this stage? development in which these
structures are formed? What
After passing the morula stage in which are the destinations of the
the embryo is a compact mass of cells, archenteron and of the
the next stage is the blastula stage. In
blastopore?
the blastula stage the compactness is
lost and an internal cavity filled with
fluid appears inside, the blastocele. Archenteron is the tube formed during
gastrulation by means of invagination of
the blastula wall inside the blatocele. It
is the origin of the gastrointestinal tract.
8. After the blastula stage Blastopore is the opening of the
archenteron to the exterior. The
what is the following stage of
blastopore gives birth to one of the
the embryonic development? extremities of the digestive tube: the
What is the passage from mouth in protostome beings, or the
blastula to the next stage anus in deuterostome beings.
called?
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13. How are animals classified in vertebrates. It is formed by
according to the germ layers differentiation of mesodermal cells.
present in their embryonic
development?
16. What is the coelom? To
Cnidarians are diploblastic, i.e., they which structures do coeloms
present only endoderm and ectoderm.
give birth? Are all animals
With the exception of poriferans, all
remaining animals are triploblastic. coelomate?
Poriferans do not present differentiated
tissue organization and so they do not Coeloms are cavities delimited by
classify regarding germ layers (although mesoderm. Coeloms originate the
sometimes they are mentioned as cavities where the internal organs of the
diploblastic). body are located, like the pericardial
cavity, the peritoneal cavity and the
pleural cavity.
14. How does the embryo turn Besides coelomate animals, there are
from gastrula into neurula? acoelomate animals, like
platyhelminthes, and pseudocoelomate
How is the neural tube animals, like nematodes.
formed? What is the
embryonic origin of the
nervous system in
vertebrates? 17. What is the germ layer
from which the coeloms
The neurula stage is characterized by originate?
the appearance of the neural tube along
the dorsal region of the embryo. The The coeloms are originated from
growth of mesoderm in that region mesoderm.
induces the differentiation of ectodermal
cells just above. These cells then
differentiate forming the neural tube. So
the origin of the nervous system is the 18. What are pleura,
ectoderm (the same germ layer that pericardium and peritoneum?
gives birth to the skin).
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19. After the neurula stage 22. From which germ layer do
and from its ventral portion to the epidermis and the nervous
the dorsal how can the system originate? What are
morphology of the embryo be other organs and tissues made
described? from that germ layer?
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bladder, of the urethra and of the GI
tube (except of the mouth and anus),
the alveolar cells of the lungs and the
thyroid and parathyroid glands.
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In placental mammals besides all these
Extraembryonic membranes the placenta is present too.
Membranes
4. How is the yolk sac formed?
What is the function of the
1. What are extraembryonic
yolk sac?
membranes?
The yolk sac is formed from the
Extraembryonic membranes are covering of the vitellus by some cells
membranous structures that appear in originated from the primitive gut.
parallel with the embryo and play
important roles in the embryonic The yolk sac stores vitellus, the main
development. They form from the nourishment source of non-placental
embryo but do not become part of the embryos.
individual organism after its birth.
5. Which is the
2. What are the
extraembryonic membrane
extraembryonic membranes
whose function is to store
present in vertebrates?
nitrogen wastes of the
embryo? Is this function
The extraembryonic membranes that
may be present in vertebrates are the present in placental
yolk sac, the amnion, the chorion, the mammalian embryos?
allantois and the placenta.
The allantois is the extraembryonic
membrane whose function is to store
the excreted matter of the embryo.
3. Are the extraembryonic
membranes the same in all In placental mammals the allantois is
vertebrates? present but it does not exert that
function since the embryonic wastes are
collected by the mother’s body through
The presence of each extraembryonic the placenta.
membrane varies according to the
vertebrate class.
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6. Why can the allantois be 9. What is the chorioallantois
considered an adaptation to membrane present in the
terrestrial life? embryonic development of
reptiles and birds? How does
The allantois is an adaptation to dry this membrane participate in
land because in embryos of oviparous the energetic metabolism of
terrestrial beings, like reptiles and birds,
the embryo?
the metabolic residuals cannot be
immediately excreted to the aquatic
surrounds (as fishes and amphibian The chorioallantois membrane is formed
larvae do). It was necessary then for by juxtaposition of some regions of the
the appearance of a structure capable of chorion and the allantois. Since it is
storing the embryonic excretes until porous, the chorioallantois membrane
hatching. allows the passage of gases between
the embryo and the exterior thus
making aerobic cellular respiration
possible.
7. What is the difference
between amnion and chorion?
10. In which type of animals
Amnion is the membrane that covers
does the placenta exist? What
the embryo. Chorion is the membrane
that covers the amnion, the yolk sac is its main function?
and the allantois. The space delimited
by the chorion and the amnion is called True placenta is present in placental
amniotic cavity and it is filled with mammals.
aminiotic fluid. The amniotic cavity has
the functions of preventing desiccation The placenta is formed from the chorion
of the embryo and of protecting it of the embryo and from the mother’s
against mechanical shocks. endometrium. Its main function is to
allow the exchange of substances
between the fetus and the mother’s
body.
8. Why can the amnion also be
considered an adaptation to
terrestrial life?
11. What are the main
substances transferred from
The amnion is also an adaptation to dry
land since one of its functions is to the mother to the fetus
prevent desiccation of the embryo. through the placenta? And
from the fetus to the mother?
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and antibodies. From the fetus to the 14. What is the function of the
mother, metabolic wastes, including umbilical cord?
urea (nitrogen waste), and carbon
dioxide.
The umbilical cord is a set of blood
vessels that connects the fetus with the
placenta. In the fetus one extremity of
the cord inserts into the center of the
12. Is there a exchange of
abdominal wall (the later scar of this
cells between the mother and insertion is the umbilicus or navel).
the fetus through the
placenta? The function of the umbilical cord is to
allow the transport of substances,
Under normal conditions, there is no nutrients, gases and residuals, between
passage of cells across the placenta the fetus and the mother’s body.
during gestation. The placenta has a
smooth mucosa separating the richly
vascularized region in contact with the
mother’s endometrium from the
umbilical cord in contact with the fetal
blood. This barrier is known as placental
barrier. Although permeable to some
substances (selective permeability) the
placental barrier forbids the passage of
cells.
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Botany
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4. What are the subkingdoms
Plant Classification into which the plant kingdom
is divided?
1. What are the main cellular The kingdom Plantae is divided into two
big subkingdoms: the bryophytes and
features of the beings of the
the tracheophytes (pteridophytes,
plant kingdom? gymnosperms and angiosperms). The
criterion for the division is the presence
The typical plant cells are eukaryotic or not of conductive (vascular) tissue.
(have nucleus), autotrophic (produce
their own food) and photosynthetic (use
light to make food). Plant cells also
have chloroplasts and a cell wall (a 5. What is the difference
structure exterior to the plasma between bryophytes and
membrane) made of cellulose.
tracheophytes?
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seeds. They comprise the bryophytes 10. What respectively are
and the pteridophytes. zygotic meiosis, gametic
meiosis and sporic meiosis?
Phanerogamic plants are those having
seeds. They comprise the gymnosperms
and the angiosperms. Zygotic meiosis is the one that occurs in
the haplontic haplobiontic life cycle.
Gametes from adult haploid individuals
unite forming the diploid zygote. The
8. What are the two divisions zygote undergoes meiosis and
generates four haploid cells that by
of the angiosperms?
mitosis develop into adult individuals.
Therefore in the zygotic meiosis the cell
The angiosperms are divided into that undergoes meiosis is the zygote
monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous. and the gametes are formed by mitosis.
(These categories are explained later in
this text.) Gametic meiosis is that in which meiosis
produces gametes, i.e., haploid cells
that each of which can unite with
another gamete forming the zygote. It
9. What are the three basic occurs in the diplontic haplobiontic life
sexual life cycles studied in cycle (e.g., in humans) in which the
Biology? Which of them individual is diploid and meiosis forms
corresponds to metagenesis? gametes.
Which of them is the human
Sporic meiosis happens in metagenesis
life cycle? (alternation of generations, or
diplobiontic life cycle). In this life cycle
Sexual reproduction may take place cells from the diploid individual (called
through three different types of life sporophyte) undergo meiosis producing
cycles: the haplontic (the being is haploid spores that do not unite with
haploid) haplobiontic (a single type of others but instead develop by mitosis
being) cycle; the diplontic (the being is into haploid individuals (called
haploid) haplobiontic (a single type of gametophytes). In this life cycle the
being) cycle; and the diplobiontic cycle gametes are made by mitosis from cells
(two types of beings, one haploid and of the gametophyte.
the other diploid). The diblobiontic cycle
is known as alternation of generations,
or metagenesis. In humans the cycle is
diplontic haplobiotic (a single diploid 11. Are gametes always made
being). by meiosis?
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stage of these sexual life cycles meiosis 14. Do plants present only
must occur. sexual reproduction?
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no conductive vessels it is not viable to
Bryophytes have cells too far from each other (the
emergence of the conductive tissues in
tracheophytes allowed their increase in
size).
1. What are the main
characteristics of the
bryophytes?
4. What is the life cycle type
of bryophytes?
Bryophytes are nonvascular plants, i.e.,
they do not have conductive tissues and
they perform transport of water and As in all plants the life cycle of
nutrients by diffusion; they are bryophytes is diplobiontic (alternation of
cryptogamic, i.e., they do not present generations). In bryophytes the lasting
flowers or seeds; they are small in size; form is the haploid one.
they present water-dependant
fecundation; in their life cycle the
lasting form is haploid (the
gametophyte) and the sporophyte 5. In general where is the
depends on the gametophyte to survive. sporophyte positioned in
relation to the gametophyte in
bryophytes? How does the
sporophyte obtain nutrients?
2. What are the main
bryophyte groups?
The bryophyte sporophyte in general is
a tiny long stem that grows on the top
The main bryophyte groups are the of the gametophyte. The sporophyte
mosses, the liverworts and the depends totally upon the gametophyte
hornworts. to obtain nutrients.
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3. Why are pteridophytes
Pteridophytes better adapted to dry land
than bryophytes? Were
pteridophytes always less
1. What are the main abundant than phanerogamic
representatives of the plants?
pteridophytes? Is this plant
group cryptogamic or Although bryophytes and pteridophytes
have water-dependant gametes for
phanerogamic?
fecundation the emergence of
conductive vessels in this last group
The better known pteridophytes are the facilitated life in a terrestrial
ferns and the maidenhairs, from the environment. The conductive vessels of
filicinae (filicopsida) group, and the the pteridophytes collect water from the
selaginellas, mosslike plants from the moist soil and distribute it to the cells.
lycopodineae group (lycopsida). Bryophytes do not have this option and
Pteridophytes are cryptogamic plants, they depend entirely on the water that
i.e., they are flowerless and seedless. reaches the aerial part of the plant and
so they need to live in humid or rainy
places.
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constituted an important source of food 8. What is the structure of the
for terrestrial animals. By presenting adult fern within which cells
conductive vessels they could be larger,
undergoing meiosis can be
a feature inherited from them by
phanerogamic plants. found?
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11. What is the lasting form in
pteridophytes, the
gametophyte or the
sporophyte? How can it be
compared to bryophytes?
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variety of ecological niches and for the
Gymnosperms diversity of plant species.
The evolutionary importance of the seed Pollen grains are the male
is related to the plant capability of gametophytes of the phanerogamic
distant colonization and to the (flowering) plants. Therefore within the
protection of the embryo. Embryo- pollen grains the male gametes of these
containing seeds can be carried by plants are formed by mitosis.
water, wind and animals and germinate
in different environments. This fact
contributes to the exploration of a
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7. How are the male gametes gametophyte that contains the
of gymnosperms formed? oospheres (female gametes) of the
plant. The female gametophyte is
What is the relationship located within the megasporangium that
between the pollen grains and has a small opening, the micropyle,
the concept of alternation of through which the pollen tube enters.
generations?
The process is related to the diplobiontic
In the male strobiles (cones) there are life cycle (alternation of generations)
microsporophylls (fertile leaves of the since the functional megaspore
strobile) that contain microsporangia. generates the haploid stage of the plant
Within the microsporagium spore (the female gametophyte).
mother cells undergo meiosis and
generate haploid microspores. The
microspore wall develops into winglike
projections (to facilitate its aerial 9. How do fecundation and
propagation) and mitosis occurs zygote formation occur in
producing two cells, the generative cell these plants? Do these
and the tube cell. The final structure processes depend on water?
containing these elements is the pollen
grain.
The microsporangia in the male strobile
rupture at the right period of the year
The pollen grain relates to the
releasing thousands of pollen grains.
alternation of generations since it is the
Since their pollen grains are “winged”
male gametophyte (the haploid stage of
they can be transported by the wind
the life cycle).
over distances. When the pollen grains
fall into the female strobiles they pass
the micropyle and enter the pollen
chamber. This process is called
8. How are the female pollination.
gametes of gymnosperms
formed? What is the Within the pollen chamber the
relationship between this generative cell nucleus divides forming
process and the concept of two gametic nuclei and the tube cell
elongates forming the pollen tube. The
alternation of generations?
pollen tube penetrates the female
gametophyte and the gametic nuclei
In the female strobiles (cones) there are (also known as sperm nuclei) pass
megasporophylls (fertile leaves of the through the tube; one of them unites
strobile) that contain megasporangia. In with an oosphere (the female gamete)
the megasporangium the spore mother and forms the zygote (2n). Generally
cell undergoes meiosis generating four fecundation occurs one year after
haploid cells of which three regress and pollination and during this time interval
one gives birth to the functional the maturation of the male and of the
megaspore. The functional megaspore female gametes takes place.
by several mitosis forms the female
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The fecundation in these plants is
independent from water. The
gametophytes however are entirely
dependent on the sporophyte (the adult
plant) for nutrition and hydration.
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scattered in monocots, concentrically
Angiosperms ringed in dicots.
Grasses, banana tree, sugar cane,
orchids are examples of monocots.
Sunflowers, oaks and waterlilies are
1. What are angiosperms, the examples of dicots.
flowering plants? What is the
main feature that
distinguishes them from the 4. What are the androecium
gymnosperms? and the gynoecium? What are
the other structures of
Flowering plants have flowers and seeds
flowers?
(phanerogamic plants). They differ from
gymnosperms by having their seeds
within fruits. Androecium is the set of male
reproductive structures of flowers. It
comprehends the stamens formed of
filament and anther; one flower has one
2. What are the two main androecium that may have one or
several stamens. Gynoecium is the set
groups into which flowering
of female reproductive structures of
plants are divided? flowers. It generally is composed of a
single pistil that includes the stigma, the
Angiosperm plants are divided into style and the ovary. The androecium
monocotyledonous (monocots) and usually surrounds the central
dicotyledonous (dicots). gynoecium.
