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8 Gas Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc Welding Processes 489
Metals – Structure
and Weldability
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Contents
Structure of Metals
Structure of Steels
Weldability of Steels
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A Metallurgical Process
3
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Materials of Construction
Mild steels, High strength low alloy steels
All general engineering, Infrastructure, Automotive, Shipbuilding,
Railways
High tensile steels
Defence, penstocks for hydel plants
Creep resisting steels.
Boilers and piping in thermal power plants
Stainless steels - Austenitic
Chemical & petrochemical plant, refineries, cryogenic plant, food
processing, pharmaceuticals
Aluminium
Light structurals, boats, dairy equipment, busbars
Copper, Nickel and alloys, Titanium
Vessel, piping & heat exchangers in chemicals & food
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Structure of Metals
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Structure of metals
All metals and alloys are crystalline bodies with their atoms
arranged in regular order, which is periodically repeated in
three directions
They distinguish them from amorphous bodies whose atoms
are in random order
Metals obtained by conventional methods are polycrystalline
bodies, consisting of great number of fine crystals differently
oriented with respect to one another
All typical properties of metals can be explained by the fact
that they contain highly mobile electrons.
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Structure of metals
The basic structure of a metal or alloy is a crystal consisting
of the metal atoms located in a specific 3-dimensional
arrangement or lattice
For iron you have 2 crystal structures - polymorphism
Alpha iron – upto 912 deg C Gamma iron – 912 – 1394 deg C
Delta iron – 1394 – 1539 deg C
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Single Crystal
Unit Cell
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Polycrystal
Grain
boundary
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Crystal boundary or
Grain boundary
Grain Boundary
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Structure of metals
Structure of metals…..
Grains
During solidification from the liquid
phase or re-crystallization from one
solid phase to another, crystals
nucleate at different points within
the parent phase and grow until
they impinge on one another and
form individual grains.
Structure
Structure of a metal / alloy implies
the metallurgical phases present,
their dispersion, shape, orientation
and grain size. All of these go to
determine its physical and
mechanical properties
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Structure of Steels
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Phases in steel
Ferrite:
solid solution of carbon in α-
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.022% at 727°C
Austenite: Ferrite or
solid solution of carbon in γ- α iron
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
2.11% at 1146°C
Delta(δ) ferrite:
solid solution of carbon in delta
iron; Maximum solubility of C:
0.09% at 1495°C Austenite or
γ iron
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Phases in steel
Graphite:
crystalline form of carbon having a
hexagonal crystal structure. Only
forms on very slow cooling
Pearlite:
Lamellar structure consisting of
alternate bands of Ferrite and
Cementite
Pearlite
Cementite (Fe3C):
an inter-metallic compound having a
complex orthorhombic structure; C -
6.67% by wt. Even though this is a
meta-stable phase, carbon is almost
always present in this form in steels.
23
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Peritectic reaction
(1495°C)
Liquid Fe + δ-Ferrite =
Austenite
Eutectic reaction (1146°C)
Liquid Fe = Austenite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of austenite and
cementite is called
Ledeburite)
Eutectoid reaction (727°C)
Austenite = Ferrite +
Cementite (Eutectic
mixture of Ferrite and
Cementite called Pearlite)
26
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Micro-structures of
slowly cooled steels
Eutectoid steel
( 0.77% C ) – fully
pearlitic
Hypo-eutectoid steel
(<0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid ferrite +
Pearlite
Hyper-eutectoid steel
(>0.77% C ) – Pro-
eutectoid cementite
+ Pearlite
27
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Effect of composition & cooling rate on
microstructure
Faster cooling
V. Fine pearlite 35 – 40 Rc
Fast cooling
Fine pearlite 20 – 25 Rc
( air cooled )
Slow cooling
Coarse pearlite 5 – 10 Rc
( furnace cooled )
Cooling rate
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Temperature – Time – Transformation
T-T-T Diagrams
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Bainite
Formed in alloyed steels Bainite + accicular ferrite
when austenite is cooled
rapidly passed the nose of
the C-curve .
Extremely fine mixture of
ferrite + carbide but not
lamellar like pearlite
Formed between 500 – 220
C Upper Bainite or lower
Bainite depending on
temp.
Has higher hardness and
toughness than pearlite
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Martensite
Martensite : Martensite
Very hard and brittle phase.
