Chapter 2

PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

Abbas Ali Daneshy

Halliburton Services
Duncan, Oklahoma 73533

ABSTRACT
A study of the mechanics of hydraulic fracturing shows
the fracture initiation pressure to be a function of the
in-situ principal stresses, the formation and fluid prop-
erties, and how the wellbore has been completed. The
orientation of the hydraulic fracture is perpendicular
to the least in-situ principal stress. The geometry of
the induced fracture depends on the treatment fluid prop-
erties, the injection rate and volume, fluid leak-off
and formation properties.

INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of hydraulic fracturing, mining
industry has been keenly interested in the potentials
of the process for in-situ mining. Recent developments
in the areas of environment control, safety, economics,
etc. may have considerably accentuated this interest.
Hydraulic fracturing is a well-established and exten-
sively used means of stimulating oil and gas wells.
Since its commercial introduction in 1949, approximately
3/4 million fracturing treatments have been completed
by the oil industry all over the world. This impressive
number is the best index of the effectiveness of the
process. In the mining industry hydraulic fracturing
has been very effective in exploiting salt bodies.
This paper is a report of the state of the art of
 Solution Mining Symposium 1974
hydraulic fracturing. It d i s c u s s e s v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w i t h t h e i d e a of f a m i l i a r i z i n g t h e
reader with t h e process.
The f i r s t s t a g e o f a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i s i n i t i a -
t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e . To a c h i e v e t h i s , f l u i d i s pumped
i n t o t h e w e l l u n t i l t h e r e s u l t i n g pressure exceeds t h e
r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n , a t which p o i n t a h y d r a u l i c
fracture initiates. Fracture initiation is identified
by e i t h e r a s u d d e n s h a r p d r o p i n t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e o r
a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e a b i l i t y t o pump f l u i d . T h i s s t a g e
o f t h e p r o c e s s may b e a b s e n t i n c a s e s o f r e f r a c t u r i n g
o r when t h e w e l l b o r e i s a l r e a d y n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d .

The n e x t s t a g e o f t h e p r o c e s s i s e x t e n s i o n o f t h e i n i -
t i a t e d fracture. Fluid injected after initiation w i l l
f l o w i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e a n d f o r c e i t s e x t e n s i o n . The
e x t e n t o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e volume of
f l u i d pumped p l u s f o r m a t i o n a n d f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s . At a
c e r t a i n p o i n t d u r i n g f r a c t u r e extension a propping agent
i s mixed w i t h t h e t r e a t m e n t f l u i d and pumped i n t o t h e
fracture. The p u r p o s e o f t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s t o k e e p t h e
f r a c t u r e open and c o n d u c t i v e t o f l u i d flow a f t e r t h e
treatment termination.
The f l o w r a t e o f a f l u i d i n t o o r o u t o f a h y d r a u l i c a l -
l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l i s much l a r g e r t h a n a n o t h e r w e l l w i t h -
o u t a f r a c t u r e . Two r e a s o n s c a n be g i v e n f o r t h i s . The
f r a c t u r e e s t a b l i s h e s c o n t a c t w i t h more o f t h e f o r m a t i o n
t h a n t h e w e l l b o r e a l o n e . The f l o w mode i s a l m o s t l i n e a r
i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e f r a c t u r e and r a d i a l i n i t s
absence.

T h i s s t u d y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g c o n s i s t s of t h r e e
p a r t s ; f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n , o r i e n t a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n .

INITIATION OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURES

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n i s a r e s u l t of a t e n -
s i l e f a i l u r e of t h e borehole wall.