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by water; entomophily, pollen carried by gametes) that migrate through the
insects; ornitophily, pollination by birds; pollen tube.
chiropterophily, pollen dissemination by
bats.
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9. What is the embryonic sac? 11. What is the difference
Which are the cells that form between self pollination and
the embryonic sac? What are cross pollination? Which of
their ploidies? these two modes of
pollination contributes more
The embryonic sac is the female to the plant diversity?
gametophyte of angiosperms.
Self pollination occurs when pollen
The embryonic sac is composed of three grains from a flowering plant fall into
cells that remain next to the micropyle, the pistils of the same plant and thus
two lateral synergids and the central gametes from the same individual unite
oosphere (egg); one binucleated cell, to form a zygote. Cross pollination
the polar nuclei, is placed in the central occurs when pollinators carry pollen
region; three antipodal cells stay in the grains from a plant to reach other
opposite side to the micropyle. individual plants of the same species
thus gametes of different individuals
Since all these cells come by mitosis form the zygote.
from the functional megaspore they are
haploid (n). Since it promotes formation of zygotes
containing genes from different
individuals (new gene combinations)
cross pollination contributes more to
10. After pollination how does biological diversity.
fecundation occur in
angiosperms? In these plants
is fecundation dependent on
water? 12. What is dichogamy?
After pollination one of the sperm nuclei Dichogamy is the phenomenon of the
from the pollen tube unites with the maturation of female reproductive
oosphere of the embryonic sac forming structures of the plant in a different
the diploid (2n) zygote. The other period to the maturation of the male
sperm nucleus fuses with the polar reproductive structures. Dichogamy
nuclei of the embryonic sac originating a prevents self pollination and makes
triploid (3n) cell that by mitosis will turn cross pollination almost obligatory so
into the secondary endosperm of the assisting in an evolutionary strategy to
seed. The synergids and the antipodal promote genetic recombination.
cells degenerate after the fecundation
process.
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A typical seed is composed of the 17. From which floral
embryo, endosperm and shell. Within structure do fruits come?
seeds of angiosperms there are one or
two cotyledons (seed leaf, one in
monocots, two in dicots). Fruits are modified ovaries of the
flowers.
The endosperm is the tissue within the
seed that has the function of nourishing
the embryo.
18. How are fruits formed?
14. How different are the
endosperm of gymnosperms The fecundation in angiosperms triggers
the release of hormones that act upon
and the endosperm of the ovaries. The ovary wall then
angiosperms? develops into a fruit that contains the
seeds.
In gymnosperms the endosperm is
haploid (n), it is called primary
endosperm. In angiosperm the
endosperm is triploid (3n), it is called 19. Are fruits always the flesh
secondary endosperm. part of the “fruits”? Is the
edible part of the onion a
fruit?
15. What are cotyledons?
In some so-called fruits the actual fruit
Cotyledons, or seed leaves, are is not the flesh part. For example, the
flesh part of the strawberry is not the
structures formed by the embryo of
angiosperms to absorb nutrients from fruit. The fruits are the small hard dots
on the surface of the strawberry.
the endosperm and to store and
transfer these nutrients to the embryo. Another example: the flesh part of the
cashew is not the fruit. The fruit is the
(Cotyledons are auxiliary embryonic
structures). nut.
Seeds of monocots have a single The edible part of the onion is the stem
of the plant and not the fruit.
cotyledon. Seeds of dicots have two
cotyledons.
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have ovaries with only one egg inside. A tendency of the gametophyte
Fruits with more than one seed are evolution in plants has been towards the
originated from plants whose ovaries formation of gametes that are
have more than one egg. independent from water. In bryophytes
and in pteridophytes the fecundation is
totally dependent on water. In
phanerogamic plants such dependency
21. What are infructescences, does not exist.
pseudofruits and
Another tendency is the reduction in the
parthenocarpic fruits?
size and duration of the gametophyte.
In bryophytes the gametophyte is
Infructescences are aggregated fruits indeed the lasting stage. In
formed from inflorescences, aggregated pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
flowers. Grape clusters are examples of angiosperms it became the temporary
infructescences. Pseudofruits are “fruits” stage and its relative size was
not made in the ovaries and in general successively reduced.
their true fruits lack development and
are found within the flesh, like in apples A third evolutionary trend relates to the
and pears. Parthenocarpic fruits are interdependency between gametophytes
those made without fecundation, by and sporophytes. In bryophytes the
means of hormonal stimuli, like sporophyte is entirely dependent on the
bananas. gametophyte to survive. In the
remaining plants the sporophyte is the
independent stage and the once
autotrophic gametophyte in bryophytes
22. What is the evolutionary and pteridophytes became dependent
importance of the fruits for upon the sporophyte in the
the angiosperms? phanerogamic plants.
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primary growth (lengthening) of the
Plant Tissues plant.
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Lateral, or secondary, meristems, are The plant supporting tissues are the
the cambium and the phellogen (also collenchyma and the sclerenchyma.
known as cork cambium), tissues from
the stem, branches and roots that by The collenchyma is made of living and
mitosis generate other tissues. These elongated cells that accumulate
tissues participate in the secondary cellulose and pectin in some regions of
growth of plant, i.e., in the thickening of the cell wall making them unequally
the stem, branches and roots. thick and thus providing flexibility.
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superior and the inferior epidermis of lignin (an impermeable biopolymer)
the leaves. remained. The tracheids form tubes that
communicate with neighboring tubes
through pores; the vessel elements do
not present pores but instead they
11. How are water, mineral communicate with the successive vessel
salts and food (sugar) element through perforations in their
extremities.
transported throughout the
plant?
Water, mineral salts and sugar are 14. What are the cell types
transported throughout the plant that form the phloem? What
through conductive vessels formed by
specialized tissues.
are the main features of those
cells?
13. What are the cell types Vascular cambium is the secondary
that form the xylem? What are meristematic tissue that in roots and in
the stem forms the vascular tissues
the main features of those
(xylem and phloem) of the plant.
cells? Usually the outer side of the vascular
cambium produces a layer of phloem
The main cells of the xylem are the and the inner (more central) side of the
tracheids and the vessel elements tissue produces a layer of xylem.
(these only in angiosperms). The
tracheids and the vessel elements are
dead cells that have lost their cytoplasm
and only their cell wall impregnated with
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16. What are vascular previous lighter band. Therefore two
bundles? How does the ring bands are made yearly, one lighter
and the other darker. By a direct count
configuration of the vascular of these band pairs one can estimate
bundles within the stem the age of the tree.
differentiate monocots from
dicots?
Vascular bundles are segments of xylem 19. What are the plant tissues
and associated phloem that run that constitute the functional
longitudinally within the stem. In dicots structures of the leaf veins?
the vascular bundles are organized side-
by-side forming concentric rings. In Leaf veins are made of vascular tissues.
monocots the vascular bundles are They are constituted by xylem and
scattered and do not form rings. phloem that respectively conduct water
and mineral nutrients (xylem) and sugar
(phloem).
For the growth of the tree it is 21. Which are the plant
necessary to have formation of new
vessels within the stem, a task
tissues that cover the stem
performed by the vascular cambium. and the leaves?
The vascular cambium is more active in
hot seasons (summer and spring) The stem may be covered by epidermis
generating a lighter band made of large (having stomata, cuticle and
calibered vessels. During winter and fall photosynthetic cells) as in monocots or,
the vascular cambium produces the alternatively, the epidermis is
opposite, so small calibered vessels and substituted by the periderm
a darker band appears outside the
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(phelloderm, phellogen and cork) as in The bark is the mature periderm of the
dicots and gymnosperms. stem, branches and roots. It dies and
breaks when these structures grow and
The leaves are covered by epidermis. thus the peridermal suber formed of
already dead cells ruptures.
Phellogen, also known as cork cambium, The leaf cuticle is a thin waxy layer
is the meristematic plant tissue made of cutin and waxes on the outer
responsible for the formation of the surface of the leaf epidermis. Its
periderm (the covering of the stem, function is to control the cellular
shoots and roots). The inner side of the transpiration.
phellogen layer forms the phelloderm
and its outer side forms the cork
(suber). The suber secretes suberin, an
impermeable substance that 27. Which are the plant
impregnates the tissue. tissues that form the plant
roots?
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the growth of the root the meristem
otherwise would be injured by the
friction with the soil.
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3. What is plant transpiration?
Plant Physiology What are the two main types
of plant transpiration process?
Which of them is more
1. Why do plants need to significant in volume?
exchange gases with the
environment? Transpiration is the loss of water from
the plant to the atmosphere in the form
of vapor.
Plants need to do gas exchange because
they create aerobic cellular respiration
Transpiration occurs through the cuticle
(like animals) and they need to get
of the epidermis (cuticular transpiration)
molecular oxygen and to release carbon
or through the ostioles of the stomata
dioxide. Besides aerobic cellular
(stomatal transpiration). The most
respiration plants still need to get
important is stomatal transpiration since
carbon dioxide to make photosynthesis
it is more intense and physiologically
and to release the molecular oxygen
regulated.
that is the product of this reaction.
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6. How do plants control the If plants from a moister region were
opening and the closing of the transferred to a drier region probably
their stomata would remain closed for a
stomata? longer time, i.e., the time during which
stomata are open will be reduced to
The opening and the closing of the lower the loss of water by transpiration.
stomata depend upon the necessity of
the plant to lose water and heat through
transpiration (exit of water vapor means
elimination of heat). When the plant has 8. Why do some plants
excessive water the guard cells become
adapted to a dry environment
turgid and the ostiole opens. When little
water is available the guard cells open their stomata only at
become flaccid and the ostiole closes. night?
Water enters and goes out the stomata During the day in dry habitats the guard
by osmosis. cells become flaccid and the stomata
close; concurrently carbon dioxide is
Other factors like light intensity and disallowed to pass to participate in
carbon dioxide concentration in the diurnal photosynthesis. Some plants
leaves influence the opening and the from dry regions solve this problem
closing of the stomata. When luminosity through the method of nocturnal carbon
is high the photosynthesis rate dioxide fixation. At night, when water
increases and the stomata open to loss by transpiration is lower, the
absorb more carbon dioxide from the stomata open, carbon dioxide enters
environment and release heat; when and it is stored within the parenchymal
luminosity is low the stomata tend to tissues. During the day the stored gas is
close. When the carbon dioxide mobilized to be used in photosynthesis.
concentration in the photosynthetic
parenchyma is low the stomata open to
absorb more of the gas and make
photosynthesis possible; when such 9. How has the position of the
concentration is high the stomata tend stomata changed in some
to close.
plants to prevent excessive
water loss by transpiration?
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loss of water by transpiration is thus During the day the transpired volume of
reduced. Some plants of dry climates water is higher than the volume
also have stomata within cavities. absorbed by the roots. At night the
situation reverses and the roots absorb
more water than the transpired volume.
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15. Are the xylem and the Therefore there is electrical attraction
phloem made of living cells? (adhesion force) between the capillary
wall and the water molecules that then
pull each other (cohesion force) since
The cells that constitute the xylem ducts they are bound. Not just water but
are dead cells killed by lignin deposition. other liquids may move inside capillaries
The cells of the phloem are living cells. by capillarity.
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(that is more external) but preserving 23. What is the plant
the xylem (that is more internal). coleoptile? Why does the
removal of the coleoptile
When a girdle like that is removed
below the branches the plant dies extremity disallow plant
because organic food (sugar) is growth?
disallowed to pass to the region below
the girdle and thus roots die from the Coleoptile is the first (one or more)
lack of nutrients. Since roots die the aerial structure of the sprouting plant
plant does not get water and mineral that emerges from the seed. It encloses
salts and dies too. the young stem and the first leaves,
protecting them.
Auxins (the best known natural auxin is 25. What are synthetic auxins
IAA, indoleacetic acid): their function is and what are their uses?
to promote plant growth, distension and
cellular differentiation. Gibberellins: Synthetic auxins, like indolebutyric acid
have action similar to auxins (growth (IBA) and naphthalenic acid (NAA) are
and distension), stimulate flowering and substances similar to IAA (a natural
fruit formation and activate seed auxin) but artificially made. Some are
germination. Cytokinins: increase used to accelerate methods of asexual
cellular division rate and together with reproduction (like grafting or budding)
auxins help growth and tissue and others are even used as herbicides
differentiation, slow the plant aging. since they selectively kill some plants
Ethylene (ethene): a gas released by (mainly dicots).
plants that participates in the growth
process and has noteworthy role in fruit
ripening and in leaf abscission.
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26. Where in plants is a large In some parts of the plant (stem, roots,
amount of IAA found? lateral buds) there are auxin
concentration ranges in which the
hormonal action is positive (stimulate
Auxins are produced and found in large growth). It is observed that
amount in the apical buds of the stem concentrations over the superior limit of
and shoots and in the young leaves. those ranges have the opposite effect
(inhibition of growth).
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gibberellins. Gibberellins are made in 34. Are the development and
the apical buds and in young leaves. growth of plants only
influenced by plant hormones?
Some fruit processing industries use Whenever one side of a stem, branch or
ethylene to accelerate fruit ripening. On root grows more than the other side the
the other hand, if the intensification or structure curves towards the side that
acceleration of fruit ripening is not grows less. (This is an important
desirable care must be taken to prevent concept for plant tropism problems.)
the mixture of ripe fruits that release
ethylene with the others.
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negative. Positive phototropism is that Under this condition it is observed that
in which the plant movement (or the stem grows upwards and the root
growth) is towards the light source and grows downwards. This happens
negative phototropism is that in which because in the stem the high auxin
the movement (or growth) is inverse, concentration in the bottom makes this
away from the light source. side grow (longitudinally) more and the
structures arcs upwards. In the root the
Phototropism relates to auxins since the high auxin concentration in the bottom
exposition of one side of the plant to inhibits the growth of this side and the
light makes these hormones upper side grows more making the root
concentrate in the darker side. This fact to curve downwards.
makes the auxin action upon the stem
to be positive, i.e., the growth of the
darker side is more intense and the
plant arcs towards the lighter side. In 39. What is thigmotropism?
the root (when submitted to light, in
general experimentally) the auxin action Thigmotropism is the movement or
is negative (over the positive range), growth of the plant in response to
the growth of the darker side is mechanical stimuli (touch or physical
inhibited and the root curves towards contact), as when a plant grows around
this side. a supporting rod. It occurs for example
in grape and passionfruit vines, etc.
