WORKSHOP

Exploration for orogenic

gold deposits – with emphasis on
geochemical exploration in
glaciated Precambrian terrain
 Exploration for orogenic gold deposits –
with emphasis on geochemical exploration in
glaciated Precambrian terrain

Workshop, 21 August 2011

25th International Applied Geochemistry Symposium 2011

22-26 August 2011 Rovaniemi, Finland

Pasi Eilu, V. Juhani Ojala and Pertti Sarala

Publisher: Vuorimiesyhdistys - Finnish Association of Mining and Metallurgical

Engineers, Serie B, Nro B92-6, Rovaniemi 2011
Eilu, P., Ojala, V.J. and Sarala, P. 2011. Exploration for orogenic gold deposits – with emphasis on geo-
chemical exploration in glaciated Precambrian terrain. Workshop in the 25th International Applied Geo-
chemistry Symposium 2011 22-26 August 2011 Rovaniemi, Finland. Vuorimiesyhdistys, B92-6, 88 pages.

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Cover – Irma Varrio

ISBN 978-952-9618-74-3 (Printed)

ISBN 978-952-9618-75-0 (Pdf)
ISSN 0783-1331

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Exploration for orogenic gold deposits – with emphasis on
geochemical exploration in glaciated Precambrian terrain
Pasi Eilu1, V. Juhani Ojala2 and Pertti Sarala1

1 Geological Survey of Finland, E-mail firstname.lastname@gtk.fi

2 Store Norske Gull, E-mail firstname.lastname@snsk.no

Abstract

An orogenic gold deposit is a structurally controlled gold occurrence formed dur-

ing one of the major stages of an orogeny by orogenic fluids. Any rock type within
a greenstone or schist belt, a metamorphosed supracrustal rock, dyke, or intrusion
within or intrusion bounding such belt may host an orogenic gold deposit. There is
strong structural control of mineralization at a variety of scales but the favoured host
is typically the locally most reactive and/or most competent lithological unit. These
deposits are not present in post- or anorogenic intrusions or unmetamorphosed su-
pracrustal rocks. Most of the Precambrian deposits were formed during 2.70–2.60
Ga and 2.10–1.70 Ga. These epochs appear to be related to rapid crustal growth and
accretionary stages of supercontinents. Mineralisation typically takes place during
the last major stage of an orogeny. The late timing of this deposit type to provide
important geological aids in exploration as the geometry of the geological units has
not significantly changed after the mineralisation. Hence computer aided methods
like geomechanical stress modelling can be utilised to model structurally favourable
sites.
In greenschist facies settings, mineralisation typically takes place slightly
after the metamorphic peak, but in amphibolite facies at the local regional-metamor-
phic peak. The ore bodies typically have a strongly flattened ellipsoidal shape, are
plate-like, may have a steep or a gentle dip and plunge of ore shoots. An ore body
can be 0.5–50 m wide, 100 m – 2 km long, consisting of a vein network, an en ech-
elon vein swarm, or just of one single large vein. The depth extent of an ore body
may well be much larger than its extent along strike. An individual vein can be 1
cm – 10 m thick and 20–1000 m long. In most cases, gold occurs as native gold, free
in gangue and with main sulphides, and as inclusions and in fractures of gangue and
sulphide grains. In a few cases, most of gold is in the lattice of or submicroscopic
inclusions in pyrite or arsenopyrite.
All deposits are developed by an alteration halo characterised by proximal
to distal carbonatisation and proximal sericitisation or biotitisation. Also, proximal
sulphidation may be distinct if the host rock is iron rich. Elements enriched typically
include As, Au, CO2, K, Rb, S, Sb, Te, W; in some cases also Ag, B, Bi, Co, Cu,
and Se are enriched. The Au/Ag is consistently >1, typically 5–10. Enrichment or
depletion of Ca, Fe, Mn or Mg are non-existent, and Na mobility, if present, is minor
and spatially restricted to the ore itself. Alteration mineral assemblages, alteration
indices based on CO2 and K, and trace (pathfinder) elements enriched in the deposits
can be used in defining exploration targets and vectors to ore in bedrock.
Surficial geological, till geochemical and indicator mineral studies are effec-
tive methods in gold exploration in glaciated terrains. By test pit surveys and strati-
graphic controlled till geochemical and heavy mineral sampling glacial transport
distances and mechanisms, secondary element dispersions, and ice flow directions
can be estimated. Strong changes in glacial dynamics and erosional and depositional
conditions lead to a variable degree of preservation of earlier deposits and pre-Qua-
ternary regolith, and deposition of complex glacigenic formations.
6

Workshop Program
Sunday, 21 August 2011, Hotel Santa Claus, Rovaniemi

8:30-9:00 am Registration

9:00 am Overview of the orogenic gold deposit type, Juhani Ojala

9:45 am Reference to other types of gold deposits in shield areas, Juhani Ojala

10:30 am Coffee break

10:45 Alteration and geochemical dispersion related to orogenic gold, Pasi Eilu

12:00 Lunch

13:15 Brief overview to the surficial geological and geochemical exploration for gold
in glaciated terrains, Pertti Sarala

14:00 Discussion

14:30 Coffee

14:45-16.00 Ore and alteration zone samples, Pasi Eilu

Overview of the orogenic gold

deposit type

Juhani Ojala
Store Norske Gull AS
Heavily based on talks by D. I. Groves

Talk outline

• Nature and tectonic setting of orogenic gold

• Lithospheric scale energy sources and
processes
• Timing of orogenic gold systems
• Crustal continuum model
• Orogenic gold mineral system
• Structural and host rock controls
• Endowment
• Conceptual targeting and GIS
 8

A SIMPLIFIED OROGENIC GOLD

MINERAL SYSTEM
1. SIMPLIFIED MINERAL SYSTEM

2. RHEOLOGICAL CONTRASTS AND HOST ROCK

CONTROLS

3. STRUCTURAL AND GEOMETRICAL CONTROLS

a) Supracrustal Belts
b) Role of Granitoids and Other Rigid Bodies

4. PRODUCTIVE vs POORLY-ENDOWED TERRANES

Host
rock
Channelway
(shear zone)

Structural Fluid focussing

permeability

Source
rock

Anatomy of a Hydrothermal System

 9

Epigenetic Gold Deposits in Orogenic Belts

• Orogenic gold deposits (e.g. Kalgoorlie, Ashanti)

• “Intrusion-related” gold deposits (e.g. Fort Knox)
• Overprinted porphyry deposits (e.g. McIntyre,
Boddington?)
• Overprinted VMS (Bousquet, Bulyanhulu)

Includes “greenstone-hosted”, “slate-belt hosted”,

“Mother lode-style” etc

9
 10

Features Common to Majority of

Orogenic Gold Deposits
1. At or near terrane boundaries (or other crustal-
scale faults/ shear zones).
2. Strong structural control in lower-order structures.
3. Large vertical extent with subtle vertical zonation.
4. Typically K-mica and carbonate alteration at
greenschist facies.
5. Characteristic addition of SiO2, K, Rb, Ba+Na+B.
6. Characteristic ore metals : Au+Ag+As+Sb+Te+W
with low Pb-Zn-Cu.
7. Low salinity H2O-CO2 + CH4 ore fluid.
8. Radiogenic and stable isotope signatures indicate
mixed sources. 10

FACTORS CRITICAL TO FORMATION OF

WORLD-CLASS OROGENIC DEPOSITS
1. HIGH FLUID FLUX
a) Thick competent host rocks
b) Strong contrasts in rock strength (rheology)
c) High structural permeability in failed units or fault/shear zone
contacts
2. EFFICIENT GOLD DEPOSITION
a) Reactive host rocks (high Fe/Mg or C?)
b) Phase separation (lower H+, CH4 and H2S in residual fluid)
c) Fluid mixing (note problems of mixing: limited fluid reservoirs;
high fluid pressure; confusion with reaction with previously
altered rocks

CRITICAL CHEMICAL FACTORS FOR LARGE

TONNAGE - OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS
1. REACTIVE HOST ROCK TO PRODUCE DISSEMINATED GOLD RESOURCE (IN
ADDITION TO HIGH-GRADE VEINS)