C o n s i d e r a c y l i n d r i c a l b o r e h o l e i n a n assumed i s o -
t r o p i c , homogeneous, p o r o e l a s t i c r o c k . The e f f e c t i v e
s t r e s s e s , a g e , Or,, azz, are, , a e z , ( F i g . 1) a r o u n d
t h e b o r e h o l e a r e i n d u c e d by t h r e e s o u r c e s ; t h e i n - s i t u
p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s , T I , T 2 , and T 3 ; t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e
i n s i d e t h e b o r e h o l e , Py, and f l u i d p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e
p o r o u s r o c k . The magnitude o f t h e s e s t r e s s e s d e p e n d s on
w h e t h e r t h e b o r e h o l e i s completed open-hole o r c a s e d .
 Principles of Hydraulic Fracturing

FIG. 1.- S t r e s s Components a t t h e B o r e h o l e Wall

Open-Hole

The e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s a t a g i v e n p o i n t M on t h e b o r e -
h o l e w a l l a r e e x p r e s s e d by

Where v and are the Poissonls r a t i o and B i o t l s c o n s t a n t

of t h e r o c k , Po i s t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e formation,
a i j ( i , j = 1, 2, 3 ) a r e g i v e n by E q . 8-2 i n t h e Appen-
d i x , and a n g l e 0 d e f i n e s t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e given point
M on t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l ( F i g . 1 ) .
 Solution Mining Symposium 1974
E q u a t i o n s 1-6 show t h a t t h e o n l y non-zero components
o f s t r e s s a t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l a r e see, u Z Z and u e z ,
which l i e i n a p l a n e t a n g e n t t o t h e borehole a t p o i n t M .
To i n v e s t i g a t e f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n , one h a s t o c a l c u -
l a t e t h e maximum t e n s i l e s t r e s s i n d u c e d a t t h e b o r e h o l e
wall. Equating t h i s w i t h t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e
formation w i l l y i e l d t h e necessary c r i t e r i o n f o r frac-
ture initiation.
The maximum n o r m a l s t r e s s a t p o i n t M , up, i s g i v e n by

w h i c h makes a n a n g l e y w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e d i r e c t r i x ,
g i v e n by P

A s the point M travels a r o u n d t h e b o r e h o l e , 088, U Z Z ,

a n d a 8 z , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a p a n d y p change due t o changes
i n 8 . The maximum t e n s i l e s t r e s s , am, i s t h e r e f o r e ob-
t a i n e d by s e t t i n g t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f a p w i t h r e s p e c t t o
8 e q u a l t o zero, and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e corresponding 8
i n Eqs. 7 and 8 . E q u a t i n g am w i t h t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
of t h e formation y i e l d s t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r f r a c t u r e i n i -
t i a t i o n . I n p r a c t i c e t h i s e q u a t i o n w i l l y i e l d t h e bore-
h o l e f l u i d p r e s s u r e , Pw = PC n e c e s s a r y t o s t a r t a
hydraulic fracture.
Three t y p e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s can i n i t i a t e a t
t h e borehole wall. I n i n d u s t r i a l f r a c t u r i n g these a r e
r e f e r r e d t o a s v e r t i c a l , h o r i z o n t a l and i n c l i n e d . Ver-
t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e i n d u c e d as a r e s u l t of
f a i l u r e d u e t o see, w h i c h c r e a t e s a f r a c t u r e p a r a l l e l
t o t h e b o r e h o l e a x i s . H o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e perpen-
d i c u l a r t o b o r e h o l e a x i s a n d a r e c a u s e d by f a i l u r e due
t o a,,. If t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t e s i n c l i n e d
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e b o r e h o l e a x i s it w i l l a c c o r d i n g l y
be r e f e r r e d t o a s i n c l i n e d .
Most e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n o p e n h o l e s , s u c h a s t h e works of
Haimson a n d ~ a i r h u r s t ' , von s c h o n f e l d t 2 , and ~ a n e s h y ~ ,
who h a v e v e r i f i e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f a t e n s i l e f a i l u r e
 Principles of Hydraulic Fracturing
c r i t e r i o n f o r f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n f o r moderate p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s e s . Haimson and ~ d have 1 ~f u r t h e r shown t h a t t h e
same c r i t e r i o n a l s o p r e v a i l s f o r f r a c t u r i n g o f d e e p w e l l s
which a r e under t h e i n f l u e n c e of h i g h e r s t r e s s e s .
E q u a t i o n s 7 and 8 and r e l a t e d d i s c u s s i o n s show t h a t
t h e t y p e o f i n i t i a t e d f r a c t u r e depends on s e v e r a l f a c -
t o r s , including a l l three principal s t r e s s e s . Since the
o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e l a r g e s c a l e f r a c t u r e depends on o n l y
the least principal s t r e s s , therefore it i s possible f o r
a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t o i n i t i a t e as one t y p e and e x t e n d
a s a n o t h e r . T h i s p o i n t h a s a l s o been v e r i f i e d e x p e r i -
m e n t a l l y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y by Haimson5 and Daneshy. I n
p a r t i c u l a r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s have a g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y
t o i n i t i a t e a s v e r t i c a l t h a n t h e o t h e r two t y p e s .
The c r i t e r i o n f o r f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n t a k e s on a
s i m p l e form whenever one p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n i s
p a r a l l e l t o t h e b o r e h o l e a x i s . Under t h i s c o n d i t i o n
only v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s can i n i t i a t e a t
t h e b o r e h o l e . The c r i t e r i o n f o r v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e i n i -
t i a t i o n becomes

