Question 1 a) Indus Water Treaty is in between

i. Indian and Bangladesh

ii. Indian and Afghanistan
iii. India and China
iv. India and Pakistan

Answer 1. a) option (iv) India & Pakistan

Question 1 b) The major greenhouse gas is:
i. CFC
ii. CO2
iii. CO
iv. Freon

Answer 1. b) option (ii) CO2

Question 1 c) The state of India with maximum percentage of its area covered by forests is:
i. Rajasthan
ii. Bihar
iii. Karnataka
iv. Madhya Pradesh

Answer 1. c) option (iv) Madhya Pradesh

Question 1 d) Percentage of the volume of fresh water available for human use in the
hydrosphere
i. 0.3
ii. 1.7
iii. 1.3
iv. 2.5

Answer 1. d) option (i) 0.3

Question 1 e) World Environment Day is celebrated on:
i. September 5
ii. July 5
iii. June 5
iv. May 5

Answer 1. e) option (iii) June 5

Question 1 f) Major coal resources in India are located in:
i. Himalayas
ii. Central and Eastern India
iii. South India
iv. Western India

Answer 1. f) option (ii) Central and Eastern India

Question 1 g) Major component of biogas is:
i. Butane
ii. Methane
iii. Propane
iv. Ethane

Answer 1. g) option (ii) Methane

Question 1 h) Scientist known as “father of Green Revolution” in India is:
i. B.P. Pal
ii. M.S. Swaminathan
iii. T.N. Khosoo
iv. Norman E. Borlaug

Answer 1. h) option (ii) M.S. Swaminathan

Question 1 i. Write short notes on the following:
i. Stockholm conference
ii. Kyoto Protocol
iii. Sustainable Development

Answer 1.i)
(i) Stockholm Conference

The UN conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm from 5th to 16th June

1972. The conference formulated an important declaration, popularly called the Stockholm
Declaration on Environment. This declaration which is the most comprehensive yet on the

subject of human environment made the conference a watershed in the study and safeguarding of
environment.
GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE CONFERENCE:
The general framework of the conference includes human settlements and environmental quality.

(a) Problems and Management of Human Settlements:

Planning and management of human settlements for environmental quality, including problems
of housing, transitional settlements, slums, family planning, malnutrition, and noise.

(b) Natural Resources Management:

Environmental aspects of natural resources management, including the setting up of genetic

banks of plants and animals, forests and wild life, and the question of development of water,
mineral, and energy resources with least damage to the environment.

(c) Pollution Control Measures:

Identification and control of pollutants of broad international significance, including

establishment of limits for common air and water contaminants, pollution research and efficient
pollution control technology.

(d) Social and Cultural Aspects:

Educational, informational, social and cultural aspects of environmental issues, including public
and specialized technical education.

(e) Development and Environment:

Development and environment which includes, inter alia, the possibility of pollution reduction
by switching over to natural materials from synthetics.

Answer 1 i)

(ii) Kyoto protocol

  The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement between industrialized nations to

lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is named after Kyoto, Japan where the

agreement was drawn up in 1997 at the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC).

 The essence of the Kyoto Protocol is that it calls for nations to commit themselves to

reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As of November 2016, 192 states have signed and
ratified the protocol

 The Goal: Reduction of 4 Greenhouse Gases

The Kyoto Protocol’s main goal is to reduce the presence of 4 harmful greenhouse gases
(GHG’s):

1. Carbon Dioxide
2. Methane
3. Nitrous Oxide
4. Sulphur Hexafluoride
These gases belong into two groups, both of which are being targeted by the protocol:

1. Hydrofluorocarbons
2. Perfluorocarbons
The goal is to reduce emissions by 5.2%, compared to 1990 levels.

Answer 1 i) (iii) Sustainable Development

 Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising on the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

 In other words, sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising on the ability of the future generations to meet their own
needs. Sustainable development considers the impact of environmental changes and tries
to minimize the impact.
  There are three pillars of sustainable development namely community development

(which includes providing basic needs like food, shelter, clothes, health, education etc.),

economic development (which include industrialization creating job opportunity) and

environmental protection (which includes providing clean air, safe water, quality
environment).

 The sustainability in environmental restoration programme considers the following

key issues:

(i) Stabilization of population growth

(ii) Conservation and rational exploitation of forest resources.

(iii) Afforestation in waste lands and deforested areas.

(iv) Control of pollution (Air, water, land etc.)

v) Maintenance of sustainability in agriculture

(vi) Recycling of waste and residue

(vii) Conservation of biodiversity

(viii) Development of non-polluting renewable energy stems.

(ix) Updating environmental laws and its strict imposition.

(x) Assessment of ecological security.

Question 2. Define ecosystems and elaborate various kinds of ecosystem.

Answer 2. A) Ecosystems: - An ecosystem is a community made up of living organisms

and nonliving components such as air, water, and mineral soil. Ecosystems can be studied in two
different ways. They can be thought of as interdependent collections of plants and animals, or as
structured systems and communities governed by general rules the living (biotic) and non-living

(abiotic) components interact through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems include
interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment.

Types of ecosystem
Following are the various types of ecosystems: -
1)Freshwater Ecosystems: -
Freshwater ecosystems can be found in streams, rivers, springs, ponds, lakes, bogs and freshwater
swamps. They are subdivided into two classes: those in which the water is nearly stationary, such
as ponds, and those in which the water flows, such as creeks. Freshwater ecosystems are home to
more than just fish: algae, plankton, insects, amphibians and underwater plants also inhabit them.

These can then be broken up into smaller ecosystems. For instance, in the freshwater ecosystems
we find:

 Pond Ecosystems – These are usually relatively small and contained. Most of the time
they include various types of plants, amphibians and insects. Sometimes they include
 fish, but as these cannot move around as easily as amphibians and insects, it is less
likely, and most of the time fish are artificially introduced to these environments by
humans.

 River Ecosystems – Because rivers always link to the sea, they are more likely to contain
fish alongside the usual plants, amphibians and insects.

These sorts of ecosystems can also include birds because birds often hunt in and around water for
small fish or insects.

