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1, February 1994 59
Dynamic Ward Equivalents for Transient Stability Analysis
Abstract - In an effort to reduce the computing time of analysis when the system is reduced throu h the Ward
transient stability assessment, the paper presents a dynamic equivalencing method. Recently, Pai et al. f9] initiated a
equivalent which results fiom the elimination of the load buses method based on the assumption that the complex ratios of the
povided with voltage-dependent loads. The elimination is voltage phasors at the generator buses to those at the load
performed through a new version of the Ward equivalencing buses are constant. A different approach was proposed by
method. In this approach, the equivalent current injections are Vittal, et al. [lo]. Here, a transient energy function for a
expressed in terms of the retained bus angles and a sensitivity reduced system is built after the elimination of the load buses
provided with constant current and constant power loads. The
matrix E. The non-linearity of the load flow model is reduction employs a Ward equivalencing method in which the
accounted for through piecewise linear approximations by equivalent current injections are updated at each integration
updating the E matrix whenever the operating point moves step of the path-dependent term of the energy function. Each
beyond the validity of the linearization. The paper also derives step involves a single iteration of the Newton-Raphson
the expressions of the incremental changes in the generator procedure on the unreduced system, which makes the method
electric power and the transient energy function for the time consuming.
reduced system. The approach has been tested on several The paper presents a fast dynamic Ward equivalent that
systems with different sizes and characteristics. is not only able t o handle constant P Q loads [ll],but also can
eliminate any load buses provided with voltage-dependent
Key words: Network reduction; Complex loads; Dynamic loads represented by a polynomial function. It takes
equivalents; Transient stability analysis; Energy function. advantage of the ability of the PMU’s to measure the voltage
and current phasors at the buses where they are located. The
cornerstone of the technique is a correction formula that allows
1 - INTRODUCTION us to update the equivalent current injections at the retained
buses without explicitly carrying out a load flow calculation.
I t can also be used to update the generator electric powers and
The advent of Phasor Measurement Units (PMU’s) [1,2] the energy function of the system. This formula is derived
which are able t o track the dynamics of an electric power from a sensitivity analysis performed on both the power flow
system has prompted the development of closed4oop control of and the load models. It involves a sensitivity matrix E which
power systems during an emergency state [2-5]. As part of this is updated whenever the machine angles move beyond the
effort, work has begun to address the problem of incorporating range of validity of the linearization. Simulation results
PMU’s in power system state estimation as well as provide showed that, in the case where a single machine is swinging in
data for transient stability analysis. To this end, an algorithm
that finds the minimal PMU placement for system the system, the E matrix needs to be updated only five times
observability has been developed [5, 61. to cover the whole range of angular excursion. Further savings
The need to quickly perform transient stability in computing time can be obtained by calculating beforehand
assessment for on-line control requires the reduction of the some of these matrices and storing them in memory.
system through the elimination of the load buses. The Throughout the paper, it is assumed without loss of generality
conventional approach consists of modeling the loads by that the retained buses are the internal generator nodes
constant impedances and eliminating them through a Ward whereas the eliminated buses are voltage-dependent load
equivalencing technique. A major drawback of this approach is buses.
the unreliability of the analysis due to the oversimplification of The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews
the load models. To overcome this weakness, Bergen and Hill voltagedependent load models. Section 3 derives the dynamic
[7] have advocated the use of complex load models while Ward equivalent based on sensitivity analysis. Section 4 gives
preserving the structure of the system. However, this the expressions of both the generator electric power and an
methodology comes at the expense of large computing times, energy function for the reduced system. Section 5 describes
which precludes its use in a real-time environment. All this some simulation results performed on the New-England
calls for an approach which performs both the reduction of the 10-machine system.
size of the system and retains the effects of complex loads.
I
Podmore and Germond 81 were the first to propose a
method that accounts for non- inear loads in transient stability
Notation: In this paper we will denote a matrix and a vector
quantity b y a bar below it, and a phasor quantity b y a bar above
at.