For h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s ;

i n which o t d e n o t e s t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r o c k .
Cased-Holes
I n cased holes hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g i s achieved
t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s . The c o m p u t a t i o n o f s t r e s s e s a r o u n d
p e r f o r a t e d c a s e d h o l e s i s q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d and t o t h e
a u t h o r ' s knowledge h a s n o t y e t been a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h e r e -
f o r e , t h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e r e s e a r c h on t h e s u b j e c t i s t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l work o f ~ a n e s h ywhich ~ is also the basis
for t h e following discussion.
The breakdown p r e s s u r e o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d
24 Solution Mining Symposium 1974
The v a l u e o f V t i s one o f t h e few numbers which a r e
a c c u r a t e l y known d u r i n g a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t . Of t h i s
volume p a r t s t a y s i n s i d e t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e , V f , and
p a r t i s l o s t t o t h e formation a s leak-off, V R , so t h a t

The volume e f f i c i e n c y o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e , E f , i s
defined a s

The p a r a m e t e r Ef d e f i n e s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e i n j e c t e d
volume w h i c h f o r m s t h e a c t u a l f r a c t u r e volume. Thus, i t
i s d e s i r a b l e t o i n c r e a s e E f , w h i c h i s u s u a l l y done by
decreasing V i .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r e a t m e n t volume, one a l s o n e e d s
t o know t h e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e f l u i d i t s e l f .
L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t most p r e s e n t l y u t i -
l i z e d t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s h a v e complex b e h a v i o r which c a n
n o t b e p r e c i s e l y d e s c r i b e d by s i m p l e m o d e l s . T h e r e f o r e ,
f o r mathematical s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s t h e treatment f l u i d s
a r e assumed t o b e N e w t o n i a n , o r i n more s o p h i s t i c a t e d
c a s e s b e h a v e l i k e a power-law model ( t h i s w i l l i n c l u d e
Newtonian f l u i d s a s a s p e c i a l c a s e ) . T h u s , t h e e n g i -
n e e r i n g c o n s t a n t s d e s c r i b i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t f l u i d behav-
i o r become i t s f l o w b e h a v i o r i n d e x , n ' , and a b s o l u t e
c o n s i s t e n c y , K t ,which a r e measured i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y .

F l u i d Flow Along The F r a c t u r e L e n g t h . The f l u i d pumped

i n s i d e t h e borehole has t o t r a v e l along t h e f r a c t u r e i n
o r d e r t o o c c u p y t h e volume c r e a t e d by F r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n .
The f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s d u e t o f l u i d f l o w c r e a t e a p r e s -
s u r e d r o p b e t w e e n t h e f r a c t u r e t i p and b o r e h o l e , d e n o t e d
by A P . The m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s p r e s s u r e d r o p p l a y s an
i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n of f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y .