2. FLUID IS H2O – CO2 ± CH4 WITH VERY MINOR (<100PPM) H2S

3. GOLD IS CARRIED AS THIOSULPHIDE COMPLEX SUCH AS Au (HS)2

4. HENCE GOLD CAN BE PRECIPITATED BY LOW DEGREES OF SULPHIDATION (< 5%

SULPHIDES) OF HOST ROCKS

5. HENCE HIGH Fe CONTENTS (MORE CORRECTLY HIGH Fe/Fe+Mg+Ca RATIOS,

BECAUSE CO2 IS DOMINANT AND PRODUCES Fe-BEARING CARBONATES) ARE
IMPORTANT

6. HIGH C CONTENTS MAY REDUCE FLUID OR TRAP Au ON ORGANIC MATERIAL.

7. HENCE MANY WORD-CLASS OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS IN HIGH Fe ROCKS SUCH

AS THOLEIITIC BASALT (TIMMINS) OR CARBONACEOUS ROCKS (BENDIGO)
 11

14

15
 12

16

Alpine Orogenic Gold: Related to slab

Detachment and mantle thermal anomalies

Slab Slab de Boorder et al EPSL’98

17

18
 13

A CRUSTAL THICKENING B PLUME IMPACT/SUBDUCTION

Hg-Sb Arc
Accreted Au
oceanic crust Au

Mantle
plume
head

C SUBDUCTION ROLLBACK D OCEANIC RIDGE SUBDUCTION

Extension in Extension
continental crust
Au
Au

Slab
rollback
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere
upwelling upwelling
19

E EROSION OF MANTLE F DELAMINATION OF MANTLE

LITHOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE

Au Au
Au

Asthenosphere
upwelling
Asthenosphere
upwelling

Granitoids Mantle
plume
Accreted
continental crust Mantle
G lithosphere
A Greenschist- Fault with
amphibolite movement Stable
transition vector continental crust Asthenosphere

Oceanic crust
20

21
 14

22

23

24
 15

25

Youngest rocks hosting gold mineralisation

Granny Smith
Mt Shea U-Pb in zircon
Porphyry U-Pb in titanite
Jundee U-Pb in monazite
Kanowna Belle (pre-main Au event)
Mt Morgans Re-Os in molybdenite
Ar/Ar in mica
Ages of gold mineralisation Sm-Nd in garnet
Kanowna Belle (minor) Pb-Pb in pegmatite
Golden Mile Pb-Pb in sulphide
Eastern Mt Charlotte
Goldfields Victory, Kambalda
Province Chalice
Lawlers (minor)
Matilda, Wiluna
East Lode, Wiluna
Other Big Bell
Mt Gibson
Provinces Reedys
Marymia
Oldest rocks syn to post gold mineralisation Eastern Goldfields
Scotia Province
Scotia
Mt Gibson Other
Westonia
Griffin’s Find Provinces
Nevoria
Corinthia
2680Ma 2660 2640 2620 2600 2580 2560Ma

26

27
 16

28

29

30
 17

31

32

33
 18

34

35

36
 19

37

38

39
 20

40

41

42
 21

43

44

45
 1000
1250

250
500
750
1000
1250

250
500
750
kg x 103

kg x 103
Golden Mile (Kalgoorlie) Golden Mile (Kalgoorlie)
Plutonic Central Norseman
Sunrise/Cleo Sons of Gwalia
Jundee Mt Charlotte (Kalgoorlie)
Wallaby Wiluna-Moonlight
Kanowna Bell Hill 50 - Mt Magnet
Bronzewing Boddington - Hedges
Carosue Dam Great Fingall - Golden crown (Day Crown)
Central Norseman Paddys Flat (Meekatharra)
Tarmoola Kambalda - St Ives
Sons of Gwalia Lancefield (Laverton)
Mt Charlotte : Kalgoorlie Big Bell (Cue)
Wiluna-Moonlight Lady Shenton - Crusoe - Princess May (Menzies)

The Situation
The Situation

in 2000
in 1990
Hill 50 - Mt Magnet Copperhead (Bullfinch)

YILGARN
Boddington - Hedges Emu (Lawlers)
Granny Smith : Laverton Edna May (Westonia)
Paddington

1000
Great Fingall - Golden crown : Day Crown

250
500
750
1000

250
500
750
Reedy

kg x 103
Paddys Flat : Meekatharra

kg x 103
Hollinger-McIntyre-Coniaurum:Timmins Westralia (Mt Morgans) Hollinger-McIntyre-Coniaurum:Timmins
Kambalda - St Ives
Dome : Timmins New Celebration Dome : Timmins
Lancefield : Laverton
Thunderbox Kerr Addison : Larder Lake Oroya Black Range (Sandstone) Kerr Addison : Larder Lake
Big Bell (Cue) Campbell : Red Lake Youanmi Campbell : Red Lake
Lady Shenton - Crusoe - Princess May:Menzies Lake Shore : Kirkland Lake Frasers (Southern Cross) Lake Shore : Kirkland Lake
Copperhead (Bullfinch) Williams : Hemlo Bayleys (Coolgardie) Williams : Hemlo
Golden Giant : Hemlo

YILGARN
Emu : Lawlers Burbanks Golden Giant : Hemlo
Edna May (Westonia) Wright - Hargraves : Kirkland Lake Hannans North (Kalgoorlie) Wright - Hargraves : Kirkland Lake
Lamaque : Val D’Or Lamaque : Val D’Or
Paddington Cosmopolitan (Kalgoorlie)
Reedy Dickinson : Red Lake Granny Smith (Laverton) Dickinson : Red Lake
Westralia : Mt Morgans Pamour : Timmins Pamour : Timmins
New Celebration Sigma : Val D’Or Sigma : Val D’Or
Oroya Black Range : Sandstone David Bell : Hemlo David Bell : Hemlo
Youanmi Doyon : Bousquet Doyon : Bousquet
Frasers : Southern Cross Macassa : Kirkland Lake Macassa : Kirkland Lake
East Malartic : Malartic East Malartic : Malartic
Bayleys : Coolgardie
Madsen : Red Lake Madsen : Red Lake
Burbanks
Bousquet : Bousquet Bousquet : Bousquet
Hannans : North (Kalgoorlie
Aunor : Timmins Aunor : Timmins
Cosmopolitan : Kalgoorlie
Malartic : Malartic Malartic : Malartic

ABITIBI
ABITIBI
Sylvanite : Kirkland Lake Sylvanite : Kirkland Lake
Hallnor : Timmins Hallnor : Timmins
Camflo : Val D’Or Camflo : Val D’Or
Preston : Timmins Preston : Timmins
Detour : Lake Detour Detour : Lake Detour

48
47
Pickle Crow : Pickle Lake Pickle Crow : Pickle Lake
46
Macleod-Cockshunt : Geralton Macleod-Cockshunt : Geralton
Agnico-Eagle : Jouiel Agnico-Eagle : Jouiel
22
 23

GIS modelling
Modelling

Satellite images
Digital elevation
model and basemaps

Quaternary geology
Till geochemistry

Bedrock mapping
Airborne geophysics
•magnetic
•electro-magnetic
Gravity
•gamma radiation

Weights of Evidence orogenic gold model,

Combined Empirical/Conceptual WofE

Combined empirical/conceptual weights-of-evidence

model CLGB

Class Area km2Area %Sites W+ W- Contrast s(C) Confidence

Very high 403 2.2 6 2.1128 -0.1726 2.2854 0.4527 5.0482
High 517 2.8 12 2.5653 -0.4078 2.9731 0.3617 8.22
Moderate 2493 13.4 10 0.7903 -0.2051 0.9954 0.377 2.6404
Low 635 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Very low 14593 78.3 6 -1.4911 1.3379 -2.829 0.4502 -6.2837
total 18642 100.0
 24

GIS conclusions
• the models predict areas with high potential
for orogenic Au mineralization in the Central
Lapland Greenstone Belt
-> considerable reductiong of the area to be
explored (less than 1% of the original study
area)