93 WM 244-4 PWRS A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Power System Engineering Committee of 2 - VOLTAGE-DEPENDENT LOADS
the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation
at the IEEE/PES 1993 Winter Meeting, Columbus, OH,
January 31 - February 5, 1993. Manuscript submitted This section begins by presenting the polynomial form of
August 27, 1992; made available for printing the voltagedependent load model which is used in the
December 28, 1992. development of the dynamic Ward equivalent. It is followed
by a simulation study that demonstrates the unreliability of
transient stability analyses when constant PQ loads are
approximated by constant impedance loads.
0885-8950/94/$04.00 0 1993 IEEE
60
2.1 VoltageDependent Load Modeling power-angle curves of generator #3 for the unreduced and the
reduced system depart from each other. The difference
Consider a load bus, say the jth bus, which is provided becomes significant for large machine angles, which invalidates
with voltage-dependent powers, P . and Q , represented as a the stability margin assessment. Both curves result from the
(J 4 application of a sequence of angular shifts of 10' in magnitude
polynomial function of the voltage magnitude of that bus, Vlj , to the angle of generator #3 while maintaining the angles of
namely the other machines at the base case values.
and
where the subscript L denotes the load buses to be eliminated 3.2.1 Linearizing the Load Flow Model
and the subscript g denotes the generator buses that are
retained. When the system is reduced to the internal generator By linearizing the load flow model about the base case,
nodes, the current-voltage relationship (3) reduces to the real and reactive power increments can be expressed in
terms of the voltage magnitude increments, the phase angle
increments and the Jacobian matrix J . In a matrix form, we
have
where
- p y-'p
qg- 9-p
-gg -gf -U -fg (6)
Finally, we substitute (19)into (15) to obtain 3.2.3 Lineariging the Voltage and Current Phanors
yields
This relation allows us to calculate the load bus voltage
phasors as a function of the generator angles.
673
3.2.2 Linearizing the Load Current Injections .= AEgi + 673 A 6gi = e
jdgi
(AEgi + jEgi A b g > .
g1 aEgi a 'gi
Now, we linearize the load current magnitude I and (33)
4
phase angle $ at a given load bus, say the jth bus, which
4 Under the assumption that AE = 0
gi
, (33) becomes
express in phasor form as
A Egl. = j ejS"' Egi A6gi, i = 1,- -- 1 n. (34)
Similarly, we have
j$f.
A f(J . = e J (AIfj + j I .fj. A $ f j) , j = l , - . . , m .
(36)
The derivations are carried out as follows. First, we perform a
first-order Taylor series expansion of I about the base case, These expressions can be put into a diagonal matrix form as
4
which yields
Aa
E = E A 6-g (37)
where
where and
Xi= diag ( Y.
fJ
) , 9;= diag ( 4'( j ) . (30)
Aa
Ieq=EAjg , (13) In (47) , AI:: and A$eq denote the magnitudes and phase
gi
where angles of the equivalent current increments given by (13).
-
w=v K+y
- G .(43) 4.2 Building a Transient Energy Function
In the base case, the expression of the system transient
energy function in the center of inertia (coi) reference frame is
Therefore, the equivalent current injections can be updated given by [I51
through
tS
i=l
EgoiAI;: COS ( ZgOi - A(:) iidt
flow solution. When the system is reduced to the internal
generator nodes, the equivalent electric powers using the (51)
classical machine model are found at the base case through
An appropriate change of variables in the limits of integration
yields
6i
where y"q
I]
L 19 1; are the entries of the equivalent bus Egoi AI;: COS (ZgOi - A(:) dzi .
admittance matrix Pq, expressed as in ( 6 ) . When using the
' 7% (52)
dynamic Ward equivalent, the equivalent current increments
are transformed into equivalent electric power increments, Note that the incremental equivalent current phasor,
which express as
A{: = AI:: L A g e s , is a function of all the generator angles
gi
6 which makes AVeq(Z) path dependent. However, an
-g '
approximation of the incremental transient energy is obtained
The latter are added to the base case electric power to get by assuming a linear trajectory between the post-fault stable
equilibrium oint 1
and $ as it is widely accepted (see for
instance [15]f
5 - SIMULATION RESULTS reported in Table 1. We observe that, when the E matrix is
updated at 2" , 75" , 92' , 105' , and 120' , the largest power
mismatch of generator #3 does not exceed 3 pu out of
The accuracy of the dynamic Ward equivalent has been maximum generator power of 35 pu, yielding a maximum error
evaluated through simulations performed on several test of 8.5% .