As is clear from the title, freshwater ecosystems are those that are contained to freshwater
environments. This includes, but is not limited to, ponds, rivers and other waterways that are not
the sea (which is, of course, saltwater and cannot support freshwater creatures for very long).
Freshwater ecosystems are the smallest of the three major classes of ecosystems, accounting for
just 1.8% of the total of the Earth’s surface. The ecosystems of freshwater systems include
relatively small fish (bigger fish are usually found in the sea), amphibians (such as frogs, toads
and newts), insects of various sorts and, of course, plants. The smallest living part of the food web
of these sorts of ecosystems is plankton, a small organism that is often eaten by fish and other
small creatures.

2)Terrestrial ecosystems: - These ecosystems are many because there are so many different sorts
of places on Earth. Some of the most common terrestrial ecosystems that are found are the
following:

 Rainforests – Rainforests usually have extremely dense ecosystems because there are
so many different types of animals all living in a very small area.

 Tundra – As mentioned above, tundra usually have relatively simple ecosystems

because of the limited amount of life that can be supported in these harsh conditions.
As with deserts, a harsh environment characterizes ecosystems in the tundra. In the
snow-covered, windswept, treeless tundra, the soil may be frozen year-round, a
condition known as permafrost. During the brief spring and summer, snows melt,
 producing shallow ponds which attract migrating waterfowl. Lichens and small flowers
may become visible during this time of year. The term “tundra” most commonly denotes
polar areas, but at lower latitudes, tundra-like communities known as alpine tundra may
be found at high elevations.
 Deserts – Quite the opposite of tundra in many ways, but still harsh, more animals live
in the extreme heat than live in the extreme cold of Antarctica, for instance. The
common defining feature among desert ecosystems is low precipitation, generally less
than 25 centimeters, or 10 inches, per year. Not all deserts are hot – desert ecosystems
can exist from the tropics to the arctic, but regardless of latitude, deserts are often windy.
Some deserts contain sand dunes, while others feature mostly rock. Vegetation is sparse
or nonexistent, and any animal species, such as insects, reptiles and birds, must be
highly adapted to the dry conditions.
 Savannas – These differ from deserts because of the amount of rain that they get each
year. Whereas deserts get only a tiny amount of precipitation every tea, savannas tend
to be a bit wetter which is better for supporting more life.
 Forests – There are many different types of forests all over the world including
deciduous forests and coniferous forests. These can support a lot of life and can have
very complex ecosystems. Forest ecosystems are classified according to their climate
type as tropical, temperate or boreal. In the tropics, rainforest ecosystems contain more
diverse flora and fauna than ecosystems in any other region on earth. In these warm,
moisture-laden environments, trees grow tall and foliage is lush and dense, with species
inhabiting the forest floor all the way up to the canopy. In temperate zones, forest
ecosystems may be deciduous, coniferous or oftentimes a mixture of both, in which
some trees shed their leaves each fall, while others remain evergreen year-round. In the
far north, just south of the Arctic, boreal forests – also known as taiga – feature abundant
coniferous trees.
 Grasslands – Grasslands support a wide variety of life and can have very complex and
involved ecosystems. Different types of grassland ecosystems can be found in prairies,
savannas and steppes. Grassland ecosystems are typically found in tropical or temperate
regions, although they can exist in colder areas as well, as is the case with the well-
known Siberian steppe. Grasslands share the common climactic characteristic of semi-
 aridity. Trees are sparse or nonexistent, but flowers may be interspersed with the
grasses. Grasslands provide an ideal environment for grazing animals.

Since there are so many different types of terrestrial ecosystems, it can be difficult to generalize
that cover them all.

Because terrestrial ecosystems are so diverse, it is difficult to generalize about them. However, a
few things are true almost all the time. For instance, most contain herbivores that eat plants (that
get their sustenance from the sun and the soil) and all have carnivores that eat herbivores and other
carnivores. Some places, such the poles, contain mainly carnivores because not plant life grows.
A lot of animals and plants that grow and live in terrestrial ecosystems also.

3) Ocean Ecosystems

Ocean ecosystems are relatively contained, although they, like freshwater ecosystems, also include
certain birds that hunt for fish and insects close to the ocean’s surface. There are different sorts of
ocean ecosystems:

 Shallow water – Some tiny fish and coral only live in the shallow waters close to land.

 Deep water – Big and even gigantic creatures can live deep in the waters of the oceans.
Some of the strangest creatures in the world live right at the bottom of the sea.

 Warm water – Warmer waters, such as those of the Pacific Ocean, contain some of the
most impressive and intricate ecosystems in the world.

 Cold water – Less diverse, cold waters still support relatively complex ecosystems.
Plankton usually form the base of the food chain, following by small fish that are either
eaten by bigger fish or by other creatures such as seals or penguins.

Ocean ecosystems are amongst some of the most interesting in the world, especially in warm
waters such as those of the Pacific Ocean. This is not least because around 75% of the Earth is
covered by the sea, which means that there is lots of space for all sorts of different creatures to live
and thrive. There are three different types of oceanic ecosystems: shallow waters, deep waters and
the deep ocean surface. In two of these the very base of the food chain is plankton, just as it is in
freshwater ecosystems.

These plankton and other plants that grow in the ocean close to the surface are responsible for 40%
of all photosynthesis that occurs on Earth. From this there are herbivorous creatures that eat the
plankton, such as shrimp, that are then themselves usually eaten by bigger creatures, particularly
fish. Interesting, in the deep ocean, plankton cannot exist because photosynthesis cannot occur
since light cannot penetrate that far into the ocean’s depths. Down in the deepest depths of the
ocean, therefore, creatures have adapted very strangely and are amongst some of the most
fascination and the most terrifying and intriguing living creatures on Earth.

OR

Question 2 (B) Elucidate on sustainability development by elaborating its social, economic

and environmental aspects.