DISTAL VS PROXIMAL SOURCE MODELS FOR

OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS
B. Salier (2003)

53

SIMPLE MINERAL SYSTEM MODEL

ARCHAEAN OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS
Sub – SEAL
Greenschist
σ1 σ1
Dolerite
Mid - TRAP
Greenschist
Sedimentary Sequence
Volcanic Rock

FLUID PATHWAY
Amphibolite
Metamorphic Fluid
Distal Granite
Magmatic II SOURCE
Fluid
Granulite
Metamorphic Fluid

Granite I Fluid from Subcreted

Oceanic Crust
54
 25

Reference to other types of

gold deposits in shield areas
V. Juhani Ojala

Current organisation:
Store Norske Gull AS

Ouline of the talk

• Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield
• Gold mineralization types
– Metamorphosed epitermal
– Massive sulphide hosted
– Granitoid related (non skarn)
– Skarn-Iron Oxide Copper Gold
– Orogenic (mesothermal)
– Paleoplacer
– Supergene and Recent alluvial

Gold mineralisation can occur in nearly all

geological environments

Tectonic settings of gold-rich mineral deposits

Groves et al. (1998, 2000, 2003, 2005)
 26

Genetic deposit types

Palaeoproterozoic, 1.92-1.77 Ga
• Multistage rifting during 2.45-1.97 Ga
• Four main orogenic stages:
1.92-1.88 Ga: Microcontinent accretion
1.88-1.85 Ga: Continental extension
1.85-1.79 Ga: Continent-continent collision
1.79-1.77 Ga: Orogenic collapse and stabilisation
 27

1.90–1.88
collision II
1.92–1.90
collision

1.86–1.85 1.85–1.79
exension collision III

Metamorphosed
epithermal

Metamorphosed epithermal:

Pahtavaara

Kutemajärvi/Orivesi

Pasi Eilu 2003

 28

Kutemajärvi:
Metamorphosed HS epithermal
Host to ore: quartz rock
Immediately around to ore: Al-rich rocks
quartz-andalusite-pyrophyllite
F-Al(-P) minerals present: topaz, fluorite, apatite
Metal association Au±Ag-As-Te
No potassic or carbonate alteration
Extremely low Na2O + K2O + CaO + MgO

Pasi Eilu 2003

Kutemajärvi, Tampere Schist Belt

After Poutiainen
& Grönholm
(1996)

Pahtavaara
 29

Pahtavaara
•Gangue – quartz, baryte, tremolite, dolomite, scheelite
•Ba- and Mn-anomalies
•Au = 99.02% Au, 0.07% Ag, 0.25% Bi

Champagene Pool, New Zealand

White Island New Zealand

 30

Pasi Eilu 2006

7 Auriferous massive
sulphide deposits
&
Submarine Au-rich
precipitates

Pasi Eilu 2006

VHMS: back-arc environments

Groves et al. (1998, 2000, 2003, 2005)

Rhyol
intrusion

VHMS: what happens there – ”a bit” simplified view

Pirajno (1992)
 31

Precious-metal mineralisation
Pyhäsalmi mine, Proterozoic central Finland

Fahlore?

Electrum
Pyrrhotite

Chalcopyrite
Pyrite
Field of view about 1 mm
Pasi Eilu 2006

All that glitters can be gold!

Haveri ore, SW Finland:
Au-Cu VHMS mineralisation
or a submarine epithermal
overprint on Cu-VHMS?

Field of view about 10 cm

Pasi Eilu 2006 Photo J. Väätäinen
 32

Iron oxide-copper
gold

After Lahtinen et al. (2003),

Weihed & Eilu (2003)

IOCG
•Hosted by epigenetic alkaline to alkali-calcic
predominantly subaerial volcanic rocks, ironstones,
skarn-like rocks, albite rocks, graphitic schists, marbles

•Structural control distinct in all cases

•Magnetite-Chalcopyrite-Pyrite-Pyrrhotite-Gold ±
Cobaltite, Co pentlandite, Uraninite association

•Regional extensive albitisation and scapolitisation

•Local multi-stage Fe ± Mg ± K ± Na alteration

Weihed & Eilu 2003

 33

IOCG Kolari

HANNUKAINEN

W
Laurinoja Kuervaara
Kivivuopio 170
0
162 102 79 78 71 75 89 42 39 36 92 90 86 84 33 E

400 m Quartzite
Monzonite Skarn Mica gneiss
Diorite Ironstone Mafic meta-
P

Overburden Qz-fsp schist volcanic rock
Modified from Hiltunen (1982)

FeOx-
Cu-Au

Granitoid related
Kopsa
 34

Kopsa

•Major opaques Chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite

•Minor opaques Loellingite, marcasite, pyrite, sphalerite,

gold, molybdenite, cubanite, bornite, stannite, bismuth and
several Bi-bearing sulphosalts

•The entire intrusion is anomalous in Ag, As, Au and Cu

Granitoid related-
Porphyry gold

Pasi Eilu 2006

Porphyry deposits: arc environments

Groves et al. (1998, 2000, 2003, 2005)
 35

Raitevarri till and rock geochemistry

Cu-Au Anomalous zone 3 km long and 1 km wide

2009 drilling

2008 drilling

500 profile Au/Cu

 36

Orogenic

Orogenic gold in Fennoscandian Shield

Age After Lahtinen et al. (2003),

Distribution
Weihed Pasi Eilu(2003)
& Eilu 2003

Archaean

In every greenstone
belt explored for
gold?

Ilomantsi
Pampalo
 37

Orogenic Gold: Archaean

• Structural control in both regional and local scale
• The locally most competent ± reactive rock unit as the
main host to ore
• Au-only deposits
• Enriched: Ag, As, Au, Ba, Bi, CO2, K, Li, Rb, S, Sb, Te, W
• Timing: ca. 2.7 Ga, in the latest stage of the
Neoarchaean orogeny (Global control?)
• Compressional to transpressional deformation
• Syn-late orogenic TTG, but no indication of fluid or
metals from the granitoids

Weihed & Eilu 2003

Orogenic Gold: Archaean

Pampalo:
Structurally most complicated location,
Locally, the most competent rock types

Orogenic Gold: Palaeoproterozoic

• Structural control in both regional and local scale

• The most competent ± reactive rock unit as the main
host to ore
• Enriched: Ag, As, Au, CO2, K, Rb, S, Sb, Te, W
± Co, Cu, U (Kuusamo, Saattopora)
• No indication of fluids or metals from granitoids

Weihed & Eilu 2003

 38

Central Lapland Greenstone Belt

Gold: Blue and green dots

Keinänen & Eilu 2003

Orogenic Gold: Palaeoproterozoic

Suurikuusikko,
Central Lapland:
In a shear zone,
intense brecciation

Paleoplacer
•No alteration
•No increase of
any other element
than Au

Kumputunturi-Outapää

Kaarestunturi
 39

Placers and supergene

Isomaa supergene gold from regolith

Puskuoja (Alhonen)

Miessi (Tapio)

Isomaa-Kittilä
Sotajoki Nokia
(Vehviläinen)

5 cm
Ivalojoki
Ruosselkä
 40

Conclusions
Complex tectonic evolution results diversity of Gold
mineralisation styles
•Orogenic: dominant, in all greenstone or schist belts, all ages
•FeOx-Cu-Au: Palaeoproterozoic, W Lapland,
•Granitoid-related: Palaeoproterozoic, near SW suture
between Archaean and Proterozoic
•Metamorphosed epithermal: Palaeoproterozoic, volcanic arcs
•VHMS: Haveri?, Palaeoproterozoic, volcanic arcs

•Paloeplacer in Lapland – erosion from VHMS and orogenic

•Supergene in regolith remnants weathering started

Neoproterozoic
•Placers reworking until Recent
Pasi Eilu 2003

Thanks:
David Groves
Stephen Gardoll
Raimo Lahtinen
Veikko Keinänen
Pär Weihed
Tero Niiranen
Nicole Patison
Nick Oliver
Pekka Nurmi
Erkki Vanhanen
Peter Sorjonen-Ward
Eelis Pulkkinen
Jukka Jokela
Ilkka Härkönen
Vesa Kortelainen
Helena Hulkki
Esa Sandberg
Heikki Juopperi
Antero Karvinen
Heikki Papunen
jne…
 41

Orogenic gold:
alteration

Pasi Eilu
2011
Pasi Eilu August 2011 1

Factors controlling alteration in orogenic systems

1.Deformation
2.Structure
3 PT
3.PT
4.Primary rock composition
5.Fluid composition
6.Fluid/rock

Pasi Eilu August 2011 2

1. Deformation
Brittle, brittle-ductile or ductile
Events can be episodic, repeated

2. Structure
Located in:
- fracture arrays, stockworks, breccia zones,
- foliated zones with pressure solution cleavage,
- fold hinges, “saddle reefs”, etc.