I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t by C h r i s t i a n o v i c h and
 Principles of Hydraulic Fracturing 25
z h e l t o v 7 t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t f l u i d d o e s n o t occupy t h e
e n t i r e l e n g t h of t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e . The t i p o f t h e
f r a c t u r e h a s a cusp s h a p e and d o e s n o t c o n t a i n t h e t r e a t -
ment f l u i d . Thus, i f xo i s t h e w e t t e d l e n g t h o f a v e r -
t i c a l f r a c t u r e , t h e n AP can be c a l c u l a t e d from ( ~ a n e s h y )'

i n which q ( x ) and w ( x ) d e n o t e t h e f l o w r a t e and f r a c -

t u r e w i d t h a t a p o i n t a l o n e t h e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h . Assum-
ing that TI is the least in-situ principal s t r e s s , then
t h e treatment pressure of a hydraulic f r a c t u r e , Pf, can
be c a l c u l a t e d from ( c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s n e g a t i v e )

The f l u i d p r e s s u r e a t t h e s u r f a c e i s computed.by a d d i n g
t o Pf t h e f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s d u e t o f l o w i n t h e w e l l b o r e
and t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , and s u b t r a c t i n g from t h e
sum t h e weight o f t h e t r e a t m e n t f l u i d column down t o t h e
f r a c t u r e depth.

The v a l u e of AP a s g i v e n by E q . 1 4 d o e s n o t i n c l u d e
t h e influence of adding a propping agent t o t h e t r e a t -
ment f l u i d . The l a t t e r c a n b e computed by r e p l a c i n g
n ' and K t o f t h e f l u i d by t h a t o f t h e s l u r r y .
F l u i d Leak-Off. Part of t h e f l u i d i n contact with t h e
f r a c t u r e f a c e s p e n e t r a t e s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n p o r e s and
i s l o s t a s leak-off. I n order t o decrease the leak-off
volume, f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e u s u a l l y added t o t h e
t r e a t m e n t f l u i d . These a d d i t i v e s form a f i l t e r c a k e on
t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l which s l o w s t h e r a t e o f l e a k - o f f .

F i g u r e 6 shows a t y p i c a l f l u i d - l o s s t e s t c o n d u c t e d
i n t h e laboratory. The c u r v e i n t h i s f i g u r e c a n be
d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s . I n p a r t I a f i l t e r cake i s i n
t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m a t i o n . The f l u i d l e a k - o f f i s m a i n l y
governed by t h e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d
p r e s s u r e and i t s c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , f o r m a t i o n p o r o s i t y
and p e r m e a b i l i t y , e t c . F l u i d l e a k - o f f i n t h i s p a r t i s
c a l l e d s p u r t l o s s . The p o i n t S i n t h i s f i g u r e i s i d e n -
t i f i e d by i t s a b s c i s s a , c a l l e d s p u r t t i m e , and i t s
o r d i n a t e c a l l e d s p u r t volume, b o t h o f which a r e d e t e r -
mined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . I n p a r t I1
26 Solution Mining Symposium 1974

FIG. 6 . - V a r i a t i o n s o f Leak-Off Volume W i t h Time

o f t h e c u r v e a f i l t e r c a k e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n formed and
i s controlling f l u i d leak-off. This p a r t of t h e curve
i s i d e n t i f i e d by i t s s l o p e .

The r a t e o f f l u i d l e a k - c f f a t any p o i n t i n t h e f r a c -
t u r e d e p e n d s on t h e d u r a t i o n o f t i m e f o r w h i c h t h a t p o i n t
h a s been exposed t o f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . I f t h i s time i s
l e s s than t h e s p u r t time, then p a r t I of t h e curve deter-
mines t h e leak-off r a t e . For exposure times g r e a t e r than
t h e s p u r t t i m e , t h e r a t e o f f l u i d l e a k - o f f i s measured
f r o m p a r t I1 o f t h e c u r v e .