Answer 2(B) Sustainability can be broadly defined as “meeting the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”. When it comes to describing sustainability in our world, we need to be concerned about
three main areas of influence. There are three interconnected spheres of sustainability that describe
the relationships between the environmental, economic, and social aspects of our world. These
spheres are a related set of concepts that, when taken together, can form a solid ground from which
major decisions and actions can be made. Examples of such decisions could include land use
planning, surface water management, building design and construction, and even law making.
When the concepts contained in the three spheres of sustainability are applied to real world
situations, everybody wins. Natural resources are preserved, the environment is protected, the
economy isn't harmed, and the quality of life for our people is improved or maintained. Below is
a diagram showing the three spheres and how they are related. Basically, what this is saying is that
nearly everything we do or plan to do, influences the sustainability of the human race.
Social Sustainability

 Social sustainability is based on the concept that a decision or project promotes the
betterment of society. In general, future generations should have the same or greater quality
of life benefits as the current generation do.

 This concept also encompasses many things such as human rights, environmental law, and
public involvement & participation. Failing to put emphasis on the social part of decision
or action can result in the slow collapse of the spheres of sustainability (and society as
well).

Economic Sustainability

 Economic sustainability involves creating economic value out of whatever project or

decision you are undertaking. Economic sustainability means that decisions are made in
the most equitable and fiscally sound way possible while considering the other aspects of
sustainability.
  In most cases, projects and decisions must be made with the long-term benefits in mind
(rather than just the short-term benefits). Keep in mind that when only the economic aspects
of something are considered, it may not necessarily promote true sustainability.

It has been suggested that because of rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental resources
should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital. Economic development has
traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal
and GDP growth may be over. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality
of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in resource consumption. According to ecological
economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time.
Issues of intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long-
term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation.

For many people in the business world, economic sustainability or growth their main focal point.
On the large scale (globally or even locally), this narrow-minded approach to management of a
business can ultimately lead to unsatisfactory results. However, when good business practices are
combined with the social and environmental aspects of sustainability, you can still have a positive
result that is for the greater good of humanity.

There are several key ideas that make up economic sustainability. For example, governments
should look to promoting "smart growth" through no-nonsense land use planning and subsidies or
tax breaks for green development. Strong financial support for universities, education programs,
and research & development is an important part of economic sustainability as well. In addition to
this, an emphasis should also be placed on other areas such as reducing unnecessary spending and
cutting red tape.

Environmental Sustainability

 Environmental sustainability concerns the natural environment and how it endures and
remains diverse and productive. Since natural resources are derived from the environment,
the state of air, water, and the climate are of concern.
  The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report outlines current knowledge about scientific, technical
and socio-economic information concerning climate change, and lists options
for adaptation and mitigation.

 Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs

while preserving the life support systems of the planet. This, for example, entails using
water sustainably, utilizing renewable energy, and sustainable material supplies (e.g.
harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the biomass and biodiversity)

In a truly sustainable environment, an ecosystem would maintain populations, biodiversity, and

overall functionality over an extended period. Ideally, decisions that are made should promote
equilibrium within our natural systems and seek to encourage growth. Unnecessary disturbances
to the environment should be avoided whenever possible. If there is a disturbance, it should be
mitigated to the maximum practicable extent. When decisions are made, one part of the discussion
should always be the environmental impacts of the proposed outcome or result.

There are several items that are directly related to environmental sustainability. One of the
concepts that is of the utmost importance is the proper management of our natural resources. Using
the Z-squared approach to sustainability, we can minimize our impacts to the environment. In some
cases, we can even promote habitat restoration and preservation as means to negotiate a successful
solution to a problem.

Economic Sustainability is a balancing act. Profitability and cost of a decision must be balanced
with the environmental and social impacts of its results.

Question 3. (A) Explain baseline studies in EIA with examples.

Answer 3. (A) A baseline study is the study of the original status of the environment in the area
before the development work of the project is started. This study serves the purpose of a base
reference against which the changes due to implementation of the project are measured.

 Baseline studies are based on the experience with respect to environmental aspects and cover
everything important about the environmental impacts of the project. On the other hand, a
proper scoping highlights the significant environmental issues of the project with respect to its
 locality and regional environment. Hence, scoping and baseline studies often run into each
other. Baseline studies are rather easily carried out in the countries where the required technical
expertise, long-term database for environmental measures (for instance in the case of river
flow) and relevant research papers and reports are available for the area concerned.

 Thus, the baseline studies are more easily prepared in developed countries. The local expertise,
such as consulting a forester or a soil scientist, could be utilized instead to complete the
baseline studies in the developing countries. In such cases, the team responsible for the EIA
must have the ability to find out the appropriate personnel for the required information. Failing
that, the overseas consultants can be hired but it will raise the cost of the EIA preparation. In
other words, it is the price a country has to pay for not having the required database.

 Environmental Baseline Study surveys determine the characterization of an area prior the
development of a project and establish the initial environmental status. Environmental
Impact Assessment(EIA) is the procedure to predict, minimize, measure and, if necessary,
correct and compensate the impacts produced by any human action. This requires a high degree
of understanding of both the impact of the receiving environment and the process that produces
it.

 The EIA process makes sure that environmental issues are raised when a project or plan is
first discussed and that all concerns are addressed as a project gains momentum through to
implementation. Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some
project components, require further studies, suggest changes which alter the economic
viability of the project or cause a delay in project implementation. To be of most benefit it is
essential that an environmental assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts
early in the project cycle so that recommendations can be built into the design and cost-
benefit analysis without causing major delays or increased design costs.
 The way in which an EIA is carried out is not rigid: it is a process comprising a series of
steps. These steps are outlined below and the techniques more commonly used in EIA are
described in some detail in the section Techniques. The main steps in the EIA process are:
 1. screening
2. scoping
3. prediction and mitigation
4. management and monitoring
5. audit
.
 Screening often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is
made on whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out.
 Scoping is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and
will involve community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA
can most strongly influence the outline proposal.
 Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in
parallel with feasibility studies.
 The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a
detailed plan for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and
after implementation.
 Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out some time after implementation.
The audit serves a useful feedback and learning function.
Question 3(B) Give salient features of Environmental Protection acts.