Pasi Eilu August 2011 3

 42

3. PT
Mineralisation and alteration during peak
regional metamorphism or soon after that
Range: 160–700°C, 0.7–5 kbar

4. Primary rock composition

Hosted by almost any rock type within a
metamorphic belt

Pasi Eilu August 2011 4

5. Fluid composition
H2O-CO2-NaCl±CH4±N2 fluid
XCO2 typically 0.05–0.30
Low salinity, commonly 2–8 % NaCl eq.
A
Au + Ag,
A As,
A CO2, K,K Rb,
Rb S,
S Sb,
Sb T
Te, W
± B, Ba, Bi, Hg, Mo, Pb, Se
Co, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn contents normally very low

6. Fluid/rock
Fluid-dominated to rock-dominated

Pasi Eilu August 2011 5

These factors produce an apparently great variation in the style

and products of alteration

…yet several features of alteration are common to all orogenic gold

deposits

… and many of them can be utilised in exploration

Pasi Eilu August 2011 6

 43

The three main classes of alteration in

orogenic systems

Pasi Eilu August 2011 7

1 Lateral zoning
- Due to chemical gradients and decreasing
fluid/rock away from the fluid flow channels
- Surrounds all deposits
- Distinct lateral zoning sequence
- Along-strike and -dip variation within a single
rock type is rare

Pasi Eilu August 2011 8

Alteration envelope around orogenic gold

mineralisation

Distal alteration Proximal alteration Ore

Pasi Eilu August 2011 9
 44

2 Variation in primary rock type

- Variation in primary composition =>
variation in alteration mineral assemblage
without a change in w/r or PT

3 Variation in metamorphic grade

- Systematic variation according to
metamorphic grade
- Typical between individual deposits or
deposit groups (gold camps)
- Rare in a single deposit;
only if a T isograd crosses the system
Pasi Eilu August 2011 10

?
Extent of alteration?

Pasi Eilu August 2011 11

Extent of alteration
- Alteration envelope 5 cm - 2 km wide;
length up to 10 km or even more
- Depends on the size and duration of the hydrothermal
system, and the stress field during alteration
- Positive correlation with the size of the
mineralisation (commonly)
- Zone width grows outwards
- Single zone may be 1 mm - 100 m wide,
distal zone even up to 2 km (Golden Mile)
Pasi Eilu August 2011 12
 45

Bronzewing,
Western
Australia

Alteration
mapped from
drilling
intercepts at 150
m depth

Pasi Eilu
Eilu et al. (2001) August 2011 13

Hollinger-
McIntyre
Timmins, Abitibi

Alteration at
the present
surface
(simplified)
Smith & Kesler (1985)

Pasi Eilu August 2011 14

Alteration at greenschist facies

Pasi Eilu August 2011 15

 46

0. Unaltered rock
Actinolite + epidote + albite + titanite ±
ilmenite, magnetite (ol, cpx, kfsp, qz)

1. Distal zone
Chlorite + calcite + albite + rutile + quartz

2. Intermediate zone
Chlorite + calcite + ankerite/Fe dolomite +
albite + quartz + rutile ± muscovite

3. Proximal zone
Muscovite + ankerite + quartz + albite + rutile +
pyrite ± arsenopyrite, gold
Pasi Eilu August 2011 16

Mafic rock:

Pasi Eilu August 2011 17

Bulletin, Wiluna

Unaltered metabasalt
Actinolite-
Epidote-
Chlorite-
Albite-
Titanite
Titanite-
Magnetite

photo
Pasi Eilu J. Väätäinen August 2011 18
 47

Distal alteration

Chlorite-
Calcite-
Albite-
Quartz-
Q
Rutile-
Magnetite

Pasi Eilu
2 cm August 2011 19
photo J. Väätäinen

Intermediate alteration

Chlorite-Calcite-Dolomite-Albite- 2 cm
Quartz-Rutile-Magnetite
photo J. Väätäinen

Pasi Eilu August 2011 20

Proximal alteration, ore

Dolomite-Sericite-Albite-Quartz- 2 cm
Rutile-Pyrite-Arsenopyrite
photo J. Väätäinen
Pasi Eilu August 2011 21
 48

Proximal alteration, 20 g/t Au

Arsenopyrite
Qz+Dolo+Ab
Sericite

R til
Rutile

Pyrite

Quartz vein

0.5 cm
Pasi Eilu photo J. Väätäinen
August 2011 22

Bulletin mine, Wiluna, Western Australia

Lower-greenschist facies

Unaltered metabasalt Proximal alteration, ore

Crossed polarizers, field of wiew 3.2 mm

photo P. Eilu
Pasi Eilu August 2011 23

Granny Smith, Western Australia

Granodiorite, lower-greenschist facies
Unaltered (Kfsp-Pl-Qz-Biot±Hbl)
+ two mineralisation-related fractures

2 cm

Ore, pervasive proximal alteration (Ab-Qz-Ser-Dol-Py)

photo J. Väätäinen
Pasi Eilu August 2011 24
 49

Sunrise Dam, Western Australia

Komatiite, lower-greenschist facies

Di t l talc-chlorite-dolomite
Distal: t l hl it d l it

Proximal:
fuchsite-
quartz-
ankerite
photo P. Eilu

Pasi Eilu
10 cm August 2011 25

Loukinen, Central Lapland

Komatiite, mid-greenschist facies

Pasi Eilu August 2011 26

Loukinen, Central Lapland

Phyllite, mid-greenschist facies

Pasi Eilu August 2011 27

 50

Mt Magnet, Western Australia

BIF, upper-greenschist facies

Photo
C. Mathison
Pyrite replacing magnetite; a sulphidation front
Pasi Eilu August 2011 28

Uppermost greenschist facies

- Biotite instead of muscovite

- Pyrrhotite instead of, or with, pyrite
- Commonly, calcite with or instead of other
carbonates in the proximal alteration zone
- In ultramafic rocks, talc more common
- K feldspar may be stable in proximal alteration
zones (felsic rocks)

Pasi Eilu August 2011 29

Bronzewing
Yandal Belt, NE Yilgarn

Tholeiitic basalt host rock

Proximal alteration

Chl-Calc-Ank-Ab-Qz → Biot-Calc-Ank-Ab-Qz-Py

photo P. Eilu
Pasi Eilu August 2011 30
 51

Uppermost greenschist facies

If T is above biotite isograd, proximal alteration:

Increasing XCO2 => biotite → sericite

Decreasing XCO2 => sericite → biotite

But no change in sulphides(?)