systems having a number of machines that ranges from 7 to 29. Table 2 reports the results for the New-England system
The tests have involved both multiple-swing-bus power flow provided with voltage-dependent loads that are expressed in
calculations and transient stability analysis for a wide range of terms of the voltage magnitudes raised to the power 3/2. The
operating conditions using different load models. This section -
reports only simulations carried out on the New-England -
W matrix has been updated at the same generator angles as for
system shown in Figure 1. This system is moderately to the constant P Q load case. Again the maximum error in
generator power does not exceed 2.6 pu, namely 8.5 % .
heavily loaded.
5.1 Numerical Integration of the Swing Equations
The simulations that have been performed on the
New-England system with constant PQ loads and its reduced m
version based on the constant impedance load approximation #
(see Figure 2 in Section 2.2) have been repeated while using I
the dynamic Ward equivalent. Figure 4 displays the rotor 0
0
- 30
-160 -120 -ao -qo o qo EO 120
.,. . . ._* -
. . , . .. . . .
65
Table 2. Largest power mismatch for constant and updated R. Podinore and A. Germond, Development of Dynamic
-
W for systems with I V I loading. Equivalents for Transient Stability Studies, Final Report,
EPRI EL-456. 1977.
Mismatch Error M.A. Pai, K. R. Padiyar, and C. Radhakrishna,
Angular Gen. Mismatch Error "Transient Stability Analysis of Multimachine AC/DC
shift Power const. w const. @
! updated updated Power System Via Energy Function Method", IEEE
(deg) (PU) (P4- (PU) (%I Transactions on Power Amaratzls and Svstems, Vol. 100.
-0.13 -1.2 No. 12, Dec. 1981,pp. 5027'4035.
10' 11.3 -0.13 -1.2 V. Vital, N. Bhatia, A.A. Fouad, G.A. Maria, and H.M.
20" 13.8 -0.41 -3.0 -0.41 -3.0 Zein El-Din. !IncorDoration of Non-linear Load Models in
30' 22.9 1.05 4.6 1.05 4.6 the Transient Energy Function Method", ZEEE
40" 27.3 2.22 8.1 2.22 8.1
4.02 13.0 2.63 8.5 Transactions on Power systems, Vol. 4, No. 3, Aug. 1989,
50" 30.9 pp. 1031-1036.
60' 33.5 6.57 19.6 0.52 1.6
70- 35.1 9.94 28.3 2.28 6.5 T. L. Baldwin, L. Mili, and A. G. Phadke, "Ward-type
14.22 40.1 -1.38 -3.9 Equivalents for Transient Stability Analysis",
80' 35.5 Proceedings of the IFAC International Symposium on
goo 34.7 19.45 56.1 -0.36 -1.0
Control of Power Plants and Power Systems, March 9-11,
1992,Munich, Germany, pp. 251-255.
P. L. Dandeno and P. Kundur, "A noniterative transient
stability program including the effects of variable
the voltage magnitudes. The cornerstone of the method is a load-voltage characteristics , IEEE Transactions on
correction formula which can be used to update the equivalent Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 92, No. 5, May 1973,
generator currents as well as the generator electric power and pp. 1478-1484.
the system energy function. Simulation results showed that M. A. Pai, Energy Function Analysis for Power System
the method gives very close results to those obtained from the Stability, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Mass.,
unreduced system. 1989.
Future research include the modification of the method t o F. F. Wu and A. Monticelli, "Critical Review of External
accommodate for two axes machine models with flux decay and Network Modelling for On-line Security Analysis",
excitation control. The intent is to overcome the inaccuracies Electric Power €4 Energy Systems, Vo. 5, No. 4, October
inherent t o the classical model of the generators. They also
include the development of analytical criteria for selecting the 1983,pp. 222-235.
T. Athey, R. Podmore, S. Virmani, "A Practical Method
machine angles a t which the E matrix has to be updated. for the Direct Analysis of Transient Stability", ZEEE
Another issue that needs to be addressed is the extension of the Transaddons on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 98,
method to handle dynamic load models which are function of NO. 2, March/April 1979,pp. 573-584.
the frequency and/or the voltage derivatives.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8 - BIOGRAPHY