ANSWER 3. (B) SALIENT FEATURES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT,

1986:

This Act has been brought into force from November 1986. Its salient features are:

(a) Conferring powers on the Central Government to:

(i) Take all necessary measures for protecting quality of environment

(ii) Co-ordinate actions of States, officers and other authorities under this Act,

(iii) Plan and execute a nationwide programme for prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution,

(iv) Lay down standards for discharge of environmental pollutants

v) Empower any person to enter, inspect, take samples and test,

(vi) Establish or recognize environmental laboratories,

(vii) Appoint or recognize government analysts, (viii) lay down standards for quality of
environment,

(ix) Restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes may not be carried out subject
to certain safeguards

(x) Lay down safeguards for prevention of accidents and take remedial measures in case of such
accidents,

(xi) Lay down procedures and safeguards for handling hazardous substances,

(xii) Constitute an authority for exercising powers,

(xiii) Issue directions to any person, officer or authority including the power to direct closure,
prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process,

(xiv) Require any person, officer or authority to furnish any prescribed information and
(xv) Delegate powers to any officer of a state or authority;

(b) It confers powers on persons to complain to courts regarding any violation of the provisions
of the Act, after a notice of 60 days to the prescribed authorities;

(c) The Act makes it obligatory for the person in charge of a place to inform the prescribed
authorities regarding any accidental discharge of any pollutant more than prescribed standards.

The concerned authorities, on receipt of such information, shall take remedial measures to
prevent or mitigate pollution caused by such accidents and expenses incurred by the authorities
in respect of remedial measures are recoverable with interest from the polluter;

(d) It prescribes stringent penalties for violation of the provisions of the Act; and

(e) Jurisdiction of civil courts is barred under the Act.

SALIENT FEATURES OF WATER POLLUTION ACT ,1974

The act aims to prevent and control water pollution and to maintain/restore wholesomeness of
water by establishing central and state pollution control board to monitor and enforce the
regulations

The Central Pollution Control Board, and State Pollution Control Boards composition, terms and
conditions of service of members are defined in Sections 3-12 of water (prevention and control of
pollution) act, 1974.

The Board advises the government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water
pollution. It coordinates the activities and provides technical assistance and guidance. This policy
sets the standards and penalties for non-compliance for polluting bodies.

The Government has power to restrict any unit, and to take samples of effluents and get them
analyzed in Central or State laboratories. Whoever fails to comply with any provision of this Act
is punishable with imprisonment, fine or with both.

The Central Board may perform all or any of the following functions, namely, -
  advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of
water pollution;
 co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;
 provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control
or abatement of water pollution;
 plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution on such terms and conditions as the
Central Board may specify;
 organize through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and
control of water pollution;
 collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and
the measures devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes
or guides relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate
information connected therewith;
 lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned, the
standards for a stream or well;
 plan and execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of
water pollution;
 perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

SALIENT FEATURES OF AIR POLLUTION ACT,1981

It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, inter alia,
for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain
industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and
cognizance of offences etc.

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe
the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can operate
certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries
without consent of the State Board.

The Board can predicate its consent upon the fulfillment of certain conditions. The Air Act
apparently adopts an industry wide “best available technology” requirement. As in the Water Act,
courts may hear complaints under the Act only at the instigation of, or with the sanction of, the
State Board.

The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that
sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release
particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level.

To ensure this, Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure
pollution levels in the atmosphere and at certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in
parts per million or in milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter.

This Act is created to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the
Earth which among other things includes the preservation of high quality air and ensures
controlling the level of air pollution.

The main objectives of the Act are as follows:

(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act.

(c)To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the
Boards functions relating to pollution.

Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also densely
populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.
Question 4(A) Classify air pollutants into different categories indicating their sources and
effect on human health.

Answer 4: (A) Air pollution can be defined as the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds
(including those of biological origin) in the air, at levels that pose a health risk. In an even broader
sense, air pollution means the presence of chemicals or compounds in the air which are usually not
present, and which lower the quality of the air or cause detrimental changes to the quality of life
(such as the damaging of the ozone layer or causing global warming).

Sources of air pollution: -

The main sources of air pollution are-
1. Emissions from Industrial Plants and Manufacturing Activities: -

With the current rate of industrialization and increased manufacturing activities, high levels
of smoke, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter are emitted into the air. In a typical
industrial plant, for instance, it is easy to notice the long chimneys or smokestacks erected
into the air, emitting large amounts of fumes and smoke from it. Industrial plants, factories,
and power plants release high amounts of organic compounds, chemicals, particulate
matter, and carbon monoxide into the air. Industrial plants that refine petroleum,
manufacture cement, produce metals such as steel and aluminum, process plastics, or
manufacture chemical products are among the industries and manufacturing activities that
release lots of foreign harmful materials into the air.

2. Combustion from Fossil Fuels: -

In the modern world, fossil fuel combustion is the biggest contributor to air pollution. The
leading culprit today is traffic, but factories and power plants also continue to contribute to
some extent. Conventional power plants that combust fossil fuels to produce energy emits
hazardous gases such as oxides of nitrogen, Carbon Monoxide, particulates, and
hydrocarbons into the air. The number of cars on our roads are overwhelming and
 increasing, with an estimated number of more than half a billion cars on the road. Heavy
duty trucks, shipping vessels, trains, and airplanes also combust lots of fossil fuels to
function. All these transportation utilities are power-driven by diesel and gasoline engines
that combust petroleum to produce energy.

3. Farming Chemicals and Household Products: -

Use of household and farming chemicals produce considerable amounts of harmful foreign
substances into the atmosphere and have the potential to cause air pollution. Dusting of
crops, painting supplies, home fumigation, household cleaning products, fertilizer powder,
insect/pet’s sprays, hair sprays, and deodorant sprays release harmful chemicals into the
air, causing pollution. High concentrations of these chemicals within a confined area can
be hazardous and can cause serious health and breathing problems. Since they are regularly
used products, they also qualify as major causes of air pollution as they release toxic
particles and chemical gases into the atmosphere.

4. Natural Causes of Air Pollution: -

Majority of people only perceive air pollution because of human actions. In some cases,
natural events can as well cause air pollution. However, they are rarely witnessed, and
some of them are very disastrous and difficult to prevent from happening. Examples of
natural events that lead to air pollution include volcanic eruptions, whirlwinds, forest fires,
and gaseous releases from decaying plants and animals or radioactive decay of rocks.
Forest fires often begin naturally and can release huge amounts of smoke and dust particles
that float in the air. The smoke and dust can be carried for miles within a short time leading
to widespread air pollution. Some of the biggest wildfires have emitted smoke that drifted
several miles across bordering cities and countries.