Pasi Eilu August 2011 31

Py-Po-Mgt-Hm at greenschist facies:

effect of temperature
Rock: average
interflow
sediment at
Kambalda, WA

p = 2 kbar
kb

constant w/r

p(ox) =
proportion of
oxidised sulphur
Evans (2010) Mineralium Deposita 45, 207-213
Pasi Eilu August 2011 32

Py-Po-Mgt-Hm in greenschist facies:

effect of fluid-rock ratio
Evans (2010) Mineralium Deposita 45, 207-213

300°C 350°C

No need for another,

p = 2 kbar, constant w/r,oxidising or reducing fluid, if you see magnetite
p(ox)or= proportion
haematite in a system,
of oxidised sulphur or Po±Py±Mgt±Hm zoning
Pasi Eilu August 2011 33
 52

Amphibolite facies

Pasi Eilu August 2011 34

Contrasts to greenschist facies

- Bleaching is not a characteristic feature

- Calcic plagioclase is stable
- Potassic
P i alteration
l i (biotite
(bi tit ± K-feldspar)
K f ld ) hhas
a wider extent than carbonation

- Calcite is, normally, the only carbonate present

Pasi Eilu August 2011 35

Contrasts to greenschist facies

- Calc-silicates characterise proximal alteration:

diopside, hornblende, tremolite-actinolite, garnet
- Pyrrhotite is the dominant Fe sulphide
- Löllingite may be present
- Rutile gives way to ilmenite and titanite as
stable Ti-minerals, and magnetite may be stable

Pasi Eilu August 2011 36

 53

Lower-amphibolite facies

Regional metamorphic mineral assemblage

plagioclase + hornblende

→ Distal alteration zone (1 cm - 40 m)

plagioclase + hornblende + biotite ± pyrrhotite

→ Proximal alteration zone (1 mm - 20 m)

plagioclase + biotite + calcite + quartz + pyrrhotite
± arsenopyrite, actinolite

Pasi Eilu August 2011 37

Ore, proximal alteration in lower-amphibolite facies

Pasi Eilu August 2011 38

Flin Flon, Canada

BIF: sulphidation front also here

Pasi Eilu
5 mm August 2011 39
photo C. Mathison
 54

Mid-amphibolite facies and higher

metamorphic grades

Regional metamorphic mineral assemblage

plagioclase + hornblende
→ Distal alteration zone (0 cm - 20 m)
plagioclase + hornblende + biotite
→ Proximal alteration zone (1 mm - 10 m)
diopside ± grossular, almandine, actinolite, hornblende, biotite/K-
feldspar, plagioclase, calcite, quartz, pyrrhotite,
arsenopyrite/löllingite

Pasi Eilu August 2011 40

Orogeeninen Au

Ore, proximal alteration

Mid- to upper-amphibolite facies
Basalt, Polaris South, Southern Cross, Yilgarn

Di--Hbl
Di
Di-Hbl-
Di- Hbl-
Biot

Gar
Gar--Qz

mm scale
Pasi Eilu August 2011 41
photo C. Mathison

Alteration as exploration tool

Pasi Eilu August 2011 42

 55

Alteration as exploration tool

1. Alteration envelope can be used to define potential exploration

targets
Easy to identify
Targets detected are much larger than if only gold mineralisation
was used in the target identification

2. Once an alteration halo is recognised, the sequence of alteration

zones can be used as a rough vector towards the potential ore

It is most important to recognise these features in the

early stages of exploration

Pasi Eilu August 2011 43

General trends

In all rocks:
K metasomatism + carbonation
( Ca-silicates)
(± C ili ) + sulphidation
l hid i + quartz veins
i

Pasi Eilu August 2011 44

Greenschist facies

Carbonate-free → calcite → calcite-dolomite → dolomite/ankerite;

ilmenite / magnetite / titanite → rutile;
sericitisation + bleaching

BIF: sulphidation front

Pasi Eilu August 2011 45

 56

Unaltered

Distal

Intermed

Proximal,
ORE
Pasi Eilu August 2011 46

Amphibolite facies and uppermost greenschist facies

Biotitisation and brown colour

Amphibolite
p facies

Banded proximal alteration characterised by

diopside and intense green colour

Pasi Eilu August 2011 47

Sources of confusion 1, 2

Sheared felsic rocks within a sequence dominated by mafic or

ultramafic rocks
=> apparently bleached zones:

Check primary chemical characteristics

Spilites metamorphosed at amphibolite facies conditions

=> diopside ± quartz, garnet, calcite, pyrite
between pillows, fractures, etc.:

Check primary volcanic structures

Pasi Eilu August 2011 48

 57

Sources of confusion 3

Carbonatisation related to VMS-style mineralisation

Differences to orogenic gold systems:
- Distinct gains in Ca, Fe, Mg
- At greenschist facies, no mineralogical gradients defined
by carbonates
- Silicate assemblages commonly contain Al-rich, alkali-deficient
minerals (also true in metamorphosed epithermal systems)
- Typically stratiform, unrelated to late faults or shear zones

Pasi Eilu August 2011 49

Sources of confusion 4

Amphibolite facies: Skarns

Differences to orogenic gold systems:
- Intimate association with an (granitoid) intrusion +
- No potassic alteration associated with calc-silicate formation
- Gold in retrograde gangue association, typically distal
to intrusion and to high-T skarn mineral association
- Radiometric dating shows synchronous mineralisation
and intrusion

Pasi Eilu August 2011 50

Next:
Geochemical
haloes

Pasi Eilu August 2011 51

 58

Orogenic gold:
geochemical features
Pasi Eilu
2011
Pasi Eilu April 2010 1

Geochemical anomalies

- Discriminate between gold-related and unmineralised

structures

- Expand the target

- Define vectors to ore

Pasi Eilu April 2010 2

Elements enriched in orogenic gold systems

Very little difference regarding:

- Metamorphic grade

- Host rock

- Craton or greenstone belt

Pasi Eilu April 2010 3

 59

Bulk ore samples, Yilgarn Craton

All concentrations in ppm
Deposit Host Au Ag As Bi Sb Se Te W
Sub-greenschist
Wiluna Mafic 8.1 <1 12000 <0.2 33.0 3.6 16
Bulletin Mafic 20.2 0.3 20800 0.02 39.0 0.20 2.0 13
Wiluna Felsic 1.5 0.1 5833 1 <1 <1 10
Greenschist
Mt Pleasant Mafic 12.0 2.0 380 4.00 2.6 1.4 65
Nth Kalgurli Mafic 14.0 2.0 320 <0.2 9.0 10.0 95
Mt Charlotte Mafic 7.6 2.0 66 <0.2 1.3 3.0 950
Ora Banda Mafic 5.9 <1 9500 <0.2 2.0 0.2 24
Paddington Mafic 3.5 <1 7800 <0.2 3.0 0.8 40
SOG Mafic 2.4 <1 190 <0.2 0.8 <0.2 9
Golden Crown Mafic 51.0 2.0 12000 0.40 2.6 5.0 2
Moyagee Umaf 116.0 5.5 1401 0.04 2.1 0.86 0.1 4
Lawlers Felsic 2.0 <1 14 0.60 0.4 1.0 110
Pasi Eilu April 2010 4

Bulk ore samples, Yilgarn Craton

All concentrations in ppm
Deposit Host Au Ag As Bi Sb Se Te W
Greenschist
Granny Deeps Felsic 12.3 2.4 5 1.90 1.0 0.30 1.1 55
Granny Deeps Sedim. 6.3 1.2 68 2.10 2.2 1.04 2.1 39
Twin Peaks Sedim. 6.0 8.2 5573 0.53 3.2 0.32 0.2 10
Hill 50 BIF 5.8 0.4 25 9 0.34 0.48 200
Amphibolite
Kings Cross Mafic 6.9 0.4 6330 0.10 2.3 1.02 0.5 6
Corinthian Mafic 6.9 <1 32 25.0 0.6 1.8 25
Edward’s Find Mafic 34.0 <1 1200 0.40 18.0 <0.2 2200
Hopes Hill Umaf 13.0 1 4 <0.5 5 2
Marvel Loch Umaf 8.4 6.0 2200 0.40 18.0 0.4 160
Westonia Felsic 3.2 <1 12 3.80 0.2 1.0 35
Mt Morgans BIF 3.6 <1 4 1.00 0.6 1.2 8
Nevoria BIF 4.9 <1 280 1.00 1.0 0.8 8
Pasi Eilu April 2010 5

All elements enriched in ore are potential anomaly-

forming parameters around a deposit

But: which ones really have been mobile?