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42. What are the plant organs characteristics of the biological response
responsible for the perception and to the studied plant.
of light variation? What is the To determine the critical photoperiod
pigment responsible for this relating to flowering, 24 groups of
perception? plants of the same species can be taken
and the following experiment can be
Leaves are mainly responsible for done: Each group is submitted to a
perception of light intensity in plants. different photoperiod, the first group to
The pigment that performs this 1 hour of daily exposure to light, the
perception and commands second to 2 hours, the third to 3 hours,
photoperiodism is called phytochrome. and so on, until the last group is
exposed to 24 hours. It is observed
later that beyond a specific duration of
light exposure plants present or do not
43. How does the present flowering and the remaining
photoperiodism affect the submitted to a shorter photoperiod
present opposite behavior. The duration
flowering of some plants? of the light exposure that separates
these two groups is the critical
Flowering is a typical and easy to photoperiod.
observe example of photoperiodism.
Most flowering plants flower only during
specific periods of the year or when
placed under some conditions of daily 45. How do plants classify
illumination. This occurs because their
according to their
blossoming depends on the duration of
the photoperiod that in its turn varies photoperiodism-based
with the season of the year. Flowering is flowering?
also affected by exposition to certain
temperatures. According to their photoperiodism-based
flowering plants classify as long-day
plants, those that depend on longer
photoperiods than the critical
44. What is the critical photoperiod to flower, as short-day
photoperiod? How can the plants, those that depend on shorter
critical photoperiod relate to photoperiods than the critical
photoperiod to flower, and as indifferent
flowering be experimentally plants, whose flowering does not
determined? depend on the photoperiod.
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46. Why do most plants
present opposite phyllotaxis?
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Genetics
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Gene locus (locus means place) is the
Genetic Concepts location of a gene in a chromosome,
i.e., the position of the gene in a DNA
molecule.
1. What is a gene?
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7. What is a phenotype? remain intact; a person can go to a
hairdresser and change the color of
his/her hair; plastic surgery can be
A phenotype is every observable
characteristic of a living being performed to alter facial features of an
individual; colored contact lenses may
conditioned by its genes. Some
phenotypes may be altered by be worn; a plant can grow beyond its
genetically conditioned size by
nongenetic factors (for example,
artificial hair coloring). Specific application of phytohormones.
phenotypes are also called phenotypical
traits. Revealing cases of environmental
influence on phenotypes are observed in
monozygotic twins that have grown in
different places. Generally these twins
present very distinct phenotypical
8. What is a genotype? What
features due to the environmental and
is the difference between cultural differences of the places where
genotype and phenotype? they lived and to their different
individual experiences in life.
Genotype is the genes, DNA nucleotide
sequences contained in the (Biologically programmed phenotypical
chromosomes of an individual, that changes, like nonpathological changes
condition the phenotype. Phenotypes of the skin color caused by sunlight
then are a biological manifestation of exposure, tanning, or the variation of
genotypes. the color of some flowers according to
the pH of the soil cannot be considered
For example, the altered hemoglobin independent from the genotype.
chain of sickle cell disease and the Actually these changes are planned by
manifestation of the disease itself are the genotype as natural adaptations to
the phenotype. The altered DNA environmental changes.)
nucleotide sequence in the gene that
codifies the production of that abnormal
hemoglobin chain is the genotype.
10. Are environmental
phenotypical changes
transmitted to the offspring?
9. Does the environment exert
Changes caused on phenotypes by the
an influence on the environment are not transmitted to the
phenotype? offspring (unless their primary cause is
genotypical change in germ cells or in
A phenotype may be altered (compared gametic cells). If a person changes the
to the original situation conditioned by color of the hair or undergoes aesthetic
its genotype) by nongenetic means. plastic surgery the resulting features are
Examples: some hormones may cease not transmitted to his/her offspring.
to be secreted due to diseases but the
genes that determine their secretion
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11. What are the situations in that do not present variation among
which the environment can individuals of the same species are: in
general the number of limbs, the
alter the genotype of an anatomical position of the organs, the
individual? What is the general constitution of tissues and cells,
condition for this type of etc.
change to be transmitted to
the offspring? Phenotype possibility of presenting
natural variations (in beings of the same
species) are necessarily determined by
The environment can only alter
two or more different alleles of the
genotypes when its action causes
correspondent gene. These different
alterations in the genetic material
alleles combine and form different
(mutations) of the individual, i.e.,
genotypes that condition the different
deletion, addition or substitution of
phenotypes (variations).
entire chromosomes or of nucleotides
that form the DNA molecules.
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example, A and A’, three types of corresponding sequence in the dominant
genotypes may be formed: AA, A’A’ and allele but that during evolution was
AA’. The question refers to an individual inactivated by mutation. This fact
bearing a genotype made of two explains the expression of the dominant
different alleles, so it is the AA’ phenotype in heterozygosity (since one
genotype (the heterozygous individual). functional allele is still present).
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18. Why can it be said that a
recessive allele can remain
hidden in the phenotype of an
individual and revealed only
when manifested in
homozygosity in the
offspring?
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of ascendants and the exclusive
Mendel's Laws obtainment of individuals with the
desired characteristics ensured that the
individuals of the parental generation
were “pure”, i.e., homozygous for that
1. Who was Gregor Mendel? characteristic.)
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generation, the phenotypical proportion In the monohybridism conditioned by
is three red (75%) to one yellow (25%). two different alleles the F1 generation
presents only heterozygous individuals
(Bw). In F2 there is one individual BB,
two individuals Bw and one individual
5. Considering hybridization in ww. In relation to the phenotype there
a trait like the color of the are in F2 two black individuals and one
white individual, since black is the
flowers of a given plant
dominant color. So the proportion is
species (red/yellow) 3:1, three black-haired to one white-
conditioned by a pair of haired.
different alleles in relation to
complete dominance (red
dominant/ yellow recessive),
why in the F1 generation is 7. What is meant by saying
one of the colors missing? that in relation to a given trait
conditioned by a gene with
In this monohybridism one of the colors two different alleles the
does not appear in the F1 generation gametes are always “pure”?
because their parental generators are
pure, i.e., homozygous, and in F1 all To say that gametes are pure means
descendants are heterozygous (each that they always carry only one allele of
parental individual forms only one type the referred trait. Gametes are always
of gamete). Since only heterozygous “pure” because in them the
genotypes appear and red is dominant chromosomes are not homologous, they
over yellow the individuals of the F1 contain only one chromosome of each
generation will present only red flowers. type.
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The Mendel’s first law is also known as 11. In the F2 generation of a
the law of purity of gametes. Mendel hybridization for a given trait
deduced the way genes and alleles were
conditioned by a pair of alleles
transmitted and traits were conditioned
without even knowing of the existence T and t, according to Mendel’s
of these elements. first law what are the
genotypes of each
phenotypical form? How many
respectively are the
9. Which is the type of gamete
genotypical and phenotypical
(for a given trait) produced by
forms?
a dominant homozygous
individual? What is the In the mentioned hybridization the
genotypical proportion of genotypical forms in F2 will be TT, tt
these gametes? What about a and Tt. Therefore there will be three
recessive homozygous different genotypical forms and two
individual? different phenotypical forms
(considering T dominant over t).
If an individual is dominant
homozygous, for example, AA, it will
produce only gametes having the allele
A. The proportion thus is 100% of AA
12. Why can the crossing of an
gametes. individual that manifests
dominant phenotype with
If an individual is recessive another that manifests
homozygous, for example, aa, it will recessive phenotype (for the
produce only gametes having the allele
same trait) determine
a, also in a 100% proportion.
whether the dominant
individual is homozygous or
heterozygous?
10. Which is the type of
gamete produced by a From the crossing of an individual
heterozygous individual? having recessive phenotype with
What is the genotypical another having dominant phenotype (for
the same trait) it is possible to
proportion of these gametes? determine whether the dominant
individual is homozygous or
Heterozygous individuals, for example, heterozygous. This is true because the
AA, produce two different types of genotype of the recessive individual is
gametes: one containing the allele A obligatorily homozygous, for example,
and another type containing the allele a. aa. If the other individual is also
The proportion is 1:1. homozygous, AA, the F1 offspring will
be only heterozygous (aa x AA = only
Aa). If the other individual is
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heterozygous there will be two different connected to that line. The presence of
genotypical forms, Aa and aa in the 1:1 the studied phenotypical form is
proportion. So if a recessive phenotype indicated by a complete hachure
appears in the direct offspring the (shading) of the circle or the square
parental individual that manifests correspondent to the affected individual.
dominant phenotype is certainly It is useful to enumerate the individuals
heterozygous. from left to right and from top to
bottom for easy reference.
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17. What is the condition for 19. Considering independent
Mendel’s second law to be segregation of all factors, how
valid? many types of gametes does a
VvXXWwYyzz individual
Mendel’s second law is only valid for produce? What is the formula
genes located in different chromosomes. to determinate such number?
For genes situated in the same
chromosome, i.e., linked genes (genes
The mentioned individual will produce
in linkage) the law is not valid since the
eight different types of gametes
segregation of these genes is not
(attention, gametes and not zygotes).
independent.
To determine the number of different
gametes produced by a given multiple
genotype the number of heterezygous
pairs is counted (in the mentioned case,
18. According to Mendel’s
three) and the result is placed as an
second law, in the crossing exponent of two (in the example, 23 =
between homozygous 8).
individuals concerning two
pairs of nonlinked alleles,
AABB x aaBB, what are the 20. How is it possible to
genotypical and phenotypical obtain the probability of
proportions in F1 and F2? emergence of a given
genotype formed of more than
Parental genotypes: AABB, aaBB. one pair of different alleles
Gametes from the parental generation: with independent segregation
Ab and aB. Thus F1 will present 100% from the knowledge of the
AaBb gametes (and the phenotypical parental genotypes?
correspondent form).
Taking as example the crossing of
As F1 are AaBb individuals the gametes
AaBbCc with aaBBCc, for each
from their crossing can be: AB, Ab, aB
considered pair of allele it is possible to
and ab. The casual combination of these
verify which genotypes it can form (as
gametes forms the following genotypical
in an independent analysis) and in
forms: one AABB, two AABb, two AaBb,
which proportion. AA x aa: Aa, aa (1:1).
four AaBB, one Aabb, one Aabb, one
Bb x BB: BB, Bb (1:1). Cc x Cc: CC, Cc,
aaBB, two aaBb and two aabb. The
cc (1:2:1). The genotype to which the
phenotypical proportion then would be:
probability is to be determined is for
nine A_B_ (double dominant); three
example aaBbcc. For each pair of this
A_bb (dominant for the first pair,
genotype the formation probability is
recessive for the second); three aaB_
determined: to aa, 0.5; to Bb, 0.5; to
(recessive for the first pair, dominant
cc, 0.25. The final result is obtained by
for the second); one aabb (double
multiplication of these partial
recessive).
probabilities, 0.5 x 0.5 x, 0.5, resulting
0.0625.
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2. What is the genetic
Non-mendelian condition in which the
Inheritance heterozygous individual has
different phenotype from the
homozygous individual?
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4. What are lethal genes? 6. What are gene interactions?
What are the three main types
Lethal genes are genes having at least of gene interactions?
one allele that, when present in the
genotype of an individual, causes death. Gene interaction is the phenomenon in
There are recessive lethal alleles and which a given phenotypical trait is
dominant lethal alleles. (There are also conditioned by two or more genes (do
genes having alleles that are dominant not confuse with multiple alleles in
when in heterozygosity but lethal when which there is a single gene having
in homozygosity, i.e., the dominance three or more alleles).
related to the phenotype does not
correspond to the dominance related to The three main types of gene
lethality.) interaction are: complementary genes,
epistasis and polygenic inheritance (or
quantitative inheritance).
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second interaction leads to blue feathers 3 dominant for the first pair, recessive
and the double recessive interaction for the second to 3 recessive for the
leads to white feathers. first pair, dominant for the second to 1
double recessive (9:3:3:1).
Each complementary gene segregates
independently from the others since Considering that the epistatic gene is
they are located in different the second pair and that the recessive
chromosomes. Therefore the pattern genotype of the hypostatic gene means
follows Mendel’s second law (although it lacking of the characteristic, in the F2
does not obey Mendel’s first law). generation of the dominant epistasis the
following phenotypical forms would
emerge: 13 dominant for the second
pair or recessive for the first, i.e., the
8. What is epistasis? What is characteristic does not manifest, 3
the difference between dominant for the first pair, recessive for
the second, i.e., the characteristic
dominant epistasis and
manifests. The phenotypical proportion
recessive epistasis? would be 13:3. In the recessive
epistasis in F2 the phenotypical forms
Epistasis is the gene interaction in which that would emerge are: 9 double
a gene (the epistatic gene) can disallow dominant (the characteristic manifests),
the phenotypical manifestation of 7 recessive for the first pair or recessive
another gene (the hypostatic gene). In for the second, i.e., the characteristic
dominant epistasis the inhibitor allele is does not manifest. So the phenotypical
the dominant allele (for example, I) of proportion would be 9:7.
the epistatic gene so inhibition occurs in
dominant homozygosity (II) or in These examples show how epistasis
heterozygosity (Ii). In recessive changes phenotypical forms and
epistasis the inhibitor allele is the proportions, from the normal 9:3:3:1 in
recessive allele of the epistatic gene (i) F2 to 13:3 in dominant epistasis or to
so inhibition occurs only in recessive 9:7 in recessive epistasis (note that
homozygosity (ii). some forms have even disappeared).
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10. What is polygenic If a trait statistically has a normal
inheritance? How does it (gaussian, bell-shaped curve)
distribution of its phenotypical forms it
work? is probable that it is conditioned by
polygenic inheritance (quantitative
Polygenic inheritance, also known as inheritance).
quantitative inheritance, is the gene
interaction in which a given trait is In quantitative inheritance the effects of
conditioned by several different genes several genes add to others making it
having alleles that may or may not possible to represent the trait variation
contribute to increase the phenotype of a given population in a gaussian
intensity. The alleles may be curve with the heterozygous genotypes
contributing or noncontributing and in the center, i.e., appearing in larger
there is no dominance among them. number, and the homozygous in the
Polygenic inheritance is the type of extremities.
inheritance, for example, of skin color
and of stature in humans.
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13. Why is sex-linked chromosome is an excellent means of
inheritance an example of study of the paternal lineage).
nonmendelian inheritance?
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3. What is linkage?
Linkage and
Crossing Over Two genes are said to be under linkage,
or linked, when they reside in the same
chromosome.
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located in the other side, they will be 7. Why does the
separated and gametes A-B and a-b will recombination frequency of
be formed, instead of A-b and a-B.
genes vary with the distance
(The percentage of recombinant between them in the
gametes relating to normal gametes chromosome?
depends upon the crossing over rate
that in its turn depends upon how far The farther the distance between the
distant the given alleles are in the loci of two genes in a chromosome the
chromosome.) higher the recombination frequency
between these genes. This is true
because once alleles are nearer in the
chromosome it is more probable that
5. In genetic recombination by they are kept united when chromosomal
crossing over what is the extremities are exchanged by crossing
difference between parental over. On the other hand, if they are
farther apart it will be easier for them to
gametes and recombinant
separate by crossing over.
gametes?