F l u i d l e a k - o f f h a s a n i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t i n t h e geometry
o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e . F o r one t h i n g , i t d e c r e a s e s
t h e f r a c t u r e volume, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s i z e o f e a c h
of i t s dimensions. I n a d d i t i o n , it a f f e c t s t h e r a t e of
f l u i d f l o w i n t h e f r a c t u r e , q ( x ) , which a s shown by
Eq. 1 4 c h a n g e s t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n s i d e i t .

A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of f l u i d leak-off i s given i n a
r e c e n t a r t i c l e by W i l l i a m s g .
 Principles of Hydraulic Fracturing 27
F r a c t u r e Geometry C o m p u t a t i o n s . The c o m p u t a t i o n o f f r a c -
t u r e geometry c o n s i s t s o f i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e a b o v e con-
s i d e r a t i o n s i n t o f r a c t u r e mechanics t h e o r i e s .

The maximum w i d t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e , w , (which o c c u r s

a t t h e w e l l b o r e ) i s r e l a t e d t o i t s l e n g t h L a n d AP by

T h i s y i e l d s a f r a c t u r e volume

i n which H i s t h e c o n s t a n t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t .

To compute t h e f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y , E q s . 1 4 , 1 6 a n d 1 7
a r e solved together with f l u i d leak-off equations. This
s o l u t i o n can be done more a c c u r a t e l y a n d r a p i d l y u t i l i z -
i n g an e l e c t r o n i c computer.

The r e s u l t s of t h e g e o m e t r y c o m p u t a t i o n a r e u s u a l l y
t a b u l a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t volume, t h e i n j e c t i o n
r a t e and t h e f r a c t u r e d i m e n s i o n s . These r e s u l t s c a n be
u t i l i z e d i n two f o r m s . I f t h e t r e a t m e n t volume i s known
one c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e d i m e n s i o n s . On
t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e d e s i r e d s i z e o f t h e f r a c t u r e h a s
been computed t h r o u g h o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( s u c h as t h e
amount of f l u i d which one would l i k e t o pump i n t o o r o u t
of t h e f r a c t u r e a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t ) t h e n one c a n d e t e r -
mine t h e t r e a t m e n t volume w h i c h would y i e l d t h e d e s i r e d
size.

P r o p p i n g Agents

During f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n s i d e
t h e f r a c t u r e k e e p s i t o p e n . Once t h e pumps s t o p i n j e c t -
i n g f l u i d t h e f r a c t u r e w i l l immediately t r y t o c l o s e ,
due t o t h e e f f e c t o f T I . To k e e p t h e i n d u c e d h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e o p e n , a p r o p p i n g a g e n t i s u s u a l l y pumped i n t o
t h e f r a c t u r e mixed w i t h t h e t r e a t m e n t f l u i d . S e v e r a l
f a c t o r s e n t e r t h e propping of t h e f r a c t u r e . These
include ;

Timing. The e a r l i e s t t i m e a p r o p p i n g a g e n t c a n b e pump-

e d i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e i s when t h e f r a c t u r e w i d t h i s a t
 Solution Mining Symposium 1974
l e a s t equal t o t h e proppant diameter. I n i n d u s t r i a l
t r e a t m e n t s , t h e p r o p p a n t i s n o t u s u a l l y pumped u n t i l
t h e f r a c t u r e w i d t h i s two t o t h r e e t i m e s t h e p r o p p a n t
diameter.

Amount. The amount o f p r o p p a n t pumped i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e

s h o u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t t o k e e p t h e f r a c t u r e open. Thus,
t h e minimum amount o f n e c e s s a r y p r o p p a n t d e p e n d s on T I ,
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e s t r e n g t h o f p r o p p a n t and i t s
s i z e , and f o r m a t i o n f l u i d p r e s s u r e . Another f a c t o r
w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e amount o f p r o p p a n t i s t h e d e s i r e d
conductivity of t h e induced hydraulic f r a c t u r e .
S i z e a n d Type. The s i z e a n d t y p e of p r o p p a n t a r e d e t e r -
mined by s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l i k e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y ,
proppant s t r e n g t h , e t c . S t r o n g e r propping a g e n t s a r e
n e e d e d f o r f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d a t g r e a t d e p t h s , due t o
l a r g e r v a l u e s o f T I e n c o u n t e r e d . The f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h proppant s i z e .