5. Other Causes: -
Majority of developing countries burn charcoal, wood, and crop waste to produce fuel used
for cooking and heating. As such, the traditional practice of wood and charcoal burning is
 usually a chief contributor to indoor air pollution in developing nations. Burning charcoal,
wood, and crop waste release Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and
particulate matter into the atmosphere that potentially causes air pollution. In some regions,
waste is incinerated instead of being land-filled or recycled and as such, it substantially
contributes to air pollution. Some agricultural practices like burning agricultural land after
harvest or burning as a mechanism for clearing land cover is also a significant cause of air
pollution.

Effect of air pollution on human health are as follows: -

Air pollutants have many acute as well as chronic effects on human health. In terms of health
hazards, every unusual suspended material in the air, which causes difficulties in normal function
of the human organs, is defined as air toxicants. According to available data, the main toxic effects
of exposure to air pollutants are mainly on the respiratory, cardiovascular, ophthalmologic,
dermatologic, neuropsychiatric, hematologic, immunologic, and reproductive systems. However,
the molecular and cell toxicity may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term. On the other
hand, even small amount of air toxicants is shown to be dangerous for susceptible groups including
children and elderly people as well as patients suffering from respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases. These are:
(a) Irritation of the respiratory tract
(b) Irritation of eye, nose and throat.
(c) Lead particulates (from automobile exhausts) cause lead poisoning resulting in convulsions,
delirium, coma and even death.
(d) Cadmium particulates (through cigarette smoking) cause cardiovascular diseases, kidney and
liver damage and even death.
(e) Nickel particulates (in tobacco smoke) result in respiratory damage.
(f) Mercury (Combustion of fossil fuels, plants) results in nerve, brain and kidney damage.
(g) Radio-active fallout has somatic and genetic effects on future generations.
(h) Respiratory diseases: Because most of the pollutants enter the body through the airways, the
respiratory system is in the first line of battle in the onset and progression of diseases resulted from
air pollutants. Depending on the dose of inhaled pollutants, and deposition in target cells, they
cause a different level of damages in the respiratory system. In the upper respiratory tract, the first
effect is irritation, especially in trachea which induces voice disturbances. Air pollution is also
considered as the major environmental risk factor for some respiratory diseases such as asthma
and lung cancer. Air pollutants, especially PMs and other respirable chemicals such as dust, O3,
and benzene cause serious damage to the respiratory tract. Asthma is a respiratory disease which
may be developed because of exposure to air toxicants. Some studies have validated associations
between both traffic-related and/or industrial air pollution and increasing the risk of COPD.
Treatment of respiratory diseases due to air pollution is similar to the other toxic chemical induce
respiratory disorders.
(I)Cardiovascular damage: Many experimental and epidemiologic studies have shown the direct
association of air pollutant exposure and cardiac-related illnesses. Air pollution is also associated
with changes in white blood cell counts which also may affect the cardiovascular functions. The
traffic-related air pollution, especially exposure to high levels of NO2, is associated with right and
left ventricular hypertrophy.
(j) Fatigue, headaches and anxiety
(k)Damage to reproductive organs
(l)Harm to the liver, spleen and blood
(m)Nervous system damage
(n)Skin Problems: Skin is the body's first line of defense against a foreign pathogen or infectious
agent and it is the first organ that may be contaminated by a pollutant. The skin is a target organ
for pollution in which the absorption of environmental pollutants from this organ is equivalent to
the respiratory uptake. Research on the skin has provided evidence that traffic-related air
pollutants, especially PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM affect skin aging and cause pigmented spots
on the face.
(o) Neuropsychiatric Problems: -The relationship between exposure to air suspended toxic
materials and nerve system has always been argued. However, it is now believed that these toxic
substances have damaging effects on the nervous system. The toxic effect of air pollutants on nerve
system includes neurological complications and psychiatric disorders. Neurological impairment
may cause devastating consequences, especially in infants. In contrast, psychiatric disorders will
induce aggression and antisocial behaviors. Recent studies have reported the relationship between
air pollution and neurobehavioral hyperactivity, criminal activity, and age-inappropriate
behaviors. Studies have also revealed the association between air pollution and higher risk of
neuroinflammation, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Some studies showed that aggression
and anxiety in megacities are in close relationship with the high level of air pollutants.

OR

Question 4(B) Discuss major sources of groundwater and surface water pollution citing
examples. Also discuss various methods of water conservation.

Answer 4. (B) Ground and surface water pollution: -

Groundwater pollution (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when pollutants are
released to the ground and make their way down into groundwater. This type of water
pollution can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent,
contaminant or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to
as contamination rather than pollution.

Surface water pollution -When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans and other
water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water. This results in the pollution of water.
Due to pollution the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems. These
pollutants can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits. The most polluting source of
water is the city sewage and industrial waste. Agricultural run-off, or the water from the fields that
drains into rivers, is another major water pollutant as it contains fertilizers and pesticides. These
pollutants enter groundwater, rivers and other water bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up
in our households, is often highly contaminated and carries disease-causing microbes.

Groundwater Pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfills, effluent
from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol filling stations or from over application Commented [Jt1]:

of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring
contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride.

Sources of groundwater pollution include:

 Naturally-occurring (geogenic) sources
 On-site sanitation systems
 Sewage (treated and untreated)
 Fertilizers and pesticides
 Commercial and industrial leaks
 Hydraulic fracturing
 Landfill leachate
 Other
 Groundwater Pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfills, effluent
from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol filling stations or from over Commented [Jt2]:

application of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from
naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride.

They have been discussed as follows: -

Arsenic and fluoride

Arsenic and fluoride have been recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the most
serious inorganic contaminants in drinking-water on a worldwide basis. The metalloid arsenic can
occur naturally in groundwater, as seen most frequently in Asia, including in China, India and
Bangladesh. In the Ganges Plain of northern India and Bangladesh severe contamination of
groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic affects 25% of water wells in the shallower of two
regional aquifers. Arsenic in groundwater can also be present where there are mining operations
or mine waste dumps that will leach arsenic.