6. What is recombination
frequency? 9. How can the concept of
recombination frequency be
Recombination frequency, or crossing used in genetic mapping?
over rate, is the percentage of
recombinant gametes made by crossing
over (in relation to the number of Genetic mapping is the determination of
the location of the genes in a
parental gametes made). It always
refers to two genes located in the same chromosome.
chromosome.
By determining the recombination
frequency between several different
linked genes it is possible to estimate
the distance between them in the
chromosome. For example, if a gene A
has a recombination frequency of 20%
with the gene B, this gene B has
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recombination frequency of 5% with the
gene C and this gene C has
recombination frequency of 15% with
the gene A, it is possible to assert that
the gene A is 20 centimorgans distant
from the gene B and that between them
lies the gene C at 15 centimorgans of
distance from the gene A.
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Heterologous portion is that whose
Sex Determination genes do not have correspondent alleles
and Sex-Linked in the other sex chromosome. These
genes are located more in the peripheral
Inheritance regions of the arms of the Y and X
chromosomes.
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5. Is it more indicated for a Diseases caused by abnormal number of
geneticist desiring to map the sex chromosomes are called sex
aneuploidies.
X chromosome of the mother
of a given family (the The main sex aneuploidies are: 44 +
researcher does not have XXX, or trisomy X (women whose cells
access to her DNA, only access have an additional X chromosome); 44
to the genetic material of the + XXY, or Klinefelter's syndrome (men
whose cells have an extra X
offspring) to analyze the
chromosome); 44 + XYY, or double Y
chromosomes of her syndrome (men whose cells have an
daughters or of her sons? additional Y chromosome); 44 + X,
Turner’s syndrome (women whose cells
To analyze the X DNA of a mother lack an X chromosome).
(assuming no access to her own
material) it is more indicated to study
the genetic material of her sons since all
X chromosomes of males come from the 8. What is the inactivation of
mother while the daughters have X the X chromosome? What is a
chromosomes from the mother and Barr body?
from the father. By researching the
material of the sons it is ensured that
the studied X chromosome is from the Inactivation of the X chromosome is a
mother. phenomenon that occurs in women.
Since women have two X chromosomes
only one of them remains active and
functional mixed to the chromatin while
the other remains condensed and
6. Do the genes of the X and Y
inactive.
chromosomes determine only
sex characteristics? In the same woman in some cell
lineages the functional X chromosome is
Besides sex genes the sex the one from the father and in other cell
chromosomes have also autosomal lineages the functional chromosome is
genes, genes that codify several the X from the mother characterizing a
proteins related to nonsexual traits. condition known as mosaicism (related
to the X chromosome).
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9. Besides the XY system are For each correspondent gene to an X-
there other sex determination linked trait women present always two
alleles since they have two X
systems? chromosomes. Men present only one
allele of genes related to X-linked traits
Some animals have a sex determination since they have one X chromosome.
system different from the XY system.
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XhY. Concerning the phenotypes, factor The X-linked daltonism is a disease in
VIII is produced in every individual with which the affected individual sees the
at least one nonaffected X chromosome. red color as green or confounds these
So the women XX and X Xh and the two colours.
men XY are normal. Only women XhXh
and men XhY have the disease.
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19. What are holandric genes?
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The ABO blood system includes the
Blood Types erythrocytic antigens A and B that can
be attacked by the antibodies anti-A and
anti-B.
1. What are the main human The antigens A and B are agglutinogens
blood group systems? and the antibodies anti-A and anti-B are
agglutinins.
In humans the main blood group
systems are the ABO system, the Rh
system and the MN system.
4. What are the blood types of
the ABO blood system?
Red blood cells have different antigens 5. What are the antigens and
in the outer surface of their plasma antibodies of each blood type
membrane; for example, the antigens A
of the ABO blood system?
and B of the ABO system are
glycoproteins of the membrane. If a
donor has red blood cells with antigens Type A: antigen A, antibody anti-B.
not present in the red blood cells of the Type B: antigen B, antibody anti-A.
recipient (lacking of transfusion Type AB: antigens A and B, does not
compatibility) the immune system of the produce antibody A neither antibody B.
recipient recognizes these molecules as Type O: does not have antigen A neither
actual antigens (i.e., foreign antigen B, has antibodies anti-A and
substances) and triggers a defense anti-B.
response producing specific antibodies
against those antigens. The transfused (Obviously antibodies are made by B
red blood cells then are destroyed by lymphocytes not by red blood cells.)
these antibodies and the recipient
individual may even die.
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antigens present in the red blood cells 8. What is the type of genetic
of the donor and the antibodies that the inheritance that determines
recipient can produce. Whenever the
the ABO blood group system?
recipient is not able to produce
antibodies against antigens of the red What are the relations of
blood cells of the donor the transfusion dominance among the
is compatible. involved alleles?
So regarding ABO compatibility type A The inheritance of the ABO blood
can donate to type A and to type AB. system is a multiple alleles inheritance.
Type B can donate to type B and to type There are three involved alleles, IA, IB
AB. Type AB can donate only to type and i that combine in pairs to form the
AB. Type O can donate to all ABO types. genotypes.
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For example, if an individual has type O The origin of the name Rh factor is
blood, ii genotype, he or she cannot related to the first researches that
have biological parents of the type AB discovered this blood antigen was in
(IAIB genotype) since necessarily one of rhesus monkeys (“Macaca mulatta”).
his/her alleles has come from the father
and the other from the mother. Another
example: a couple of individuals of the
type O (ii) in their turn can only 13. How are the antibodies
generate direct offspring of the type O against the Rh factor formed?
blood, since they do not have alleles
that condition antigen A neither antigen
Anti-Rh antibodies are made by humoral
B.
immune response. When an Rh-
individual makes contact with the Rh
factor this is recognized as foreign
(antigen), the primary immune
11. Is ABO blood compatibility response begins and small amounts of
enough for the safety of blood anti-Rh antibodies and memory B
transfusion? lymphocytes are made. In future
contact with the antigen there will
Besides ABO blood compatibility the already be circulating antibodies and
compatibility concerning the Rh blood memory immune cells prepared to
system must also be checked. In create an intense and effective attack
addition it is of fundamental importance against the Rh factor.
for the safety of blood transfusion
performing tests to detect agents of
main blood transmitted infectious
diseases, like HIV (AIDS), hepatitis B 14. What is blood typing?
and C, syphilis, Chagas disease, etc.
Blood typing is the determination, by
(Any transfusion must be studied, means of tests, of the classification of a
planned and supervised by doctors.) blood sample concerning blood group
systems (specially the ABO system and
the Rh system).
RH factor is a protein of the red blood 15. How is the blood typing
cell plasma membrane that behaves as concerning the ABO system
antigen in blood transfusions triggering and the Rh usually done?
a humoral (antibody-based) immune
response. Most people present the
In the blood typing for the ABO system
protein in their red blood cells and are
and the Rh system a blood sample is
part of the Rh+ group. People that do
collected from the person and three
not have the protein classify as Rh-.
small volumes of the sample are
separated and dispersed on glass
laminae (slides). On the first lamina
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serum containing anti-A antibody is 18. What is the Rh typing of
dripped; on the second lamina serum the mother and of the fetus in
containing anti-B antibody is dripped;
the hemolytic disease of the
on the third lamina serum with anti-RH
antibody is dripped. If no agglutination newborn?
reaction takes place in all of the laminae
the blood is of type O- (universal In the hemolytic disease of the newborn
donor); if agglutination occurs only in the mother is Rh- and the fetus Rh+. In
the first lamina the blood is type A-; this disease antibodies produced by the
and so on. mother attack the fetal red blood cells.
There are other methods of blood The hemolytic disease of the new born
typing. Blood typing must be performed is also known as erythroblastosis fetalis.
by qualified technicians.
The inheritance pattern of the Rh blood In the hemolytic disease of the newborn
system is autosomal dominant, i.e., the the mother has Rh- blood. This mother
heterozygous manifests as Rh+. The when generating her first Rh+ child
dominance is complete (R is dominant makes contact, possibly during delivery,
over r). The possible genotypes are RR, with Rh+ red blood cells of the child and
Rr (both Rh+) and rr (Rh-). her immune system triggers the primary
immune response against the Rh factor.
Curiosity: the Rh factor is codified by a In the next gestation in which the fetus
gene containing 2790 DNA nucleotides is Rh+ the mother will already have
situated in the human chromosome 1. much more anti-Rh antibodies in her
circulation; these antibodies cross the
placental barrier and gain the fetal
circulation causing fetal hemolysis
17. What is the logic of the (destruction of the red blood cells of the
transfusional compatibility fetus).
concerning the Rh blood group
system?
20. How can the hemolytic
An Rh+ donor can only donate blood to
disease of the newborn be
an Rh+ recipient. A person that lacks
the Rh factor (Rh-) can donate to prevented?
individuals of the Rh+ and Rh- groups.
Erythroblastosis fetalis can be prevented
if in the first delivery of a Rh+ child
from a Rh- mother serum containing
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anti-Rh antibodies is given to the
mother in the first 72 hours (after the
delivery). Therefore the administered
anti-Rh antibodies destroy the fetal red
blood cells that entered the mother’s
circulation before the triggering of her
primary immune response.
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Under the action of this drug the cells
Karyotype and interrupt division at metaphase and the
Genetic Diseases anaphase does not occur. Therefore the
use of colchicine in the study of
karyotypes is interesting because
chromosomes will be seen replicated
and condensed.
1. What is karyotype?
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syndrome, trisomy 18, 45 + XY or 45 + 8. How are genetic diseases
XX). classified?
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(placement of additional nucleotides in survival and reproduction are preserved
the DNA molecule). (the remaider are eliminated as their
carriers have difficulty in surviving and
reproducing). In this manner the
combined processes of accumulation of
10. Does every gene mutation small mutations and of natural selection
cause alteration in the protein incorporate new features in the species
and they may even lead to speciation
the gene normally codifies?
(formation of new species) and
promotion of biological diversity.
Not every gene mutation causes
alteration in the composition of the (Obviously only genetic mutations
protein the gene codifies. Since the transmitted by cells that originate new
genetic code is degenerated, i.e., there individuals, in sexual or asexual
are amino acids codified by more than reproduction, have evolutionary effect.)
one different DNA nucleotide triplet, if
by chance the mutation substitutes one
or more nucleotides of a codifier triplet
and the newly formed triplet still 12. What are mutagenic
codifies the same amino acid codified by
the original triplet there will be no
agents?
modification in the protein made from
the gene. Mutagenic agents, or mutagens, are
physical, chemical or biological factors
that can cause alteration in DNA
molecules.
11. How do genetic mutations
Examples of well-known or believed to
influence biological diversity?
be mutagenic agents are: X, alpha, beta
and gamma rays, ultraviolet radiation,
Too extensive or too frequent genetic nitrous acid, many dyes, some
mutations generally are deleterious for sweeteners, some herbicides, many
individuals and species. These substances of tobacco, some viruses,
mutations often cause important like HPV, etc. Small DNA fragments
phenotypical changes or defects known as transposons can also act as
incompatible with the survival of the mutagens when incorporated into other
body and the continuity of the species. DNA molecules.
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13. How are mutagenic agents 15. What are some diseases or
related to cancer incidence in genetic abnormalities caused
a population? Is cancer a by recessive genes?
disease transmitted to the
individual offspring? Examples of recessive genetic diseases
are: cystic fibrosis, albinism,
The exposition of a population to phenylketonuria, galactosemia, Tay-
mutagenic agents (for example, the Sachs disease.
people living in the surrounds of the
Chernobyl nuclear power plant and
exposed to the radiation from the
nuclear accident in 1986) increases the 16. What are some diseases or
cancer incidence in that population. This genetic abnormalities caused
occurs because the mutagenic agents by dominant genes? Why are
increase the rate of mutation and the severe dominant genetic
probability of mutant cells to proliferate
diseases rarer than recessive
in pathological manner (cancer).
ones?
Cancer itself is not a hereditarily
transmissible disease. Genetic Examples of dominant genetic diseases
predispositions for the development of are: Huntington's disease (or
cancer, however, can be inherited. Huntington’s chorea),
neurofibromatosis,
hypercholesterolemia, polycystic kidney
disease.
14. How do the repairing
enzymes of the genetic Severe and early autosomal dominant
diseases are rarer than recessive
system act? autosomal diseases because in this last
group the affected allele may be hidden
There are enzymes within the cells that in the heterozygous individuals and
detect errors or alterations in DNA transmitted to the offspring until
molecules and begin a repair of those undergoing homozygosity (actual
errors. First, enzymes known as manifestation of the disease). In severe
restriction endonucleases, specialized in dominant diseases the heterozygous
cutting DNA molecules (also used in manifests the condition and often dies
genetic engineering), cut the affected without having offspring. (Some genetic
piece of DNA. Then polymerase diseases are of later manifestation, like
enzymes build correct sequences of Huntington disease; in these cases the
nucleotides correspondent to the incidence is higher because many
affected piece taking as template the individuals have children before knowing
DNA chain complementary to the that they are carriers of the dominant
affected chain. Finally the new correct gene).
sequence is bound in the DNA under
repair by specific enzymes.
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17. What is consanguineal
marriage? Why is the
The Hardy-
appearing of genetic disease Weinberg Principle
more probable in the offspring
of a consanguineal marriage?
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3. What is the mathematical 4. An hypothesis for the
expression of the genetic extinction of the dinosaurs is
equilibrium for genes with two that the earth had been hit by
alleles? Is this statistical a gigantic meteor that caused
distribution the same as the the death of those big reptiles.
statistical distribution of the In that case the entire genetic
respective phenotypes? pool of those animals has
been destroyed, invalidating
Considering p the frequency of one of the Hardy-Weinberg
the alleles and q the frequency of the equilibrium. In Genetics what
other allele of a given gene in a
is this type of gene frequency
population, in this population individuals
produce p gametes with the first allele change called?
for each q gamete containing the
second allele. Therefore the probabilities The phenomenon in which a large
of formation of homozygous genotype number of genes is destroyed or
for the first allele is p2, of homozygous introduced in a population is called
genotype for the second allele is q2 and genetic drift.
of the heterozygous genotype is p.q +
q.p, i.e., 2p.q. When a genetic drift occurs the Hardy
Weinberg principle is not applicable.
Since the sum of those probabilities
necessarily is 1, the resulting
mathematical expression is: p2 + 2p.q +
q2 = 1. 5. What are the penetrance
and the expressivity of a
In general the number of genotypical gene?
forms is not identical to the number of
phenotypical forms since there are
dominance and other interactions Individuals that carry a same genotype
do not always manifest in an identical
between genes that affect the
manifestation of the phenotype. manner the correspondent phenotype.