Pasi Eilu April 2010 6

 60

First, define the

primary rock
types

Pasi Eilu April 2010 7

Define also the primary

variation within the
rock types

Blue: unaltered sample

Red: altered sample

Based on data from

Stanley & Madeisky (1995)
and Eilu (1996)

Pasi Eilu April 2010 8

Then, evaluate the mass transfer

Pasi Eilu April 2010 9

 61

Greenschist facies

Pasi Eilu
Eilu & Mikucki (1998) April 2010 10

30
0.004xBi
0.09xCu
0.04xPb
Enriched 0.05xCr
Ga 0.2xZr
Qz-porphyryy, intense alteration

4xAu
25 0.4xCd
0.02xTe
Isocon
sation zone I, potential ore

20
0.05xSb Mataralampi
0.2xV
0.1xW Al2O3
Ni prospect
0.01xBa
10xS
0.1xRb 0.25xSiO2
0.005xZn La Archaean
15
Quartz porphyry, sericitis

Kuhmo
50xP2O5 greenstone belt,
2xK2O
Finland
10 10xCO2
FeO* 0.2xCl
Li Host rock:
Ag quartz porphyry
5 Y
10xTiO2 0.05xSr

100xMn Depleted
MgO CaO
Na2O
0
0 5 10 15
Pasi Eilu
Qz-porphyry, least 20 altered
Least altered quartz porphyry
25 30 April 2010 11

Elements shown to be enriched

in orogenic gold deposits,
no of cases
no.

Pasi Eilu April 2010 12

 62

Pasi Eilu April 2010 13

Pathfinders and alteration indices

Major components:
+ No significant problems with detection limits
or analytical methods
+ Easy to relate with mineral assemblages
+ Alteration indices can be very useful parameters
- Host rock effect can be large
- Mass balance evaluation needed

Pasi Eilu April 2010 14

Pathfinders and alteration indices

Pathfinder trace elements:

+ Enrichment up to 1000-10000 x
+ Host rock effect generally very minor
- Very low detection limits may be needed
- Background thresholds needed to be
defined for each area

Pasi Eilu April 2010 15

 63

Extent of an anomaly

1. The threshold between background

and an anomaly

Pasi Eilu April 2010 16

Trace-element Background threshold

contour map
and a cross
section

Optimal background
threshold
h h ld somewhere h
between 60 and 80 ppm
for the element depicted

Pasi Eilu April 2010 17

Statistical methods: histogram

an empiric method

Concentration in log(ppm)
Pasi Eilu April 2010 18
 64

Statistical
methods:
cumulative
frequency plot
Concentration (pppm)

After Sinclair
(1974, 1976, 1991)
Cumulative frequency (%) 19
Pasi Eilu April 2010

The background thresholds achieved

must be checked with geology:

are the results of the statistical analysis

analysis,
whatever used, reasonable?

Pasi Eilu April 2010 20

Background thresholds defined

Background I:
igneous host rocks
Granny Bulletin KX BW Madsen- Moyagee
Smith Stratt-O.
Grano- Basalt Basalt Basalt Basalt, Komat.
diorite Komat.
Au 8.5 6 5 4 6
Ag 140 80 130 160 110
As 5 28 (6) 4 50 5
Sb 0.9 2.0 (0.6) 0.9 0.4 2 0.45
Se 0.10 0.30 0.15
Te 10 10 37 (10) 44 (10) 10
W 6.0 0.6 1.3 1.9 0.5
Au, Ag, Te in ppb
ppb,, others in ppm

Pasi Eilu April 2010 21

 65

Background thresholds defined

Background II:
felsic to intermediate igneous host, Mataralampi, Finland

Au 0.045
Bi 0.10; 0.41
Cu 42
Pb 90
S 270
Sb 0.07
Te 0.065
W 14; 80
Zn 57; 160
All data in ppm

Pasi Eilu April 2010 22

Background thresholds defined

Background III:
metasedimentary host rocks
Granny Twin Sunrise Hattu belt Bendigo-
Smith Peaks Dam (Finland) Ballarat
Au 2 2 6 5 10
Ag 180 100 110 150
As 40 6 15 15 50
Bi 0.20 0.20 0.07 0.02
Sb 1.0 0.8 2.8 0.5
Se 1.0 0.17 0.08 0.10
Te 125 50 12 75
W 2.3 3.0 8.5 3.0
Au, Ag, Te in ppb,
ppb, others in ppm

Pasi Eilu April 2010 23

Detection limits needed for pathfinder elements

At least, during the early stages of exploration,
to define the local background levels

Ag 10 ppb Hg 3-5 ppb

As 0.2-1 pp
ppm Mo 0.1 pp
ppm
Au 0.2-1 ppb Sb 0.02-0.1 ppm
B 1 ppm Se 10 ppb
Bi 10 ppb Te 1-2 ppb
Cd 0.01-0.1 ppm W 0.1 ppm

Pasi Eilu April 2010 24

 66

Extent of an anomaly

Pasi Eilu April 2010 25

Form of an
anomaly

Suurikuusikko
N Finland
Au at the
till-bedrock interface
Härkönen (1992)

Pasi Eilu April 2010 26

Form of an
anomaly
Bronzewing,
Central zone

Pathfinder
elements
l t I
Dispersion after data
available in June 1994
Ore as realised
(1999)

Pasi Eilu 27
Eilu etAprilal.2010(2001)
 67

Form of an
anomaly
Bronzewing,
Central zone

Pathfinder
elements
l t II
Dispersion after data
available in June 1994
Ore as realised
(1999)

Pasi Eilu 28
Eilu etAprilal.2010(2001)

Form of an
anomaly
Bronzewing,
Central zone

Alteration indices
Dispersion after data
available in June 1994
Ore as realised
(1999)

Pasi Eilu 29
Eilu etAprilal.2010(2001)
1000 m

100 m
Sunrise Dam,
Western Australia

Section across
Arsenic host rocks and
mineralised shear zones

Pasi Eilu April 2010 30

 68

AsForm of an Au
anomaly
100 m

As and Au, values along a mineralised shear zone

(= within a fault plane)
Pasi Eilu April 2010 31

How far from ore an

anomaly can extend?

(in bedrock)

Pasi Eilu April 2010 32

Pasi Eilu April 2010 33

 69

Pasi Eilu April 2010 34

Size of primary anomaly in plan

Archaean
Parameter Across Along strike
Fennoscandia
Hattu schist belt Te, As 1-4 km 60 km
Canada
Stratt-Olsen– As, Au, B, 200-600 m 9 km
Madsen K, Sb, Na
Hollinger-McIntyre
Hollinger McIntyre As 800 m >3 km
CO2 >2 km >3.5 km
Yilgarn
Golden Mile As, Au, Te >1.5 km
Moyagee As, Au, Se, Te, W >1.2 km
Bronzewing Te >400 m >800 m
Au, CO2, K, 100-300 m >800 m
Rb, Sb, W
Tanzania
Golden Pride Sb, Li >500 m
Pasi Eilu April 2010 35

Size of primary anomaly in plan

Proterozoic

Parameter Across Along strike

Fennoscandia
Pahtavaara Au >66 km
Suurikuusikko As, Au 50-100 m >10 km
Saattopora camp As, CO2 >200 m >20 km
Vesiperä camp As, Au, K 100-200 m >8 km

Pasi Eilu April 2010 36

 70

Beyond the gold anomaly,

into
unaltered rock

Pasi Eilu April 2010 37

Beyond bleaching,
locally into unaltered
rock, no rock type effect

Background
threshold: 4 ppb Au

Pasi Eilu April 2010 38

Relative lateral extent

Pasi Eilu April 2010 39

 71

Vectors towards the ore?

Shkolnoe, Kolyma, Russia

Pasi Eilu April 2010 40

Any pathfinder or alteration index may

define a trend towards ore

In orogenic gold systems, this is not always

easily seen – why?