Natural fluoride in groundwater is of growing concern as deeper groundwater is being used, with
more than 200 million people at risk of drinking water with elevated concentrations. Fluoride can
especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when
water hardness is low.

Pathogens
Waterborne diseases can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal
pathogens from pit latrines. The lack of proper sanitation measures, as well as improperly
placed wells, can lead to drinking water contaminated with pathogens carried in feces and urine.
Such fecal-oral transmitted diseases include cholera and diarrhea.

Nitrate
Nitrate is the most common chemical contaminant in the world’s groundwater and aquifers. In
some low-income countries nitrate levels in groundwater are extremely high, causing significant
health problems. It is also stable under high oxygen conditions.

Organic compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are
generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices. Organic pollutants
can also be found in groundwater as insecticides and herbicides.

Metals

Several trace metals occur naturally in certain rock formations and can enter in the environment
from natural processes such as weathering. However, industrial activities such
as mining, metallurgy, solid waste disposal, paint and enamel works, etc. can lead to elevated
concentrations of toxic metals including lead, cadmium and chromium. These contaminants have
the potential to make their way into groundwater.

Pharmaceuticals

Popular pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antidepressants, decongestants,

tranquilizers, etc. are normally found in treated wastewater. This wastewater is discharged from
the treatment facility, and often makes its way into the aquifer or source of surface water used for
drinking water. Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in both groundwater and surface water could
be an increasing problem as population grows and more reclaimed wastewater is utilized for
municipal water supplies.

Others

Other organic pollutants include a range of organohalides and other chemical

compounds, petroleum hydrocarbons, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene
and cosmetic products, drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites.
Inorganic pollutants might include other nutrients such as ammonia and phosphate,
and radionuclides such as uranium (U) or radon (Rn) naturally present in some geological
formations. Saltwater intrusion is also an example of natural contamination but is very often
intensified by human activities.
Groundwater pollution is a worldwide issue. A study of the groundwater quality of the principal
aquifers of the United States conducted between 1991 and 2004, showed that 23% of domestic
wells had contaminants at levels greater than human-health benchmarks. Another study suggested
that the major groundwater pollution problems in Africa, considering the order of importance are:
(1) nitrate pollution, (2) pathogenic agents, (3) organic pollution, (4) salinization, and (5) acid mine
drainage.

Methods of water conservation & management are as follows: -

Since ages, people across different regions of India, have experienced either excess or scarce water
due to varied rainfall and land topography. Yet, they have managed to irrigate their agricultural
fields using localized water harvesting methods. Their traditional ways, though less popular, are
still in use and efficient. They are enriched with knowledge to manage water in communal ways.

The various methods of water conservation in India are as follows: -

Katta: -
Katta is a temporary structure made by binding mud and loose stones available locally. Built across
small streams and rivers, this stone bund slows the flow of water, and stores a large amount
(depending upon its height) during the dry months. The collected water gradually seeps into ground
and increase the water level of nearby wells. In coastal areas, they also minimize the flow of fresh
water into the sea. It is a cost effective and simple method, used widely in rural areas. Series of
stone bunds built one behind the other have proved to be more effective than modern concrete
dams in some villages, as these local structures can be easily repaired by farmers themselves.
Although they require many skilled laborers during construction, the cost is mostly shared by all
the villagers as it is a common structure. However, with more people opting for personal borewells
and handpumps, the water level in open wells has gone down severely, taking a toll on marginal
villages. Thus, rejuvenating these community Kattas can go a long way in sustainable water
management.

Sand Bores: -
Sand bores provide a safe alternative for farm irrigation without affecting groundwater. This
technique uses the concept of extracting water retained by sand particles. Sand particles act as
great water filters by retaining the salt content at bottom and gushing pure water out. White sand
is believed to yield water clean enough for drinking too. The sand bore technique has been used in
Karnataka since decades. The only drawback is that it can only be practiced in coastal areas or in
areas with high sand deposits.

Madaks/ Johads/ Pemghara: -

The water soak pits called as Madakas in Karnataka, Pemghara in Odisha and Johads in Rajasthan,
are one of the oldest systems used to conserve and recharge ground water. Constructed on an area
with naturally high elevation on three sides, soil is excavated to create a storage area and used to
create a wall on fourth side to hold water. Johads collect monsoon water, which slowly seeps in to
recharge groundwater and maintain soil moisture.

Bawdi/Jhalara: -
These step-wells are grand structures of high archaeological significance constructed since ancient
times, mainly in honor of kings and queens. They are typically square shaped step-wells with
beautiful arches, motifs and sometimes rooms on sides. Apart from storing water for basic needs,
they at times also served for water sports. Located away from residential areas, the water quality
in these Bawdis is good for consumption. The typical lifespan of Jhalaras is around 20-30 years.

Bamboo Drip Irrigation: -

Innovated by tribes of north eastern states, this technique economically uses water during dry
seasons. It is practiced in hilly areas where construction of ground channels is not possible due to
sloppy and stony terrain. This arrangement taps spring water to irrigate fields. A network of
channels made by bamboo pipes of various diameters (to control flow), allows downward flow of
water by gravity. An efficient system can reduce around 20 liters of inflow water running over
kms to 20-80 drops per minute in agricultural fields.

Rooftop Rain Water Harvesting: -

All of us who directly consume water are the most important stakeholders in managing water.
While many of us urbanites use or waste a lot of water, we rarely try to conserve it. Fortunately,
the rainwater harvesting method has provided a solution that can be practiced easily in every
household. It is a simple model where the roof acting as a catchment for rainfall, which after
flowing through a series of filters and pipes is stored in ground-level containers for direct use or
recharged into ground water.

Tech Specs Table: -

An area of 1,000 square feet with 1 inch of rainfall is estimated to yield 550 gallons of water. For
an existing building, the cost of water harvesting systems can range from Rs 10,000 to Rs 30,000.
Designs have been formulated for both pukka and kutcha houses to make it a household activity.
In a running model, the stored water has been widely used for irrigation, domestic usage as well
as animals. D&D Ecotech services, Jalprapat drillers, water harvesters and Nirmal Jal are some of
the reliable service providers of this technology. For new buildings (with more than 100 sq. meter
area), rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory by few state governments like Delhi,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.