These manifestations may differ in
intensity, from one individual to
another, or even the phenotype may not
manifest in some percentage of carriers.
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expressiveness may be influenced by
the environment.
6. Why is a balanced
frequency of different alleles
of a gene in a population more
useful for the survival of that
population facing
environmental changes?
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beings; the nucleus transplantation
Genetic technology, popularly known as
Engineering “cloning”, in which a nucleus of a cell is
grafted into a enucleated egg cell of the
same species to create a genetic copy of
the donor (of the nucleus) individual;
the technology of DNA amplification, or
1. What is biotechnology? PCR (polymerase chain reaction), that
allows millions replications of chosen
Biotechnology is the application of fragments of a DNA molecule.
biological knowledge to obtain new
techniques, materials and compounds of The recombinant DNA technology is
pharmaceutical, medical, agrarian, used to create transgenic organisms,
industrial and scientific use, i.e., of like mutant insulin-producing bacteria.
practical use. The nucleus transplantation technology
is in its initial development but it is the
The pioneer fields of biotechnology were basis, for example, of the creation of
agriculture and the food industry but “Dolly” the sheep. PCR has numerous
nowadays many other practical fields practical uses, as in medical tests to
use its techniques. detect microorganisms present in blood
and tissues, DNA fingerprint and
obtainment of DNA samples for
research.
2. What is genetic
engineering?
4. What are restriction
Genetic engineering is the use of
genetic knowledge to artificially
enzymes? How do these
manipulate genes: It is one of the fields enzymes participate in the
of biotechnology. recombinant DNA technology?
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5. What are DNA ligases? How enzymes (restriction endonucleases)
do these enzymes participate specialized in cutting DNA fragments.
The once circular plasmid is open by the
in the recombinant DNA restriction enzyme. The same enzyme is
technology? used to cut a human DNA molecule
containing the insulin gene. The piece of
DNA ligases are enzymes specialized in human DNA containing the insulin gene
tying the complementary DNA chains then has its extremities bound to the
that form the DNA double helix. These plasmid with the help of DNA ligases.
enzymes are used in the recombinant The recombinant plasmid containing the
DNA technology to insert pieces of DNA human insulin gene is then inserted into
cut by restriction enzymes into other the bacteria.
DNA molecules submitted to the action
of the same endonucleases. Another human hormone already
produced by recombinant bacteria is GH
(somatotropin, or growth hormone).
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patrimony to the organism owner of the DNA fingerprint, the method of
cell whose nucleus was used in the individual identification using DNA, is
transplantation. based on the fact that the DNA of every
individual (with exception of identical
twins and individual clones) contains
nucleotide sequences exclusive to each
9. What is PCR? How does PCR individual.
works?
Although normal individuals of the same
species have the same genes in their
PCR, polymerase chain reaction, is a
chromosomes, each individual has
method to synthesize many copies of
different alleles and even in the inactive
specific regions of a DNA molecule
portions of the chromosomes
known as target-regions. Its inventor,
(heterochromatin) there are differences
Kary Mullis, won the Nobel prize for
in nucleotide sequences among
Chemistry in 1993.
individuals.
First, the DNA to be tested is heated to
cause the double helix to rupture and
the polynucleotide chains to be
exposed. Then small synthetic
11. Why are the recombinant
sequences of DNA known as primers DNA technology and the
and containing nucleotide sequences nucleus transplantation
similar to the sequences of the technology still dangerous?
extremities of the region to be studied
(for example, a region containing a The recombinant DNA technology and
known gene exclusive of a given the nucleus transplantation technology
organism) are added. The primers (cloning) are extremely dangerous since
paired with the original DNA in the they are able to modify, in a very short
extremities of the gene to be amplified. time, the ecological balance that
Enzymes known as polymerases, that evolution has taken millions of years to
catalyze DNA replication, and nucleotide create on the planet. During the
supply are added. The primers then are evolutionary process, under the slow
completed and the chosen region is and gradual action of mutations, genetic
replicated. In the presence of more recombinations and of natural selection
primers and more nucleotides millions of species emerged and were modified and
copies of that specific region are genetic patrimonies were formed. With
generated. (PCR is very sensitive even genetic engineering however humans
using a minimal amount of DNA). can mix and modify genes, making
changes of unpredictable long term
consequences, risking creating new
plant or animal diseases, new types of
10. What is the fact of cancers and new disease outbreaks. It
Molecular Biology on which is a field as potentially dangerous as the
DNA fingerprint is based? manipulation of nuclear energy.
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12. What is the main moral
problem about the cloning of
human individuals?
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Evolution
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transcendental explanations about the
Origin of Life origin of life on the planet.
With the development of science new
explanatory attempts have emerged.
Notable among them are the
1. How old is the earth? spontaneous generation hypothesis, or
abiogenesis, that asserted that living
It is believed that the earth is beings were created from nonliving
approximately 4.5 billion years old. material, the cosmic panspermia
hypothesis, theory that life on earth is a
result of seeding from the outer space,
the autotrophic hypothesis, according to
2. How old is the universe? which the first living beings were
autotrophs, and the heterotrophic
hypothesis, the most accepted
From analysis of data collected by the nowadays, that affirms that life
Hubble telescope the age of the emerged from heterotrophic cells.
universe is estimated to be about 12
billion years. At the end of the 1980s decade a new
hypothesis known as the RNA world
hypothesis was presented. This
hypothesis asserts that primitive life
3. When did life appear on had only RNA as genetic material and as
earth? structural molecules that later turned
into DNA and proteins. The RNA world
It is estimated that life on earth hypothesis is strengthened by the fact
emerged about 3.5 billion years ago, that RNA can play a catalytic role, like
thus 1 billion years after the formation enzymes, and by the finding that some
of the planet. bacteria have ribosomes made only of
RNA without associated proteins.
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(the vital elan) that would be the source other planets or even from other
of life, a theory known as vitalism. galaxies by traveling in meteorites,
comets, etc. According to this
hypothesis even the type of life now
existent on earth could have also been
6. How did the experiments of seeded intentionally by extraterrestrial
Redi and Pasteur refute the beings in other stellar and planetary
systems.
hypothesis of spontaneous
generation?
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10. What is the most accepted 12. What are the main
hypothesis about the origin of constituents of the earth's
life on earth? How does it atmosphere in our time?
compare to the other main
hypotheses? The present atmosphere of the earth is
constituted mainly of molecular nitrogen
The heterotrophic hypothesis is the (N2) and molecular oxygen (O2).
strongest and most accepted hypothesis Nitrogen is the most abundant gas,
about the origin of life. approximately 80% of the total volume.
Oxygen makes up about 20%. Other
The spontaneous generation hypothesis gases exist in the atmosphere in a low
has been excluded by the experiments percentage. (Of great concern is the
of Pasteur. The panspermia hypothesis increase in the amount of carbon
is not yet completely refuted but it is dioxide due to human activity, the cause
not well-accepted since it would be of the threatening global warming.)
necessary to explain how living beings
could survive long space journeys under
conditions of extreme temperatures as
well as to clarify the manner by which 13. Was there molecular
they would resist the high temperatures oxygen in the earth's primitive
faced when entering the earth's atmosphere? How has that
atmosphere. The autotrophic hypothesis molecule become abundant?
is weakened if one takes into account
that the production of organic material
The presence of molecular oxygen in the
from inorganic substances is a highly
primitive atmosphere was probably at a
complex process requiring diversified
minimum and extremely rare. Oxygen
enzymatic systems and that the
became abundant with the emergence
existence of complex metabolic
of photosynthetic beings,
reactions on the primitive earth were
approximately, 1.5 billion years after
not probable.
the appearance of life on the planet.
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ultraviolet radiation. The temperatures might divide themselves and also
in the atmosphere and on the planet absorb and excrete substances. It is
surface were very high. Electricity, believed that these structures may have
radiation and heat constituted large been the precursors of cells.
available energy sources.
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molecules from the environment setting 21. What evidence
out an evolutionary selection. strengthens the hypothesis
that chloroplasts could have
been photosynthetic
19. What is the evolutionary prokaryotes and mitochondria
origin of the internal could have been aerobic
membranous organelles of the prokaryotes?
cell?
The fact that chloroplasts are the
It is accepted that the internal organelles responsible for
membranous organelles of the photosynthesis in plants leads to the
eukaryotic, like the Golgi apparatus and supposition that before symbiosis they
the endoplasmic reticulum, appeared were autotrophic prokaryotes. For the
from invaginations of the external reason that mitochondria are the center
membrane of primitive cells. of the aerobic cellular respiration, the
powerhouse of the eukaryotic cell, it is
supposed that they were once aerobic
prokaryotes.
20. How have prokaryotic cells
The endosymbiotic hypothesis to explain
given origin to aerobic the emergence of aerobic and
eukaryotic cells and to autotrophic eukaryotic beings is
photosynthetic aerobic strengthened further by the following
eukaryotic cells? evidence: chloroplasts as well as
mitochondria have their own DNA,
According to the most accepted similar to bacterial DNA; chloroplasts
hypothesis aerobic eukaryotic cells and mitochondria reproduce asexually
emerged from the association of aerobic by binary division, like bacteria do; both
prokaryotes engulfed by primitive organelles have ribosomes and
anaerobic eukaryotic cells. This would synthesize proteins.
have been the origin of mitochondria
that thus would have primitively been
aerobic bacteria engulfed by eukaryotic
anaerobes. This hypothesis is called the 22. How did the first
endosymbiotic hypothesis on the origin fermenting autotrophs
of mitochondria. appeared? What about the
first aerobic beings?
Chloroplasts would also have appeared
by endosymbiosis from the entry of
The heterotrophic hypothesis asserts
photosynthetic prokaryotes into aerobic
that the first living beings were the
eukaryotes, both establishing a
fermenting heterotrophs. Fermentation
mutualist ecological interaction.
released carbon dioxide (CO2) and then
the atmosphere became enriched by
this gas. By mutation and natural
selection organisms capable of using
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carbon dioxide and light to synthesize impracticable. Probably the first living
organic material appeared. These would beings lived submerged in deep water
have been the first photosynthetic to avoid destruction by solar radiation.
beings (that were also fermenting Only after the appearance of
beings since there was no abundance of photosynthetic beings and the later
oxygen). filling of the atmosphere with oxygen
released by them the formation of the
Since photosynthesis is a reaction that atmospheric ozone layer that filters
releases molecular oxygen, with the ultraviolet radiation was possible.
emergence of fermenting autotrophs
this gas became available. Some
organisms then developed aerobic
respiration using O2, a highly efficient
method to produce energy.
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of various religions. Modernized
Theory of Evolution religious interpreters teach creationism
as a metaphorical wisdom and not as
opposed to evolutionism.
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5. What are fossils? According to the law of use and disuse
the characteristics of a body vary as it is
more or less used. This rule is valid for
Fossils are petrified vestiges of beings
that lived in the past conserved by example for features like the muscular
mass and the size of the bones.
chemical and geological processes and
found within rocks and sedimentary
The law of the transmission of acquired
strata of the terrestrial crust.
characteristics in its turn established
that parents could transmit to their
offspring characteristics acquired by the
law of use and disuse.
6. How does the study of
fossils strengthen the theory
of evolution?
9. What is lamarckism?
The study of fossils reveals ancient and
extinct species having many similar Lamarckism is the theory that unites the
structures to others of the present and law of use and disuse with the law of
of the past. Fossils still allow radioactive the transmission of acquired
dating to estimate the periods during characteristics, i.e., that asserted that
which species lived and to establish a acquired characteristics, for example,
chronological relationship between the muscular mass, could be
them. Those evidences strengthen the transmitted from a parent to its
hypothesis of relationship and common offspring.
origin among species and that their
features have modified gradually until The theory was proposed by the French
the formation of the current species. naturalist Lamarck in the beginning of
the 19th century. At that time the idea
was not so absurd since nobody knew
how the transmission of hereditary
7. Historically what were the characteristics occurred. (Lamarck had
two main evolutionary great merit in introducing an
theories? evolutionary theory based in natural law
at a time dominated by fixism.)
The two main evolutionary theories
were lamarckism and darwinism.
10. Who was Charles Darwin?
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South American coast and the Pacific. advantageous characteristics for
During the voyage, whose most famous survival and more able to generate
passage was the stop in the Galapagos offspring and so he described the basis
Islands, Darwin collected data that he of the principle of natural selection.
used to write his masterpiece “The
Origin of Species” (1859). In this book
the principles of the common ancestry
of all living beings and of natural 13. How did the industrial
selection as the force that drives the revolution in England offer an
diversity of species were described. example of natural selection?
Darwin died in 1882.
(The original name of the most famous One of the classic examples of natural
book written by Darwin was “On the selection is regarding the moths of
Origin of Species by Means of Natural industrial zones of England in the end of
Selection”.) the 19th century and the beginning of
the 20th century. As the industrial
revolution advanced the bark of the
trees that moths landed on became
11. What is the mechanism darker due to the soot released from
factories. The population of light moths
described by Darwin that then decreased and was substituted by
eliminates species less a population of dark moths since the
adapted to environmental mimicry of the dark moths in the new
conditions? environment protected them from
predators, i.e., they had an adaptive
The mentioned mechanism is the advantage in that new environment.
natural selection. Light moths in their turn suffered the
negative effect of natural selection for
becoming more visible to predators and
were almost eliminated. In the open
forest far from factories however it was
12. How did Darwin reach the
experimentally verified that light moths
principle of natural selection maintained their adaptive advantage
from the observation of and the dark moths continued to be
differences among individuals more easily found by predators.
of the same species?
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fixism, both admit the existence of alterations in the genetic material of the
processes that caused changes in the individuals, more precisely by
characteristics of the living beings in the modifications or recombinations of DNA
past. molecules. Small changes in the genetic
material accumulate and new
They have however different phenotypical characteristics emerge.
explanations for those changes. The carriers of these characteristics
Lamarckism combines the law of use then are submitted to natural selection.
and disuse with the law of the From modern Biology its recognized that
transmission of acquired characteristics natural selection generates in a given
to explain the changes. Darwinism population an increase in the frequency
defends the action of the natural of alleles and genes more favorable to
selection. survival and reproduction; less
advantageous genes and alleles tend to
be eliminated.
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that present more adapted phenotypes 19. What is reproductive
for the environmental pressure they isolation?
face).
Living beings are considered under
reproductive isolation when they cannot
cross among themselves or if they can
18. In hospitals where many
cross but cannot generate fertile
tuberculosis patients are offspring.
treated the population of the
tuberculosis mycobacteria
may be constituted of
multiresistant (to antibiotics) 20. What is the relationship
strains. How does the between the concept of
synthetic theory of evolution reproductive isolation and the
explain this fact? concept of species?