Pasi Eilu April 2010 41

Golden Mile
Kalgoorlie, WA
Dolerite-hosted
Dolerite hosted

Alteration vs. carbonation

index
After data from Phillips (1986)

Pasi Eilu April 2010 42

 72

Mataralampi section 7149710N CM 19/4412/2003/4/10

KU KU Geological Survey of Finland
Pasi Eilu

KU
H H
KU

/H /H

H/
H/

K- K-

H
H

1 3

K-
K-

4
2
#

#
#

Antimony
Sb
Gold doler Au
grdr fsp-por mvolc
qz-por 20 0 20 40 Meters

mdyke

Pasi Eilu April 2010 43

HJB SZ

Bulletin, Wiluna
Northern Yilgarn

Tholeiitic-basalt hosted

Section across the ore,

shear
h zone and
d hanging
h i
wall

Eilu & Mikucki (1998)

Pasi Eilu April 2010 44

Harbour Lights
Central Norseman-Wiluna
Belt, Yilgarn

Section across the ore

and wallrocks

Based on data from

Skwarnecki (1990)

Pasi Eilu April 2010 45

 73

Surficial geological and geochemical exploration for

gold in glaciated terrains – brief overview

Pertti Sarala
Geological Survey of Finland

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 1

Outline
• Introduction
• Surficial geology in glacigenic environment
– Glacial dynamics
– Ice flow indicators
– Till stratigraphy
– Bedrock vs. pre-glacial weathered bedrock vs. till
– Glacigenic formations and deposition processes
• Surficial exploration methods
– Till geochemistry
– Indicator minerals
– Prospectivity modelling
• Exploration case studies

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 2

Introduction
• Indicator (usually heavy) mineral studies are the oldest methods in
gold exploration
• Nuggets were concentrated using water and gravity (e.g. panning)

• First ideas and observations of glacial transportation from 18th

and
d 19th century
t
– Glacial erratics -> boulder fans -> tracing the source

• Theory of ice ages and glaciations with glacial transportation was

largely accepted in the beginning of 20th century

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 3
 74

Introduction
• Use of soil in exploration started after development of chemical
analysis methods
– References from antiquity of the relation of geology and chemistry
– Techniques of modern geochemical prospecting in the Soviet Union
and Scandinavia in 1930s; in Northern America in 1940s
– Trace elements in gold exploration

• Soil and till samples were used largely since 1950s in exploration
in glaciated terrains
– Analysis methods developed to ppm and ppb levels
– Easy and effective sampling
– Development of sampling techniques
– Costs reasonable for large sampling projects

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 4

Glacial dynamics

• Geomorfological systems
- Cold-based (Dry
bed)
-no erosion and
deposition

- Warm-based (Wet bed)

-erosion and deposition
- Marginal meltwater
zone
-eskers and end
moraine
complexes
Kleman & Borgström 1995

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 5

Glacial dynamics
• Glacial processes and their variations key issues=> time-transgressive and spatially
chancing events like cold - warm basal conditions and ice stream network

Punkari 1997 Punkari 1997

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 6
 75

Ice flow indicators

• Erosion marks; striae, grooves etc.

• Till fabrics

Hirvas et al. 1973-1977

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 7

Ice flow indicators: Surficial boulder fans

Salonen, V-P. 1986.

Sector of ore boulder observations

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 8

Ice flow indicators: Single boulder transportation

The longest transport distance of single ore boulder from the known source

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 9
 76

Ice flow indicators: Glacial morphology

• Morphological interpretation key point for estimating ice-flow direction but
also distance and deposition processes

Perpendicular ribbed-moraine ridges in

Petäjäskoski, S-W Rovaniemi
Streamlined drumlins in Kuusamo (two fields overlapping)

Pertti Sarala,
Sarala 24.11.2008
25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 10

Example: Relief/landforms in southern Lapland

Hummocky Ribbed moraines

ribbed
and drumlins
moraines

Drumlins in Kuusamo
N-S oriented drumlins and mostly till-covered esker chains drumlin field

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 11

Example: Glacial morphology as an indicator for

glacial dynamics in southern Lapland

Kuusamo Ice lobe

Ribbed
moraines Tervola

Younger
drumlins
Older
drumlins
Ranua Interlobate
area
Glacial flow
direction
younger
Oulu Ice lobe

Sarala 2005

Pertti Sarala,
Sarala 24.11.2008
25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 12
 77

Example: Glacial dispersion and transport

distance in southern Lapland

Sarala et al. 2007

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 13

Till stratigraphy
• Till stratigraphy includes till beds and interlayers
• Two different types stratigraphy: Straight (simple and straightforward; 1-2 till
beds) and complex (multiple till beds with different ice-flow directions)

70 ± 5 ka

93 ± 10 ka
99 ± 11 ka

102 ± 11 ka
107 ± 13 ka ?

Till stratigraphy in Rautuvaara, Kolari, Drawing H. Kutvonen

Pertti Sarala 24.11.2008 14

Pre-Quaternary weathered bedrock

• Pre-glacial weathered bedrock surface has been preserved beneath glacial
deposits in many areas in northern Finland.
• Remnants of weathered bedrock are up to tens of meters thick mainly in the last
ice divide zone in Central Lapland

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 15
 78

Till vs. weathered

bedrock Washed
surface

Till

Weathered
W th d
bedrock

Fresh
bedrock

• Sometimes difficult to distinguish

different stratigraphical units
Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 16

Glacial erosion
and deposition

• Simple transportation
– Glacier erodes the bedrock
and deposits material into
some distant down-stream

• Complex transportation
– Till units include material
deposited and transported by
various glaciations
– Tracing the source of
mineralized material needs good
knowledge of the till
stratigraphy
Hirvas & Nenonen 1990

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 17

Erosion
and deposition - drumlins vs. ribbed moraines
• Short transportation in the
ribbed moraines is seen in the
surficial parts, i.e. mineralized
surficial boulders indicate
local source in the bedrock (if
the qquarrying
y g was reached the
bedrock surface)
• Deposition process at the
warm-based conditions (for
example in drumlins) is
different and transport
distance longer

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 14.2.2007 18
 79

Surficial geochemical exploration methods

• Soil surveys
– Most widely used in geochemical exploration methods
– Based on secondary dispersion of weathered and leach material or elements
from the buried source
– Samples from the soil horizons (A and B) or fresh material (C horizon)
– Sampling
S li using
i drilling
d illi or test
t t pits
it

• Rock surveys (also lithogeochemical survey)

– Sampling of unweathered bedrock
– An idea to find favourable host rocks for mineralization
– Samples from the ourcrops or drill cores

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 19

Surficial geochemical exploration methods

• Stream-sediment surveys
– Used in reconnaissance i.e. in regional scale
– Based on secondary dispersion from the upstream in drainage basins
– Panning is a good example of this survey method

• Water
W e su
surveys
veys
– Both ground water and surface water sampling
– Usually used in detailed surveys (ground water)
– Contents low, and adsorption causes difficulties for interpretation

• Biogeochemical surveys
– Vegetation used as a test medium
– Plants concentrate elements in themselves or in humus
– Animals can also collect mineral or organic material in reservations or nests

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 20

Surficial geochemical exploration methods

• Gas surveys
– Used in detailed scale to find buried deposits
– Based on detection of different gases (hyrdorgen sulphide, mercury, iodine, radon)
or ions in gases (hydrocarbons)

• Mobile metal surveys

y
– Nowadays widely tested and used method
– Based on the analyse of weakly bounded metal ions on the surface of mineral soil
or organic particles at the top of the soil
– Weak acidiferous solutions were used for leaching ions without dissolving minerals

• Radiation surveys
– Total radiation and/or spectrums were measured usually from airplanes
– Can use for lithogeochemical purpose and for soil geology

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 21
 80

Till geochemistry
• Till geochemistry is the most commonly used method for estimating transport
distance of mineralized material in glaciated terrain.
– Is based on secondary dispersion of the indicator elements from the
mineralized sources

• Based on the sampling

p g with
different intervals and
variable depths

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 22

Sampling methods – percussion drilling

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 23

Test pit excavations –

also in winter

Test pit surveys in Petäjäselkä at

the end of Marsh in 2007 Gold grains in till at Misi
- Temperature -15°C
- Snow depth 1 m