Ferro-cement Tanks: -
The is a low-cost alternative for expensive water harvesting containers made of masonry, plastic
and RCC. It has proved highly effective in high rainfall regions where large amount of water need
to store in clean form. These tanks requiring materials like sand, cement, mild steel bar and
galvanized iron wire mesh, can be easily constructed by semi-skilled labors. It’s light in weight
and can be molded into any shape required. It is believed to last for around 25 years with little
maintenance.

Joy Pumps: -
The innovation was designed to mitigate water scarcity problems in villages with no clean surface
water source, no electricity and poor monetary capacity. Attached below a merry-go-round wheel
or a see-saw, is an arrangement similar to a conventional hand pump. As children ride on these
wheels, groundwater is drawn and tank (around 8-10 meters above ground) is filled. It can also be
used to pump water from bore wells and large storage tankers. It can be installed even at far off
places and has easy maintenance. It is basically a community structure and can be set up in schools,
parks, villages and relief camps. It has been used in developing countries like India and Africa.
Span pumps Pvt. limited, a Pune based company is designing such pumps in India.
Cycle Run Water Pumps: -

A saver of time and cost of electricity and fuel, this technology utilizes human power generated
by pedaling a bicycle to lift water from streams, ponds, canals and wells. When the cycle is
pedaled, it creates an up and down motion of pistons which pressurizes water flow to outlet. A
portable model which can be installed on site has also been developed. Designed for small scale
farmers who don’t have capacity to afford costly diesel run motors, this arrangement can bring a
flow of 100 liters per minute. The complete unit made of cast iron and aluminum costs from rupees
2500 to 7000. These pumps have also supported women, kids and old people who at times found
operating hand pumps in bend position a strenuous task. Some models have replaced bicycle by
steppers, making pumping water a healthy and fun activity. In India, it was conceptualized by poor
farmer from a village of West Bengal, Nasiruddin Gayen in 1980s. Xylam water solutions, a
Vadodara based company is also designing and selling this innovation. If made applicable in urban
areas, this concept can do wonders in making people realize importance of water and lose some
calories too.

Rain Water Syringe: -

Most of the open wells and tube wells in coastal areas contain salty water due to seepage of sea
water. Rainwater harvesting is a viable option for solving the issue of drinking water, but
construction of rainwater overhead tanks is unaffordable for marginal farmers. Antoji in Kerala
has innovated a cost-effective method for harvesting rainwater in coastal areas. Rainwater is
collected from the roof tops of houses and stored in a pressure tank on the ground and with the
help of PVC pipes, water is lowered below sea level (16-24 feet). The water is retained in the
underground water column which is then harvested during summer by a simple piston pump or
motor by constructing a tube well in the vicinity. It has proved successful in diluting recharging
ground water in coastal areas of Kerela and Antoji has installed 150 tanks in different parts of
Kerala.

Water Wheel: -
This innovation comes from a foreign visitor who was inspired by women from villages of
Rajasthan, who carried round earthen matkas on their heads for long distances in hot weather. This
invention has made carrying water not only an effortless but fun activity. It is a round wheel shaped
storage tanker with an attached handle on top to provide painless mobility. It has already become
popular in villages of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Designed to reduce the drudgery
and save time of working women, water wheel can store up to 10 to 50 litres of water in hygienic
conditions. It’s designed for lasting on rough terrains and made from high quality plastic. It’s
affordable too costing around 2000 rupees. It was innovated by a US based social entrepreneur,
Cynthia Koeing under an organization called Wello.
Question 5(A) Explain solid waste management. What are the precautions to be taken to
manage hazardous and biomedical waste?

Answer 5(A) Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the process of collecting
and treating solid wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not belong to garbage
or trash. As long as people have been living in settlements and residential areas, garbage or solid
waste has been an issue. Waste management is all about how solid waste can be changed and used
as a valuable resource. Solid waste management should be embraced by each and every household
including the business owners across the world. Industrialization has brought a lot of good things
and bad things as well. One of the negative effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste.

Methods of Composting: -

Composting can be carried out in two ways i.e., aerobically and anaerobically.
During aerobic composting aerobic micro-organisms oxidize organic compounds to Carbon di
oxide, Nitrite and Nitrate. Carbon from organic compounds is used as a source of energy while
nitrogen is recycled. Due to exothermic reaction, temperature of the mass rises.

During anaerobic process, the anaerobic microorganisms, while metabolizing the nutrients, break
down the organic compounds through a process of reduction. A very small amount of energy is
released during the process and the temperature of composting mass does not rise much. The gases
evolved are mainly Methane and Carbon di oxide. An anaerobic process is a reduction process and
the final product is subjected to some minor oxidation when applied to land.
(ii) Biomedical waste is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially infectious)
materials. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that
visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages, infusion
kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are
restricted from environmental release. Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of
infectious waste include discarded blood, sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks,
identifiable body parts (including those as a result of amputation), other human or animal tissue,
used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies that may have been in
contact with blood and body fluids, and laboratory waste that exhibits the characteristics described
above. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated used (and unused discarded)
needles, scalpels, lancets and other devices capable of penetrating skin.

 Management of Bio-Medical Waste: -

Biomedical waste must be properly managed and disposed of to protect the environment, public
and workers, especially healthcare and sanitation workers who are at risk of exposure to
biomedical waste as an occupational hazard. Steps in the management of biomedical waste include
generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal.

The development and implementation of a national waste management policy can improve
biomedical waste management in health facilities in a country.

On-site versus off-site:

On-site treatment of large quantities of biomedical waste usually requires the use of relatively
expensive equipment and is generally only cost effective for very large hospitals and major
universities who have the space, labor and budget to operate such equipment. Off-site treatment
and disposal involves hiring of a biomedical waste disposal service (also called a truck service)
whose employees are trained to collect and haul away biomedical waste in special containers
(usually cardboard boxes, or reusable plastic bins) for treatment at a facility designed to handle
biomedical waste.
Generation and accumulation

Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently strong to
prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with
a biohazard symbol. The container, marking, and labels are often red.

Discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes.