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characteristics from each other by 24. What is adaptive
means of genetic variability (mutations convergence?
and recombination) and natural
selection. When those differences reach
a point that makes the crossing of Adaptive convergence is the
phenomenon by which living beings
individuals of one group with individuals
of the other group impossible or the facing the same environmental pressure
(problems) and undergoing genetic
generation of fertile offspring no longer
happens it is said that speciation has variability and natural selection
incorporate similar (analogous) organs
occurred.
and structures (solutions) into their
bodies during evolution. For example,
the fins and the hydrodynamic body of
fishes and dolphins, phylogenetically
22. Why does geographical
distant animals.
isolation lead to speciation?
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same biological origin, i.e., when they
are products of differentiation of a same
characteristic from a common ancestor,
like cat paws and human feet.
(Characteristics of different species may
be analogous and homologous.)
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Biology Questions and Answers
Ecology
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Biology Questions and Answers
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A community is a set of populations of
Concepts of Ecology living beings that live in the same
region and interact with each other.
3. What is a population?
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Abiotic factors are the nonliving chemosynthesis. There are
elements that constitute a given photosynthetic autotrophs, like plants,
environment, like light, temperature, and chemosynthetic autotrophs, like
minerals, water, gases, atmospheric some bacteria.
pressure, etc.
8. What is an ecosystem?
9. What is a biosphere?
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taiga many mammals, like moose,
Earth's Biomes wolves, foxes and rodents, migratory
birds and a great diversity of insects are
found.
1. What is a biome?
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8. What are the typical 10. Why are the tropical
vegetation and the typical forests also known as
fauna of the tropical forests? stratified forests?
In the vegetation of the tropical forests In tropical forests tall trees of several
broadleaf evergreen trees predominate. species have their crowns forming a
On the top of the trees epiphytes and superior layer under which diverse other
lianas grow. Many varieties of trees and plants develop forming other
pteridophytes can be found in these inferior layers. From the upper layer to
forests. Regarding the fauna, the the inferior layers the penetration of
abundance and diversity is also great: light lowers gradually and the exposition
there are monkeys, rodents, bats, to wind and rain, the moisture and the
insectivores, felines, reptiles, birds, temperature also vary. Different
amphibians and invertebrates, mainly compositions of abiotic factors condition
insects. the prevailing of different vegetation in
each layer.
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Grasslands may be classified into so they easily lose water by evaporation
steppes and savannahs. In the steppes and desiccate. They also need an
the prevailing vegetation is grass, as in aquatic environment to reproduce, since
the pampas of South America and in the their fecundation is external and their
prairies of North America. The fauna is larva is water-dependent.
mainly formed by herbivores, like
rodents and ungulates. The savannahs
present small trees, for example in the
Brazilian cerrado or the African 16. What are plankton, nekton
savannahs. The fauna is diverse; in the and benthos?
Brazilian cerrado there are animals like
ostriches, lizards, armadillos, jaguars,
Plankton, nekton and benthos are the
etc., and many types of insects; the
three groups into which aquatic living
African savannahs are the home of large
beings may be divided.
herbivores and carnivores, like zebras,
giraffes, antelopes, lions and leopards.
The plankton is formed by the algae and
small animals that float near the water
surface carried by the stream. The
nekton is composed of animals that
14. What are the typical actively swim and dive in water, like
vegetation and the typical fishes, turtles, whales, sharks, etc. The
fauna of the deserts? benthos comprises the animals
ecologically linked to the bottom,
The predominant fauna of desert including many echinoderms, benthonic
ecosystems is formed by reptiles, like fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, poriferans
lizards and snakes, terrestrial and annelids.
arthropods and small rodents. In these
areas plants very adapted to a dry
climate may be found, like the cactus,
which are plants that do not have real 17. What are the
leaves and thus lose less water, along phytoplankton and the
with grasses and bushes near places zooplankton?
where water is available.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton are
divisions of the plankton. The
phytoplankton comprises the
15. Which terrestrial autotrophic floating beings: algae and
vertebrate group is extremely cyanobacteria. The zooplankton is
rare in deserts? formed by the heterotrophic planktonic
beings: protozoans, small crustaceans,
Amphibians are terrestrial vertebrates cnidarians, larvae, etc.
extremely rare in desert environments
(although there are a few species
adapted to this type of ecosystem).
Amphibians are rare in deserts because
they do not have a permeable skin and
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18. What is the group of
aquatic beings composed of a
large number of
photosynthetic beings?
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4. In the ecological study of
Food Chains and food interactions, what are
Trophic Pyramids the autotrophic beings called?
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7. How is energy transferred consumer of the inferior orders. A
along a food chain? consumer however can participate in
several different chains not always
belonging to the same consumer order
The energy flux along a food chain is in each of them.
always unidirectional, from the
producers to the decomposers.
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12. What do numeric pyramids 15. In the short term what will
represent? happen to the levels above
and below a population of
Numeric pyramids represent the number secondary consumers of a
of individuals in each trophic level of a numeric pyramid if a large
food chain.
number of individuals from
this population dies?
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analysis of incorporated organic i.e., with the tip to the bottom and the
material. base to the top. It is also not possible to
have superior trophic levels with a
variable dimension larger than inferior
ones. In every energy pyramid, from
18. What do energy pyramids the base to the top, the size of the
represent? variable dimension decreases.
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23. What are the destinations
of the organic material
fabricated by the producers?
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3. What is the water cycle?
Biogeochemical
Cycles The water cycle represents the
circulation and recycling of water in
nature.
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Photosynthetic beings absorb carbon as 7. How is carbon dioxide made
carbon dioxide available in the by producers and consumers?
atmosphere and the carbon atoms
become part of glucose molecules.
During the cellular respiration of these Carbon dioxide is made by producers
and consumers through cellular
beings part of this organic material is
consumed to generate ATP and in this respiration.
process carbon dioxide is returned to
the atmosphere. The other part is
incorporated by the photosynthetic
organisms into the molecules that 8. What are fossil fuels?
compose their structure. The carbon
atoms incorporated into the producers Fossil fuels, like oil, gas and coal, form
are transferred to the next trophic level when organic material is preserved from
and again part is liberated by the the complete action of decomposers,
cellular respiration of the consumers, generally buried deep and under
part becomes a constituent of the pressure over millions of years. Under
consumer body and part is excreted as such conditions the organic material
uric acid or urea (excretes later recycled transforms into hydrocarbon fuels.
by decomposer bacteria). Therefore
carbon absorbed by the producers in Fossil fuels are a natural reservoir of
photosynthesis returns to the carbon. When oxygen is present these
atmosphere through cellular respiration fuels can be burned and carbon dioxide
along the food chain until the and carbon monoxide are released into
decomposers that also liberate carbon the atmosphere.
dioxide in their energetic metabolism.
Under special conditions in a process
that takes millions of years carbon
incorporated into organisms may also 9. What is the most abundant
constitute fossil fuels stored in deposits form under which nitrogen is
under the surface of the planet; as fossil found in nature?
fuels burn the carbon atoms return to
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide or
The most abundant nitrogen-containing
carbon monoxide. The burning of
molecule found in nature is molecular
vegetable fuels, like wood, also returns
nitrogen (N2). The air is 80%
carbon to the atmosphere.
constituted of molecular nitrogen.
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Producers fix nitrogen mainly from 12. Why is a leguminous crop
nitrate (NO3-). Some plants also fix rotation used in agriculture?
nitrogen from ammonia. Consumers and
decomposers acquire nitrogen through
digestion of mainly proteins and nucleic Leguminous crop rotation and other
crop rotations are used in agriculture
acids from the body of other living
beings. because in these plants many bacteria
important for the nitrogen cycle live.
The leguminous crop rotation (or
cojointly with the main crop) helps the
soil to become rich in nitrates that are
11. What is the nitrogen
then absorbed by the plants.
cycle?
Green manure, the covering of the soil
The nitrogen cycle represents the with grass and leguminous plants, is
circulation and recycling of the chemical also a way to improve the fixation of
element nitrogen in nature. nitrogen and it is an option in avoiding
chemical fertilizers.
The nitrogen cycle basically depends on
the action of some specialized bacteria.
Bacteria of the soil called nitrogen-fixing
bacteria present in plant roots absorb
molecular nitrogen from the air and
liberate nitrogen in the form of
ammonia. The decomposition of organic
material also produces ammonia. In the
soil and roots (mainly of leguminous
plants), a first group of chemosynthetic
bacteria called nitrifying bacteria, the
nitrosomonas, produces energy
consuming ammonia and releasing
nitrite (NO2). The second group of
nitrifying bacteria, the nitrobacteria,
uses nitrite in chemosynthesis releasing
nitrate (NO3). In the form of nitrate,
nitrogen is then incorporated by plants
to be used as constituent of proteins
and nucleic acids and the element then
follows along the food chain. Nitrogen
returns to the atmosphere by the action
of denitrifying bacteria that use
nitrogen-containing compounds from
the soil and release nitrogen gas
(molecular nitrogen).
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extends to consumers and conditions
Biodiversity fewer ecological niches to be explored.
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enriched by the vegetal covering made cause big disturbances in the
of leaves and branches that fall from the equilibrium of the ecosystem.
trees. Deforestation reduces this
enrichment. In deforestation zones the
rain falls directly on the ground causing
erosion, “washing” large areas 6. Is monoculture a system
(leaching) and contributing to make the that contributes to great
soil even less fertile. Besides that, the biological diversity of an
deforestation disallows the recycling of
essential nutrients for plants, like ecosystem?
nitrogen. In this manner those regions
and their neighboring regions undergo Monoculture means that in a large area
desertification. a single crop (only one species of plant)
is cultivated. Therefore monoculture
does not contribute to the formation of
a community with great variety of
5. How can a great biological species in the area. Since there is only a
diversity protect an ecosystem single type of producer the types of
consumers that can live in the area are
from environmental damage? also restricted.
Why are less biodiverse
ecosystems at risk of suffering
deep biological harm if
submitted to even small 7. What are some economic
changes? applications that can be
generated by very biodiverse
In ecosystems with more biodiversity ecosystems?
the food webs and ecological
interactions among living beings are Very biodiverse areas present enormous
more complex and diverse. In these economic potential. They can be a
ecosystems environmental changes can source of raw material for the research
be more easily compensated by the and production of medicines, cosmetics,
multiplicity of available resources, foods chemical products and food. They are
and survival options. depositories of genetic wealth that can
be explored by biotechnology. They are
In ecosystems with less biodiversity the sources of species for agriculture. They
individuals are more dependent on can also be explored by 'ecological
some beings that serve them as food tourism'.
and they interact with a small number
of different species. In these
ecosystems generally abiotic factors are
restrictive and the species are more
specialized to such conditions and more
sensitive to environmental changes. So
even small environmental harm can
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8. What are the main causes
of the loss of biological
diversity nowadays?
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5. What is harmonious
Ecological ecological interaction?
Interactions
Harmonious, or positive, ecological
interaction is that in which none of the
participating beings is harmed.
1. What is inharmonious
ecological interaction?
6. What are the main
Inharmonious, or negative, ecological
intraspecific ecological
interaction is that in which at least one
of the participating beings is harmed. interactions?
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8. What is competition? Which 11. What are the main
type of ecological interaction interspecific ecological
is competition? interactions?
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Biology Questions and Answers
algae or cyanobacteria that make Examples of interspecific competition
organic material for the fungi and are: the dispute among vultures,
absorb water with their help; nitrifying worms, flies and microorganisms for
bacteria of the genus Rhizobium that carrion and the competition between
associated to leguminous plants offer snakes and eagles for rodents.
nitrogen to these plants.
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inharmonious (negative) ecological proliferation of algae that by
interaction since one participant is intoxication can lead to death of fishes
harmed. and other animals.
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3. What is the difference
Ecological between primary ecological
Succession succession and secondary
ecological succession?
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wrong to say that the Amazon
Rainforest, an ecosystem at climax
stage, is “the lung” of the earth. Other
reasons are: lungs are not producers of
oxygen; the algae and cyanobacteria of
the phytoplankton are the main
producers of the molecular oxygen of
the planet.)
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4. How different are the
Population Ecology concepts of migration,
emigration and immigration?
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7. What is biotic potential? The environmental resistance is an
important concept of population
ecology.
Biotic potential is the capability of
growth of a given population under
hypothetical optimum conditions, i.e., in
an environment without limiting factors
to such growth. Under such conditions 10. What are the main limiting
the population tends to grow factors for the growth of a
indefinitely. population?
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excessive change in this factor, as the 13. What is the relationship
occurrence of droughts or floods, may between environmental
cause significant population decline;
resistance and the population
small climatic changes can also alter the
photosynthesis rate and reduce the growth according to the biotic
availability of food in the ecosystem. potential curve and the real
population growth curve?
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rectangles each representing the 17. What are the main
number of individuals included in age characteristics of the age
ranges into which a population is
pyramids of developed
divided. Generally the lower age ranges
are represented more to the bottom of countries?
the pyramid, always below higher
ranges, and the variable dimension that
represents the number of individuals is In a stabilized human population the
the width (there are age pyramids age pyramid has a narrower base since
however in which the variable the reproduction rate is not so high. The
dimension is the height). adult age ranges are generally wider
than the infantile ranges showing that in
practice there is no population growth.
16. What are the analyses There is a proportionally high number of
provided by the study of older individuals meaning that the life
quality is elevated and the population
human age pyramids?
has access to health services and good
nutrition. These are features of the age
The study of human age pyramids can pyramids of developed countries.
provide the following analyses:
proportion of individuals at an
economically active age; proportion of 18. What is the typical
elderly (indicating the quality of the
pension and health systems); proportion
conformation of the age
of children and youth (indicating need pyramids of underdeveloped
for job generation and educational countries?
services); reproductive profile (shows
the population growth tendency); The age pyramids of peripheral
postnatal survival rate (indicates quality countries or underdeveloped countries
of the health system, hygiene have characteristics related to the
conditions, nutrition and poverty); poverty of such populations, with a
longevity profile; etc. wider base and narrow apex. The base
age range, if much wider than the other
It is possible to predict whether a levels, indicates a high birth rate. The
population belongs to a rich and levels just above the base may present
industrialized society or to a poor an impressive reduction in poorer
country since the patterns of the age populations due to infant mortality.
pyramids differ according to these Ranges that represent the youth are
conditions. also wide showing future pressure on
job and habitation needs. The widths of
the rectangles diminish as age increases
to the apex that represents the elderly,
demonstrating difficult life conditions,
precarious health services and low life
expectancy.