CONCLUSIONS

S i n c e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a n
i n - s i t u m i n i n g p r o c e s s , t h e way i t i s b e i n g u s e d w i l l
g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e opera-
tion.

The i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d f o r o p t i m i z i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g r e s u l t s i n c l u d e ; f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and t y p e ,
treatment f l u i d p r e s s u r e , instantaneous shut-in pressure,
( t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e r e c o r d e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e pumps
a r e s t o p p e d w i t h no f l u i d a l l o w e d t o e s c a p e o u t o f t h e
w e l l ) t h e existence of b a r r i e r s t o f r a c t u r e propagation,
geology of t h e a r e a , formation mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , i t s
p e r m e a b i l i t y , p o r o s i t y , c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , e t c . Most
o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d by c a r r y i n g o u t one
o r more e x p l o r a t o r y f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e a r e a
a n d a t t h e d e p t h o f m i n e r a l i z a t i o n . From t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
o f t h e i n d u c e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s one c a n d e t e r m i n e
t h e f l u i d flow p a t h , t h e l o c a t i o n and s p a c i n g of t h e
i n j e c t i o n o r w i t h d r a w a l w e l l s o r t u n n e l s , e t c . The
p r e s s u r e r e c o r d i n g s a r e u t i l i z e d i n computing t h e n e c e s -
s a r y h o r s e p o w e r f o r t h e main f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s , t h e
s i z e , t y p e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e propping a g e n t s ,
e t c . S i n c e a l l f o r m a t i o n s do n o t f r a c t u r e i d e n t i c a l l y ,
t h e e x p l o r a t o r y f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d
t o inspect possible b a r r i e r s t o fracture extension.
Such i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l prove u s e f u l i n t h e design of t h e
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s f o r t h e purpose o f i n - s i t u mining
operations.
 Principles of Hydraulic Fracturing
With p r o p e r p l a n n i n g and r e s e a r c h t h e u s e o f h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g c a n make i n - s i t u m i n i n g c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h o t h e r
mining methods. One r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h e g r e a t e f f i -
ciency of hydraulic f r a c t u r e s i n terms of t h e i n p u t
energy. This n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e s i s due t o two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e mode o f f a i l u r e
i s t e n s i l e which r e q u i r e s much l e s s e n e r g y t h a n compres-
s i v e o r s h e a r f a i l u r e s . Second, t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
f o l l o w s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n p a t h which r e q u i r e s t h e l e a s t
f l u i d p r e s s u r e and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e l e a s t i n p u t energy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The a u t h o r w i s h e s t o t h a n k t h e management o f H a l l i b u r -
ton Services f o r permission t o publish t h i s paper.

NOMENCLATURE
E = Young's modulus o f t h e f o r m a t i o n r o c k
Ef = v o l u m e t r i c e f f i c i e n c y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
tures
H = fracture height
K ' = a b s o l u t e c o n s i s t e n c y i n power-law model
L = fracture length
n ' = flow b e h a v i o r i n d e x i n power-law model
PC = f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n p r e s s u r e
Pf = t r e a t m e n t f l u i d p r e s s u r e
Po = r e s e r v o i r f l u i d p r e s s u r e
Pw = w e l l b o r e f l u i d p r e s s u r e
Q = treatment f l u i d i n j e c t i o n r a t e
q ( x ) = flow r a t e i n s i d e t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
S i j = t o t a l s t r e s s e s with respect t o 0 ~ ~ ~ 2 x 3
t = treatment t i m e
TI, Tz, TS = t o t a l in-situ p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s
Vf = volume o f f l u i d i n s i d e t h e f r a c t u r e
Vk = volume o f f l u i d l o s t a s l e a k - o f f
V t = t o t a l f l u i d volume i n j e c t e d d u r i n g t h e
treatment
w = f r a c t u r e width a t t h e wellbore
w(x) = f r a c t u r e w i d t h a l o n g i t s l e n g t h
xo = w e t t e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h
u = Biot's constant of t h e formation rock
yp = t h e a n g l e between up and b o r e h o l e d i r e c t r i x
AP = f l u i d p r e s s u r e d r o p due t o f l o w a l o n g
fracture length
8 = a n g l e d e f i n i n g p o s i t i o n around t h e b o r e h o l e
u = P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o of t h e formation r o c k
U i j = effective s t r e s s e s with respect t o 0 ~ 1 x 2 ~ ~
30 Solution Mining Symposium 1974
am = maximum tensile stress at the borehole wall
up = maximum tensile stress at a point at the
borehole wall
at = tensile strength of the formation rock