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 24
 81

Collected datasets
• Test pits and trenches for:
– Till stratigraphical observations and sampling
– Till fabrics and striae
– Till and weathered bedrock sampling (incl. geochemistry (ICP-
AES, ICP-MS, GAAS, etc.) indicator minerals, rock
composition, grain size distribution)
– Bedrock observations
– Bedrock and boulder sampling

• Percussion drilling:
– Till and weathered bedrock sampling for chemical analyses

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 25

Till geochemical datasets

• Small-scale till geochemical
datasets (1 sample/4 or16 km2)
are used for identifying
regional geochemical
characteristic
– Anomaly patterns are also
reflecting general ice flow
directions
• For targeting and target-scale
examination more detailed till
geochemistry is required

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 26

Example of sampling densities in Au exploration

• Central Lapland; Suurikuusikko deposit Till sampling: 10 m interval

Till sampling: one sample / 4 km2

N-S structure

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 27
 82

Example: Till and weathered bedrock

geochemistry in the Suurikuusikko deposit
Au ppb

4m

140 m
Indicator elements: Au, As, Sb, K, Mn
Sb ppb

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 28

Rovaniemi

Case study: Petäjävaara

• Investigations for
tracing the Au-Cu
mineralized surficial
boulders in ribbed
moraine area
• B d k
Bedrock:
metasedimentary and
metavolcanic rocks of
the Peräpohja Schist Belt
• Two till units: lower
lodgement till and upper
melt-out till,
representing advance
and retreat phases Sarala & Rossi 2006

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 29

Rovaniemi

Case study: Petäjävaara

• Many hydrothermally altered Cu-Au mineralized boulders found on the
top of ribbed moraine ridges
Quartzite boulders

Au 0.1-0.6 ppm
Cu 0.7-2.4 %

Banded amphibolite boulders

Au 0.1-6.9 ppm
Cu 0.1-3.2 %

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 30
 83

Rovaniemi

Case study: Petäjävaara

• Sampling: percussion drilling and test pits
• Distinct metal anomalies in upper till (e.g. < 0.06 mm fraction)
a

GFAAS

ICP-AES Fresh chalcopyrite

grain in till
Glacial flow direction (SEM photo)
Indicator elements: Au,
Known Cu-Au mineralization Glacial flow direction Co, Cu, Te, S
(Sarala & Rossi 1998)

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 31

Other methods for Au exploration

• Weak leach methods
– Based on the analyse of weakly bounded metal ions on the surface of
mineral soil or organic particles at the top of the soil
– Weak acidiferous solutions were used for leaching ions without dissolving
minerals
– The used methods were Mobile Metal Ion (MMI), Enzyme leaching and Soil
Gas Hydrogen analyses of which results were compared to conventional
partial leaching (aqua regia) and total leaching (four acid) analyses

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 32

Weak leach methods

• Mobile Metal Ions (MMI) + several other commercial methods
– Ions are moving from the bedrock through the overburden
– Mobilization, movement and enrichment
of the ions are the sum of many factors.
The main reasons are capillary
action,, difference of electrochemical
charge, and biogeochemical
processes
– MMI is the first commercial
method; SGS Minerals is
the patentee
– Other: Ammonium acetate,
entzyme leach, soil gas etc.

Cameron et al. 2004

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 33
 84

Sampling
• Easy and fast sampling
– The sampling depth 10-25 cm under the
contact of humus and mineral soil
– Small test pits or soil drills in sampling
– Samples from the lines, frequent
10 50 m => 25-30
10-50 25 30 samples/day/
two-people sampling group
– Sampling procedure same for all the weak
Sample
leach methods
Sample
Sample
• Other methods are for example humus
and Ah samplings that can be used
beside the weak leach methods

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 34

Examples - Case Lauttaselkä, Au

Au
• Lauttaselkä target is Au
exploration target in Kittilä, ca.
10 km from the Agnico-Eagle’s
Kittilä Mine to the NE
• Bedrock is composed of
hydrothermally altered mafic
volcanic and sedimentary rocks Zn
of which contact zones are
enriched of Au, As and Te
• Conventional till and weathered
bedrock sampling supported by
MMI sampling revealed
potential zones for Au As
exloration in the bedrock

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 35

Mobile XRF analysis

• XRF analyzers can also be used in Au
exploration in the field
– Portable equipments have been
developed a lot during the last ten years
– Automated scanners can be used for
drill cores but also for the till and Pre-
Quaternary weathered bedrock samples
• Measurement direct in the field => no
sampling or
• Sampling as separate samples or
continuous sample series of till and
weathered bedrock along test trences,
• In Au exploration indicator elements or
indication of suitable alteration in the
bedrock is useful

Continuous weathered bedrock

sampling in Lauttaselkä, Kittilä
Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 36
 85

Mobile XRF analysis (cont.)

• Portable XRF analyzers very useful
• A mobile laboratory for on-line elemental
XRF analysis technology new application

Portable XRF analyzer

tested during the
percussion drilling for
the till sample

Scanmobile (Mine On-line

Services Ltd)
Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 37

Indicator mineral methods

• Indicator minerals (particularly heavy minerals) are largely used in exploration
– Straight indication of mineral potentiality
– Information for interpreting stratigraphy and determining the provenance of a
sediment

• Till and weathered bedrock samples,

p but also stream sediments

• Au, sulphide minerals, Fe-minerals, garnets and pyroxene and phosphate

minerals most common, also PGE-minerals
– Demand increasing also for light indicator element separation and research due to
increased high-tech metal exploration

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 38

Indicator mineral methods

Panning, Knelson concentrator and spiral separator most used field equipments

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 39
 86

GIS-based
prospectivity
mapping
4. Evaluation

3. Spatial analysis

2. Data preprosessing

1. Data

Nykänen et al. 2006

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 40

Example: Prospectivity in Central Lapland

• Several new areas potential for Au mineralization found

Nykänen & Salmirinne (2006)

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 41

Example: Prospectivity in Central Lapland

• Four test targets Weight of evidence

on very high
prospectivity
areas :
• Vuomanperänmaa
• Nuttiot
• Petäjäselkä
P j lk
• Lauttaselkä

• Situate near the

modern mines of
Pahtavaara and
Kittilä, and
several known Au
occurrences

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 42
 87

Case: Petäjäselkä
• Bedrock is composed of Mg and Fe tholeitic metabasalts and minor BIF
• NNW trending magnetic anomalies are seen on a high resolution
aeromagnetic map. NE-SW oriented faults are breaking them.

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 43

Case: Petäjäselkä
• Several anomalous Au(Co-
As-Cu) mineralized zones have
been defined

• Till geochemistry highlights

the multimetal anomaly in the
target area

• Anomalies are clearly relating

to SW-NE trending faults

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 44

Petäjäselkä (contin.)

Au in till (<0.06 mm) Au grains in heavy mineral samples

Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 Pertti Sarala 18.6.2007 45
 88

Case: Petäjäselkä
• Mineralization 0.5 mm
hosted by sheared
graphitic chert
and clastic
sedimentary rocks
between Mg and
Fe tholeitic
metabasalts

• The best drill

intersection is
12g/t Au over 1m,
and this lode is
exposed in the
test trench.

Pertti Sarala
Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 46

Conclusions
• Till
geochemistry is useful method for estimating transport distance of
mineralized material in glaciated terrain. Ore indicators – mineralized
boulders and till, and indicator heavy minerals are useful in tracing the
mineralized bedrock
• New applications like weak leach methods and portable XRF developed
for exploration.
exploration Effective,
Effective low sampling and analyzing costs,
costs low
low-impact
impact to
the nature particularly in sensitive areas
• Examples from northern Finland shows different kind of glacial
transportartion from short and sharp dispersals of for examples Au and its
pathfinder elements
• The study of moraine formations, ice flow directions, till structures and
stratigraphy is essential before planning sampling and analysing till
geochemistry, and interpreting the results; i.e. successing in till
geochemical exploration in glaciated terrains
Pertti Sarala, 25th IAGS 2011, WS 5: Exploration for orogenic gold deposits , 20.8.2011 47
ISBN 978-952-9618-70-5 (Printed)
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