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various kinds of waste accumulate,
Environmental polluting the environment and creating
Issues danger to humans and nature. (The
present destination of waste has been
public waste depositories where the
waste volume is compressed and buried
underground, an environmentally risky
1. What is pollution? method. Another method has been
incineration, with the grave
Pollution is the contamination of an consequence of causing air pollution.)
ecosystem by factors that are harmful
for the equilibrium of its biotic or abiotic
constituents.
4. What are the main types of
waste?
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separated. The toxic waste includes sorted at the point of origin. Selective
industrial chemical residuals that are collection also helps the creation of an
harmful for life and the environment, environmental conscience in the people
like contaminated medical waste and that produce the waste.
the domestic waste containing
insecticides and medicines; the toxic
waste is one of the major environmental
problems since it puts the life of 6. What is the cost-benefit
humans and other living beings in relationship regarding sewage
danger. The nuclear toxic waste is made treatment as a strategy to
of materials that release invisible
dangerous radiation for many years; fight water pollution?
nuclear toxic waste is produced in the
extraction of nuclear minerals (like To treat sewage is much cheaper for
uranium), by nuclear reactors and society. The non treated sewage
nuclear plants, in hospitals where pollutes rivers, lakes and the sea, being
Nuclear Medicine is performed and in a cause of diseases transmitted through
research centers; although the nuclear water. For the society the costs of these
waste is often put into armored diseases are much higher than the cost
receptacles the risk of accidents is of the sewage treatment.
permanent. Space waste is the waste
produced by the activity of humans in One of the most economical systems to
space from the second half of the 20th treat sewage is the aerobic treatment
century; it consists of non operating system, reservoirs kept very
satellites, rocket piece and other oxygenated for aerobic bacteria to
equipments that remain orbiting the decompose organic material.
earth or other celestial bodies or even
travelling across space.
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hydrogen sulfide that makes water 10. Besides mercury which
improper to other living beings and other heavy metals cause
creates a putrid smell.
toxic pollution?
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it is less dense, the warm air tends to 15. What is the role of the
move towards higher and colder strata ozone layer for living beings?
of the atmosphere. Such movement
helps the dispersion of pollutants.
Ozone, O3, is a gas of the atmosphere
that filters ultraviolet radiation from the
sun disallowing most of that radiation
from reaching the surface of the planet.
13. Does thermal inversion
Ultraviolet radiation is harmful for living
occur in the winter or in the beings because it is a mutagen and can
summer? cause cancer (mainly skin cancer), other
DNA mutations and even burns.
Pollutant low altitude thermal inversion
occurs in the winter. In this period of
the year the sun heats the soil less and
the natural upward move of warm air 16. What are the main
decreases. Therefore the pollutants chemical compounds that
form a low altitude layer between the destroy the ozone layer?
cold air layer near the ground and
another layer of warmer air above. The
The mains chemical compounds that
pollutant layer over industrial areas or
big urban concentrations reduces the destroy the ozone layer are the CFCs,
chlorofluorocarbons, or freons,
penetration of the sun's energy and the
air bellow takes an even longer time to substances used in the past in
refrigerators, airconditioners and spray
warm.
cans.
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centers, hospitals and medical centers 19. What is transgenic food?
that use radioisotopes, nuclear bomb
explosions or accidents with Transgenic beings are animals,
transportation, handling or storage of microorganisms and plants that contain
nuclear material. Nuclear materials recombinant DNA, i.e., genes from
remain dangerous for many years, other plants, microorganisms or animals
contaminating the environment with artificially inserted into their genetic
radiation that can cause cancer, material. Transgenic beings are made
immune impairment, congenital for scientific and economic purposes, in
deficiencies, burns and even death. The this last case with the intention of
damage is proportional to the intensity improving their commercial features.
of the exposition to the radiation. For example, bacteria that produce
human insulin are transgenic beings
Its persistent feature and high made by biotechnology. The main
aggression power make nuclear targets of the transgenic technology are
pollution one of the major edible vegetables, like soy, corn, potato
environmental problems of our time. and tomato.
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21. What is biological control? substrate for their cellular respiration
are employed.
Biological control is a natural method to
control the size of animal,
microorganism or plant populations.
Biological control is based on the 23. What is global warming?
knowledge of inharmonious (negative)
ecological interactions between species. Global warming is the increase in the
Using such knowledge a parasite, temperature of the planet due to
competitor or predator species is accumulation of some gases in the
introduced in an ecosystem in order to atmosphere, especially gases that retain
attain reduction of the population of the solar energy reflected by the planet
another species with which it has surface. The main gas that causes the
inharmonious ecological interaction. The global warming is carbon dioxide, CO2,
biological control presents the but other gases act as “warming gases”
advantage of substituting the use of too, like methane, CH4, and nitrous
pesticides and other toxic chemical oxide, N2O. The exaggerated increase of
products in the control of plagues and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has
diseases. It however should be been caused by the burning of fossil
employed with caution under serious fuels (mainly oil and coal) in industrial
previous study to avoid harmful and urban societies and by forest fires.
ecological disequilibrium. (It is important to note that the natural
warming provided by gases of the
A kind of biological control of some atmosphere is fundamental for the
species can be done by the introduction maintenance of the planet
of previously sterilized males, that do temperature.)
not generate offspring.
Predictions of studies sponsored by the
United Nations stated that the global
warming may cause life-threatening
22. What is bioremediation? transformations to the planet in the
near future. Countries that are the
biggest emitters of carbon dioxide, like
Bioremediation is the use of
microorganisms, like bacteria, protists the United States and China, however,
systematically ignore the warnings and
and fungi, to degrade noxious
substances turning them into non toxic continue to largely contribute to the
danger.
or less toxic substances. Bioremediation
employs microorganisms whose
Global warming is one of the most
metabolism uses contaminants as
reagents. polemic environmental issues today.
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Diseases
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4. What is the criterion used
Concepts of to classify hosts as
Parasitism intermediate hosts or as
definitive hosts?
Ectoparasites are parasites that explore Vectors of a parasite are organisms able
the external surface of the host (like, for to transport the parasite during stages
example, mites that parasite the skin). of its life cycle mediating the infection of
Endoparasites are parasites that live other hosts. For example, the mosquito
within the body of the host (like the Aedes aegypti is the vector of the
taenias). dengue virus; triatomine bugs are
vectors of the Trypanosoma cruzi,
protozoan that causes Chagas’ disease;
mice are vectors of leptospira, bacteria
that cause leptospirosis.
3. Concerning the number of
hosts how are parasites
classified?
6. What is an etiological agent
Parasites that require only one host are of disease?
called monoxenous parasites. Parasites
that need more than one host for their
An etiological agent of disease is the
life cycle are called heteroxenous
agent that causes the disease. It may
parasites.
be a living being, substance or
environmental fact.
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7. What is the difference
between the concepts of
epidemic disease and endemic
disease?
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tuberculosis had already been one of
Bacterial Infections the main causes of death in the USA
and Europe. The disease can remain
latent, without manifestation for several
years and even throughout the life.
1. What are some human
diseases caused by bacteria Tuberculosis is highly contagious,
transmitted by air route through
and what are their respective
sneezes and coughs from a person with
modes of transmission? the active disease. Transmission is
common between members of the same
The main human bacterial infections family or even in work environments.
transmitted by respiratory secretions The disease today has treatment with
(sneezes, cough) and saliva drops are: efficient antibiotics. Generally, the
bacterial pneumonias, tuberculosis, patient receives three different drugs for
whooping cough (pertussis), diphtheria, several months until healing is
bacterial meningitis. Main bacterial complete. There are however some
diseases transmitted by blood or sexual strains of multiresistant TB bacteria that
contact are: gonorrhea, syphilis. Main emerged by mutation and natural
bacterial diseases transmitted by animal selection due to the intense use of
vectors are: bubonic plague, endemic antibiotic drugs mainly in hospitals and
typhus, leptospirosis. Some bacterial treatment facilities; in these cases the
diseases transmitted through fecal-oral treatment is more difficult.
route and contaminated food are:
cholera, typhoid fever. Other important
bacterial infections: Hansen's disease,
possibly transmitted by saliva drops and 3. Is there vaccine against
contact with injured skin and mucosae; tuberculosis?
trachoma, eye disease transmitted by
ocular secretions; tetanus, transmitted
The vaccine against tuberculosis is
when the etiological agent enters the
called BCG (bacillus Calmette-Guérin).
body through skin wounds.
BCG is not used in some countries
where tuberculosis is not so prevalent
because it can distort later diagnostic
studies of the disease; in other
2. What is tuberculosis? How
countries, like Brazil, it is obligatory for
is the disease transmitted? Is children. The vaccine is made of
there treatment for attenuated TB bacteria.
tuberculosis?
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4. Are all pneumonias caused 6. What is the etiological
by bacteria? agent and the main
manifestations of cholera?
Pneumonia is the generic name of
inflammation of the lungs. Besides Cholera is a bacterial disease caused by
bacterial pneumonias, there are the Vibrio cholerae. The disease is
pneumonias caused by virus, fungi, transmitted by fecal-oral route and the
toxic pneumonias, etc. main mode of transmission is ingestion
of contaminated water or food. It is
most prevalent in places that lack
adequate sanitary conditions.
5. What is Hansen’s disease
(etiological agent, mode of Inside the human gut the cholera
transmission, clinical vibrion releases toxins called
enterotoxins. The infection can cause
manifestations and
intense diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration
prevention)? and even death in more severe cases.
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discovery of penicillin, syphilis was a antibiotics and the emergence of
fatal disease. Today the use of multiresistant bacteria.
antibiotics can cure the disease
completely. Patients with primary
syphilis present a single and painless
wound in the skin, sometimes called
chancre, in the region where the
treponema has penetrated; the chancre
is highly infective. Syphilis is one of the
main STDs, sexually transmitted
diseases. Generally the chancre
develops in the penis, vagina, anus,
hands or mouth, and the bacteria is
often transmitted by sexual contact.
Later syphilis develops into systemic
diseases, secondary and tertiary
syphilis.
9. What is an antibiogram?
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4. What is the vector of
Protozoan Chagas’ disease? How is the
Diseases disease transmitted?
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humans the Trypanosoma cruzi multiply fatal inflammation of the cardiac muscle
as amastigote form in the cardiac or of the meninges may happen.
muscle tissue or in the nervous tissue
forming pseudocysts. These
pseudocysts break releasing flagellate
parasites into the circulation and the 8. In the long term which are
cycle is repeated. the organs affected by chronic
Chagas’ disease?
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agents that cause STDs (sexually 12. What is the vector of
transmitted diseases). malaria? How different is its
behavior from the behavior of
the vector of dengue fever?
10. What are the etiological
agents of malaria? The vector of malaria is a mosquito of
the genus Anopheles, also called
anopheline. In opposition to the
The etiological agents of malaria are
mosquito vector of the dengue fever,
protozoans of the genus Plasmodium.
the anopheline has nocturnal habits.
There are four different types of
plasmodia that cause malaria:
Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium
vivax, Plasmodium falciparum and
13. What are the intermediate
Plasmodium ovale.
and the definitive hosts of the
plasmodium?
11. What are the human In the life cycle of the plasmodium
tissues affected by malaria? humans are the intermediate hosts
What are the main clinical (where asexual reproduction takes
place) and the vector mosquito is the
manifestations of the disease?
definitive host (where sexual
reproduction occurs).
The plasmodium infects the human
blood causing destruction of red blood
cells and it also affects the liver. Malaria
characterizes by periodical episodes of 14. What is the life cycle of
fever, chills and sweating that can be
accompanied by headache, nausea,
Plasmodium vivax?
vomiting and jaundice. The destruction
of red blood cells may lead to anemia The vector mosquito bites a
and hypoxemia. contaminated person and ingests female
and male gametocytes of the parasite.
The infection by Plasmodium falciparum Within the insect gut the gametocytes
if not treated can cause other differentiate into gametes and
complications and even death. fecundation occurs, forming zygotes.
Each plasmodium zygote by mitosis
(sporogony) generates numerous
infective sporozoites that migrate to the
salivary glands of the mosquito. When
the mosquito bites a person the
sporozoites enter the human circulation
and when in the liver they undergo the
first asexual reproduction (tissue
schizogony), releasing several
merozoites into the blood. The
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merozoites infect red blood cells where trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis,
the second asexual reproduction of the toxoplasmosis and meningoencephalitis
cycle (erythrocytic schizogony) and the by free-living amoebas.
production of many other parasites
occur; some of these parasites
differentiate into gametocytes. The red
blood cells then break (hemolysis), the 18. What is the etiological
parasites are released in the blood and agent of amebiasis? How is it
the cycle can restart.
transmitted and what are the
typical manifestations of the
disease?
15. To which phase of the
plasmodium life cycle do the Amebiasis is caused by the protozoan
typical chills and fever of Entamoeba histolytica, or simply
amoeba.
malaria correspond?
The transmission of the disease is oral-
The typical chills and fever episodes of fecal, through contaminated water and
malaria correspond to the phase when food or by insects like cockroaches and
red blood cells are destroyed after the flies. The amoeba parasites the intestine
erythrocytic schizogony of the of humans generally in an
plasmodium life cycle. asymptomatic manner, but it can
sometimes cause enteritis with diarrhea
and severe dysentery, abdominal pain,
weight loss and anemia. In rare cases
16. What are the main extra-intestinal invasion may occur
prophylactic measures against affecting the liver, skin, genital organs
malaria? and other organs.
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an enteritis with diarrhea, abdominal The transmission, like in the visceral
pain, weight loss and anemia. form of the disease, is by the bite of the
sand fly Lutzomya (named after the
Brazilian scientist Adolfo Lutz), the
vector host. Cutaneous leshmaniasis
20. What is trichomoniasis? develops in the bite site where the
Why is it classified as an STD? parasite establishes itself. The skin
wound has a volcanic crater shape, a
reddish injury with elevated borders.
Trichomoniasis is an extra-intestinal
From the primary lesions the parasites
protozoan infection caused by
can spread through the blood to affect
Trichomonas vaginalis, a flagellate
other areas, mainly the mucosae of the
protozoan. The parasite infects the
nose, mouth and pharynx, causing facial
urinary tract of males and females. In
deformations.
females it causes discharge, pain and
itching.
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24. What is the parasite that
causes toxoplasmosis? How is
the disease transmitted and
what are its typical
manifestations?
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candidiasis that generally appears in
Fungal Infections mouth and in the genital mucosae and
disappears naturally.
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previous infections is not efficient in
Viral Infections future infections).
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5. Is rabies caused by virus or Smallpox killed thousands of people
by bacteria? How is it around the world in the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th
transmitted? Which organs century but today it is almost eradicated
and tissues are affected by the by vaccination. Nowadays however a
disease? How is it prevented great fear is the possibility of use of
and treated? smallpox virus in biological weapons and
by bioterrorists. Measles is not
Rabies, also known as hydrophobia, is a eradicated and affects millions of people
viral disease. It is found in dogs, cats, each year. Both diseases can be
bats and other wild mammals. The prevented by vaccination.
transmission to humans occurs through
the saliva of contaminated animals,
mainly through bites.