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Haimson, B. and C. Fairhurst: "Hydraulic Fractur-
ing in Porous Permeable Materials", J. Pet. Tech.,
July 1969, p. 811-817.
2. von Schonfeldt, H.: "An Experimental Study of Open-
Hole Hydraulic Fracturing as a Stress Measurement
Method With Particular Emphasis on Field Tests",
Ph. D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Nov. 1970.
3. Daneshy, A. A.: "A Study of Inclined Hydraulic
Fractures", Soc. Pet. Engrs. J., April 1973, p. 61-
68.
4. Haimson, B. and J. N. Edl, Jr.: "Hydraulic Frac-
turing of Deep Wells1', SPE 4061, presented at the
47th Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE, San Antonio,
Texas, Oct. 8-11, 1972.
5. Haimson, B.: "Hydraulic Fracturing in Porous and
Nonporous Rock and Its Potential For Determining
In-Situ Stresses", Ph. D. Thesis, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, July 1968.
6. Daneshy, A. A.: "Experimental Investigation of
Hydraulic Fracturing Through Perforations", J. Pet.
Tech., Oct. 1973, p. 1201-1206.
7. Christianovich, S. A. and Yu. P. Zheltov: "Forma-
tion of Vertical Fractures by Means of Highly
Viscous Liquidt1,Proc. Fourth World Pet. Cong., 2,
1955, p. 579-586.
8. Daneshy, A. A.: "On the Design of Vertical Hydrau-
lic Fractures", J. Pet. Tech., Jan. 1973, p. 83-98.
9. Williams, B. B.: "Fluid Loss From Hydraulically
Induced Fractures", J. Pet. Tech., July 1970,
p. 882-888.
 Principles of Hydraulic Fracturing
APPENDIX A
Consider an isotropic, homogeneous and linearly poro-
elastic formation with Young's modulus E and Poisson's
ratio v . This formation is under the action of three
principal stresses, T,, T2 and T, (compression negative).
Formation fluid pressure is Po.
A coordinate system oxlx2x3 is built such that ox3 is
the borehole axis and 0x1 lies in the plane oT1T2,
Fig. A-1. The orientation of oxlx,x3 with respect to

FIG. A-1. - Orientation of ox lx2x3 With Respect

To the Principal Stresses

oT1T2T3 can be expressed in terms of its direction

cosines, Cij, defined in Table 1.
32 Solution Mining Symposium 1974
TABLE 1. - D i r e c t i o n Cosines of 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ x 3
With R e s p e c t t o oT1T2T3

The a n g l e s f3 and @ a r e d e f i n e d a s
@ = t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n o x 3 a n d 0T3
B = t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e p r o j e c t i o n of o x 3 on oT1T2 and
oT1 a x i s
The components o f t o t a l s t r e s s t e n s o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o
OX 1x2x 3 a r e g i v e n by

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s , a ij a r e

The s t r e s s components a r o u n d t h e b o r e h o l e c a n now be

o b t a i n e d by s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f s t r e s s e s i n d u c e d by t h r e e
s o u r c e s , U i j , f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n s i d e t h e b o r e h o l e and
f l u i d penetration i n t o t h e borehole wall.