Specialized equipment is required to meet OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1450 and EPA 40 CFR 264.
173.standards of safety. Minimal recommended equipment includes a fume hood and primary and
secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. Even beneath the fume hood, containers
containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. An open funnel placed
in the mouth of a waste container has been shown to allow significant evaporation of chemicals
into the surrounding atmosphere, which is then inhaled by laboratory personnel, and contributes a
primary component to the threat of completing the fire triangle. To protect the health and safety of
laboratory staff as well as neighboring civilians and the environment, proper waste management
equipment, such as the Burkle funnel in Europe and the ECO Funnel in the U.S., should be utilized
in any department which deals with chemical waste. It is to be dumped after treatment.

Storage

Storage refers to keeping the waste until it is treated on-site or transported off-site for treatment or
disposal. There are many options and containers for storage. Regulatory agencies may limit the
time for which waste can remain in storage. Handling is the act of moving biomedical waste
between the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment
facilities. Workers who handle biomedical waste must observe standard precautions

Treatment

The goals of biomedical waste treatment are to reduce or eliminate the waste's hazards, and usually
to make the waste unrecognizable. Treatment should render the waste safe for subsequent handling
and disposal. There are several treatment methods that can accomplish these goals.

Biomedical waste is often incinerated. An efficient incinerator will destroy pathogens and sharps.
Source materials are not recognizable in the resulting ash.

An autoclave may also be used to treat biomedical waste. An autoclave uses steam and pressure
to sterilize the waste or reduce its microbiological load to a level at which it may be safely disposed
of. Many healthcare facilities routinely use an autoclave to sterilize medical supplies. If the same
autoclave is used to sterilize supplies and treat biomedical waste, administrative controls must be
used to prevent the waste operations from contaminating the supplies. Effective administrative
controls include operator training, strict procedures, and separate times and space for processing
biomedical waste.

Microwave disinfection can also be employed for treatment of Biomedical wastes. Microwave
irradiation is a type of non-contact heating technologies for disinfection. Microwave chemistry is
based on efficient heating of materials by microwave dielectric heating effects. When exposed to
microwave frequencies, the dipoles of the water molecules present in cells re-align with the applied
electric field. As the field oscillates, the dipoles attempt to realign itself with the alternating electric
field and in this process, energy is lost in the form of heat through molecular friction and dielectric
loss. Microwave disinfection is a recently developed technology which provides advantage over
old existing technologies of autoclaves as microwave-based disinfection has less cycle time, power
consumption and it requires minimal usage of water and consumables as compared to autoclaves.

For liquids and small quantities, a 1–10% solution of bleach can be used to disinfect biomedical
waste. Solutions of sodium hydroxide and other chemical disinfectants may also be used,
depending on the waste's characteristics. Other treatment methods include heat, alkaline
digesters and the use of microwaves.

OR

Question 5(B) Define various levels of biodiversity in terms of genetic, species and ecosystem
diversities.

Answer 5(B) Biodiversity is defined as "the variety and variability among all groups of living
organisms and the ecosystems in which they occur."
Genetic diversity:

 The genetic material of microorganisms, plants and animals contains information that
determines the characteristics of all species and individuals that make up the diversity of
the living world. The number of possible combinations of genes and of the molecules
making up genes is immense - much larger than the number of individuals making up a
species.

 Genetic diversity refers to the differences in genetic make-up between distinct species and
to genetic variations within a single species. Individuals belonging to a species share, by
definition, certain characteristics, but genetic variation determines the characteristics of
individuals within the species.

 In simple terms, genetic material dictates whether we have blue or brown eyes, blond or
black hair, and are tall or short. It also determines whether an individual animal or plant
has the ability to survive in a particular habitat or under particular environmental
conditions. Some plants, for example, are able to grow in saline water as a result of genetic
variation.

 Genetic variation occurs to varying degrees in most species of plants and animals. There
is high genetic variation in Indian rhinos, for example, but little among cheetahs.
Furthermore, the genetic make-up of an individual species is not static -- it changes as a
 result of both internal and external factors. Furthermore, the genetic make-up of an
individual species is not static -- it changes as a result of both internal and external factors

Species diversity

 Species diversity is measured in relation to a given area - from a small field to the entire
planet. It can be assessed in terms of the number of species or the range of different types
of species an area contains. So far, 1.7 million species have been described worldwide.

 Estimates of the total number of species on Earth range from 5 to 100 million -1 2 .5 million
being a conservative working estimate. Although most of the Earth’s species are insects
and microorganisms, this is not reflected in the types of species that have been described
to date.

 There has been a definite bias towards describing large organisms, those that are considered
attractive or appealing (such as flowering plants and butterflies), those most closely
resembling humans (vertebrates, especially mammals), and those that have a direct impact
on human activities (such as pests). Organisms that can be studied without complex
procedures or expensive equipment have also taken precedence, as have those which are
relatively easy to locate.

 At the ecosystem level, the greatest biomass in soil is microorganisms, especially fungi.
These maintain soil structure and composition through, for instance, the biodegradation
and incorporation of dead plant and animal remains.

 Clearly, the loss of micro-organisms can lead to major changes in ecosystems. Biologists
are currently studying both species-rich groups (such as insects) and species-rich areas
(such as moist tropical forests) in order to provide a more reliable picture of species
richness patterns and a basis for estimating the number of species on Earth.

Ecosystem diversity

 The enormous range of terrestrial and aquatic environments on earth has

been classified into a number of ecosystems. Major habitat types include
tropical rain forests, grasslands, wetlands, coral reefs and mangroves.

 Measuring changes in the extent of ecosystems is difficult, because there is

no globally agreed classification of ecosystems, and boundaries are often
 variable and elusive. Species contained within a given ecosystem also vary
over time.

 Studies of ecosystem diversity are carried out on different scales: from one
ecosystem to an entire region containing many different ecosystems.
Regions containing a great variety of ecosystems are rich in biodiversity,
but individual ecosystems containing endemic species also make a
significant contribution to global biodiversity.

 Some of the world's richest habitats are tropical moist forests. Although
they cover only 7 percent of the world’s surface, these areas contain at least
50 percent, and possibly up to 90 percent of all plant and animal species.
Isolated islands are often rich in endemic species.