7. What are the three main
The rabies virus is neurotropic and types of viral hepatitis?
attacks the central nervous system in a
fast and lethal fashion. The prevention There are many types of viral hepatitis.
of the disease is done by prophylactic The most important epidemiologically
vaccination of animals and humans. The are hepatitis A, hepatitis B and hepatitis
treatment is done by anti-rabies serum C.
containing specific antibodies against
the virus.
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cells. Hepatitis A often heals naturally manifestation is chronic and many
after 4 to 6 weeks. people that have the virus are
asymptomatic. The liver gradually
undergoes injuries and some patients
evolve to cirrhosis, hepatic cancer and
9. What are the modes of death. Today interferon use is an
transmission, main signs and attempt to control replication of the
hepatitis C virus. The assessment of the
symptoms and treatments of
disease is made periodically by hepatic
hepatitis B? biopsy and by blood tests of hepatic
enzymes. Viral replication can be
Hepatitis B is a disease caused by a estimated through PCR (polymerase
DNA virus. The transmission is by blood chain reaction).
(wounds, sexual relations, transfusions,
accidents with contaminated material,
etc.). The most common form of the
disease is chronic, the infected patient 11. Are there non viral
carries the virus for life and the liver hepatitides?
gradually suffers injuries that can lead
to cirrhosis or even to hepatic cancer.
Another form of the disease is acute, Hepatitis is a generic name for
sometimes fulminating, with symptoms inflammation of the liver. There are
similar to those of hepatitis A but more bacterial hepatitides, for example, in
severe and sometimes lethal. There are lepstopirosis, and toxic hepatitides, for
persons that are asymptomatic carriers example by alcohol, medicines or
of the virus. The level of hepatic injury inhaled chemical products.
is assessed by blood tests of hepatic
enzymes and by hepatic biopsy
(extraction of small samples of tissue to
be examined under the microscope). 12. What are the main human
Viral replication can be estimated viral diseases transmitted by
through PCR (polymerase chain mosquitoes?
reaction).
The main human viral infections
transmitted by mosquitoes are dengue
fever and yellow fever.
10. What are the modes of
transmission, main signs and
symptoms and treatments of
hepatitis C? 13. What is dengue?
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infected person to become immunized the vector mosquito is also an important
against the disease. Dengue is prevalent prophylactic measure.
in tropical and subtropical regions of
Asia, Africa and South America and it is
transmitted by the bite of the Aedes
aegypti mosquito, a diurnal mosquito. 15. Why is it difficult to
The viral infection causes varied produce efficient vaccines
symptoms similar to flu, like fever, against a viral infection like
malaise, myalgia (muscle pain); in
hemorrhagic dengue high fever, with or dengue and AIDS?
without convulsions, and hemorrhages
may occur leading to circulatory failure It is difficult to make vaccines against
and death. There is no vaccine against dengue because there are four different
dengue since there are four agent types of viruses that cause the disease
viruses and it is supposed that the (DEN1, DEN2, DEN3 and DEN4) and it is
severity of the disease is greater when supposed that the protection against
the patient is already protected against one of them aggravates the clinical
one type of virus and is infected by manifestation when the person is later
another. The best prophylactic method infected by the another dengue virus.
is to eliminate the vector mosquito.
In the case of HIV, the production of a
vaccine is difficult because the virus is
highly mutant and evades the antibody
14. What is yellow fever? action.
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3. What are CD4 lymphocytes?
AIDS What is the relationship
between these cells and HIV?
How does HIV replicate?
1. How is HIV transmitted?
What is the disease caused by CD4 lymphocytes are T helper
this virus? lymphocytes that present in their
plasma membrane receptor proteins
called CD4.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is
supposed to be transmitted through
CD4 lymphocytes are the cells that HIV
blood, semen, vaginal secretions and
infects and within which the virus
maternal milk.
replicates. HIV has proteins in its
capsule that bind to the CD4 receptors
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS
of lymphocytes. Through that bond the
(acquired immune deficiency
virus fuses with the cell membrane and
syndrome), a disease characterized by
its content (RNA, reverse transcriptase,
destruction of cells of the immune
protease, etc.) penetrates into the
system making the body susceptible to
cytoplasm and the viral replication
many opportunistic and severe
process begins.
diseases.
HIV RNA is then converted into DNA by
the reverse transcriptase. The new DNA
is inserted into the genetic material of
2. Which type of virus is the the lymphocyte with the aid of enzymes
HIV? What is the enzyme called integrases. By transcription and
reverse transcriptase present translation this DNA commands the
in HIV? synthesis of proteins necessary for the
assemblage of new viruses. Long
HIV is a retrovirus, i.e., an RNA viral (its polypeptides are thus produced and
genetic material is RNA and not DNA). then fragmented into proteins and viral
enzymes by the enzyme protease. So
Reverse transcriptase is a specific new HIV viruses are assembled and
enzyme of the retrovirus responsible for break the cell membrane to gain the
the transcription of the viral RNA into circulation.
DNA within the infected (host) cell. This
DNA then commands the production of
viral proteins and the viral replication.
4. Why is AIDS difficult to
prevent by vaccination?
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making difficult their recognition by the The CD4 counting test is done from a
immune system. blood sample of a person infected by
the HIV. In this test the number of CD4
cells is counted. If that number
(concentration) is abnormally low it
5. What is the cause of the means immunodeficiency and the
immunodeficiency presented patient usually must be treated with
antiretroviral drugs. The other test used
by AIDS patients?
to follow up the infection is the viral
load test. In this test the number of HIV
The cause of the immunodeficiency virus is estimated from a blood sample
presented by AIDS patients is the indicating whether the treatment
destruction of CD4 T helper (control) of the disease has been
lymphocytes by the HIV. With this successful or not.
destruction the immune system
becomes impaired and the body cannot
defend itself against many diseases that
normally do not develop in 8. What are the main
immunocompetent people.
opportunistic diseases that
can affect AIDS patients?
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symptoms) ranges in average from 10 response) against the virus. The tests
to 15 years. ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay) and Western-blot search for the
Acute AIDS is the clinical situation presence of specific antibodies against
characterized by signs and symptoms HIV antigens in blood samples. Since
that may appear in 5 to 30 days after only one positive ELISA is not
the infection by the HIV, due to the high conclusive, as false positive tests may
replication rate of the virus on this happen, the Western-blot test is often
period. Acute AIDS does not always used after the positive ELISA.
happen and many times it is mistaken
for common diseases like the common
cold. The patient can present fever,
malaise, myalgia (muscle pain) and 12. What is the window phase
arthralgia (joint pain), of an infection? How is this
lymphadenomegaly (enlargement of
concept important for the test
lymphnodes), sweating and diarrhea.
The manifestation often lasts from 3 to of HIV infection in blood
15 days. banks?
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banks nowadays use the PCR that, the high mutation rate of the virus
(polymerase chain reaction) for HIV, a may make the treatment ineffective and
test that is not distorted by the window for this reason the use of the drug
phase since it is not antibody-based. cocktail allows physicians to choose
Using specific primers, the PCR detects other different drug combinations to
the presence of DNA generated by escape the viral resistance.
reverse transcription of the HIV RNA.
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migrans, an ancylostomiasis of the skin
Worm Diseases caused by Ancylostoma braziliensis.
Other important worm infections caused Schistosomes are dioecious, i.e., the
by platyhelminthes are: fascioliasis, species has separated sexes, male and
caused by Fasciola hepatica, which female individuals.
attacks the liver and the bile ducts;
hydatid disease, also known as
echinococcosis, caused by a taenia-like
parasite and transmitted by feces of 5. What is the intermediate
dogs in contact with sheep, with a host of Schistosoma mansoni?
clinical picture similar to cysticercosis.
Other important infections caused by
Where does that host live?
roundworms are: strongyloidiasis, agent
Strongyloides stercoralis, a common The intermediate host of the
opportunistic disease in AIDS; filariasis, schistosome is a gastropod mollusc, a
also known as elephantiasis, snail of the Planorbidae family and
transmitted by mosquitoes of the Culex Biomphalaria genus. The snail vector of
genus, caused by Wuchereria bancrofti schistosomiasis lives in freshwater, as in
and other thread-like worms and lagoons and creeks.
manifested by obstruction and fibrosis
of lymphatic vessels that cause swelling
(lymphedema) of limbs; enterobiasis
(pinworm infection), caused by
Enterobius vermicularis, a worm that
parasites the colon and the human
perianal region; cutaneous larva
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6. What is the life cycle of the have hemorrhages and bloody vomiting
schistosome? that may even cause death.
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11. What are the two main As the proglottids become distant from
species of taenias that cause the scolex (head) they mature. Mature
proglottids can fecundate themselves or
human diseases? neighboring ones and the eggs formed
are stored inside them. Proglottids
The two mains species of taenias that called pregnant proglottids, full of eggs,
cause disease in humans are Taenia detach from the body of the worm and
solium, or the pork tapeworm, and are eliminated with the human feces.
Taenia saginata, or the beef tapeworm.
Tapeworms have hooks and sucking 15. What is the life cycle of a
structures on their heads (scolex) that tapeworm?
fixate the parasite in the gut wall; these
structures often do not injure the host Pregnant proglottids with taenia eggs
tissue. The parasite obtains food and are released together with human feces.
makes gas exchange through absorption If ingested by the intermediate hosts,
and diffusion across its skin; since it is a swine or bovine, the eggs break inside
platyhelminth it does not have a their intestines and the larva trespass
digestive system or a circulatory the mucosa and gains the circulation to
system. settle on muscles, heart, brain and
other organs of these animals and then
differentiate into cystic larvae called
cysticerci. Humans become infected
13. What are the segments when eating raw or badly cooked swine
that form the body of the or bovine meat contaminated by
tapeworm called? What is cysticerci. In the human intestines the
cysticerci develop into adult worms and
their function? the cycle goes on.
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16. What is the difference gut the cysticerci may develop into an
between taeniasis and adult tapeworm.
cysticercosis?
Taeniasis is the parasitic disease caused 18. How does self infection by
by the adult tapeworm installed within
tapeworms occur?
the human intestine.
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21. How do ascaris obtain 24. What are the main
food? symptoms of the pulmonary
and of the intestinal phases of
The ascaris live within the human gut the ascaris infestation?
and feed from the food ingested by the
infected person. In the pulmonary phase the ascaris
infestation causes cough, hemoptysis,
dyspnea, fever, fatigue and may cause
a special kind of pneumonia called
22. Does Ascaris lumbricoides eosinophilic pneumonia. In the intestinal
present an intermediate host? phase the symptoms are due to
spoliation of nutrients of the host and
Ascaris is a monoxenous parasite, its thus hunger and weight loss may
life cycle is dependent only on one host appear. Masses of ascaris inside the
and so it does not have intermediate bowels can cause severe intestinal
host. obstruction.
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anemia, hypoproteinemia and the to the airway and the pharynx. When
patient often seems pale. the larvae are swallowed they enter the
small intestine and develop into adult
worms and the cycle restarts.
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Prion Diseases
1. What is a prion?
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diseases of the nervous system are
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7. What are the main cannot irrigate some regions of the
degenerative diseases of the heart muscle (myocardium) the
infarction occurs and the muscle cells of
heart? the affected area die.
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artery thus reestablishing the blood flow organism. Neoplasias can be benign or
to the myocardium. Often the blood malign. Benign neoplasias are those in
vessel grafts are part of the saphenous which the cell proliferation is limited to a
vein from the leg or of the mammary given site of the body and so neoplastic
artery from the chest or even of the cells do not spread to other close
radial artery from the forearm. regions or at distance through the
circulation. Malign neoplasias are those
in which the neoplastic cells disseminate
at distance to other sites and organs of
11. What are cerebrovascular the body, a process called metastasis,
accidents? where they continue to proliferate.
Malign neoplasias injure tissues and if
not eradicated they are fatal. Benign
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), also
neoplasia can also be deadly when it
known as stroke, is the generic name
forms a tumor that grows and
given to infarction (tissue and cellular
compresses vital organs.
death by hypoxia) of areas of the brain
due to vascular obstruction or
hemorrhages. CVAs are divided into
ischemic and hemorrhagic. In the
ischemic CVA blocking of arteries that
13. How different are the
carry blood to the brain occurs; its concepts of neoplasia, tumor
cause is generally atherosclerosis and cancer?
(atheroma formation) of these vessels.
In the hemorrhagic CVA there is rupture Not every tumor is neoplastic and not
of one or more blood vessels of the every neoplasia creates tumor. Tumor is
brain with blood leakage, increasing the generic name given to the abnormal
intracranial pressure and thus increase in mass or volume of any area
interruption of blood flow in some areas of the body (for example, the enlarged
of the brain. The severity of the stroke tonsils during throat infection are a kind
depends on the function performed by of tumor, any inflammation creating a
the affected area of the brain, for swelled area characterize a tumor, etc.).
example, motor function, visual Neoplasias can form tumors, some of
function, vegetative function, etc., and them very large, by aggregation of
on the size of the involved area. neoplastic cells in the region where the
neoplasia began or in distant
The main risk factors for implantations. Cancer is a synonym for
cerebrovascular accidents are malign neoplasia.
hypertension, hypercholesterolemia,
tobacco smoking and old age.
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at distance usually occurs through blood natural and synthetic substances to
or lymphatic vessels. inhibit angiogenesis.
15. How do malign neoplasias 18. What are the main types
appear? of cancer that affect humans?
Neoplasias appear due to DNA Excluding skin cancer, that are the more
mutations in genes that regulate the easily detected and so cases are
cellular proliferation thus making the registered in larger number, the main
cell lose its capacity to control and limit types of cancer in men are prostate
its division by mitosis. The cell then cancer, lung cancer, stomach cancer; in
divides continuously and uncontrollably women, breast cancer, colon and rectal
and this defect is transmitted to its cancer and lung cancer are of great
daughter cells. incidence. Other common cancers are
ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, liver
cancer, esophageal cancer, brain cancer
and the leukemias and lymphomas
16. What are carcinogens? (blood cancers).
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The main risk factor for skin cancer is dementia and alteration of mental
solar exposition of the skin without functions.
protection against ultraviolet radiation
(a potential carcinogen). The disease generally appears after 40
years of age and it is more frequent in
The most lethal skin cancer is the elderly. Image studies of the brain
melanoma. show broad loss of brain tissue. (The
Alzheimer’s disease should not be
confused with other mental
deteriorations common in the elderly.)
21. How is cancer usually
treated?
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