Hardness Rc 38 44 50 57 60 63 65
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Martensite formation
Alloying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, Si, Mo & V shift the
nose of the C-C-T curve to the right. Exception Cobalt
which shifts it to left
This is because they slow down growth of pearlite. Eg -
0.5% Mo slows growth rate X 100
Martensite can thus be formed at much slower cooling rates
In a Ni-Cr-Mo low alloy steel cooling rate of
8 deg C / sec – Full martensite
0.3 deg / sec – Bainite + martensite
0.02 deg / sec – Pearlite
Note : Alloy elements do not affect the hardness of the
Martensite they only affect the ease with which Martensite
forms
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Martensite TS = f(%C)
Brittle & unstable
M No ppt.
Needle (lens) shape
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YS 400-700 MPa
UTS 500-800 MPa
Elongation 18-25%
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ASTM A633 0.20 1.50 0.50 0.05 Nb 350 min 600 min
Gr C
SAILMA 410 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 410 min 540 - 660
=0.20
SAILMA 450 0.25 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 - 720
=0.20
SAILMA 450HI 0.20 1.50 0.50 Nb+V+Ti 450 min 570 – 720
=0.20 CVN = 19.6J
Min at – 20C
Weldability of Steels
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Weldability
Weldability Problems
Cracking - In the weld - solidification cracks
- micro-fissuring
- In the HAZ – H2 induced cold cracks
- liquation cracks
- reheat cracks
Porosity
Oxidation of reactive metals
Reduced joint strength – In the weld
- In the HAZ
Reduced corrosion resistance
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Hot cracking in HAZ Embrittlement, liquation Heat Use of lower M.P. alloys
treatable alloys of aluminium
Cold cracking in HAZ Hydrogen cracking of C-Mn Use of pre-heat and low H2
and alloy steels electrodes
Reduction in HAZ Precipitation / Age hardened Control heat input
strength alloys Solution anneal and heat-
treat after weld.
Toughness improved by :
Grain refinement / fine grain size
Low impurity level
Austenite phase – promoted by Nickel, Manganese
etc.
Composition
Weldability
Brazeability
Mechanical Properties
The objective is to reduce the number of welding and
brazing procedure qualifications
Solidification cracking
Hot cracking in the weld
Centerline cracking
Lamellar tearing
Occurs predominantly in plate
material
Due to presence of non – metallic
inclusions
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Solidification cracking
Due to presence of S, P
and other impurity
elements which form low
melting films at grain
boundaries Steels having unfavourable Mn-S
ratio are prone to such cracking.
Reduced by higher
Manganese content
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Mechanism of HICC
3 factors causing Hydrogen induced cold cracking
A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid
cooling in HAZ area heated above A1 line
Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process
Mechanism
Hydrogen absorbed by the weld pool diffuses to the fusion
zone and HAZ as the weld solidifies and cools
Forms pockets of molecular hydrogen which exerts
additional stress on the susceptible microstructure
In combination with existing stresses causes cracking
generally in HAZ but can also take place in multi-pass
welds
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Carbon Equivalent
Chemical composition expressed in terms of carbon
equivalent C.E. is the measure of the susceptibility of the
material to form a hard microstructure ( martensite )
Fillet welds – T1 + T2 + T3
Two rods - D1 + D2 / 2
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.Soumya Sarkar
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.Shaju Albert
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THANK YOU
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5
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Illustration:
Weld deposited
on grey iron
with Nickel
Filler Metal
Composite Zone
– Austenite
Unmixed Zone
– White Iron
HAZ –
martensite
&un-dissolved
graphite
6
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Segregation
Equiaxed
dendrite
equiaxed
dendritic Columnar
dendritic
cellular
% Solute
dendritic
cellular
planar
HS
Low speed
LS
10
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Various regions in HAZ formed during welding
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Weld cracking
ε CG < εFG
coarse
fine
Stress relief
Dimensional stability
Resistance to stress corrosion
Improved toughness and mechanical
properties
16
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Stress Relieving
23
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Stress Relieving
35
45
4 hours
55
1 hour
65
75
6 hours
85
95
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Full Annealing
Full Annealing
Consists of heating the steel 30 - 50o C above the ac3, holding at
this temperature and then slowly cooling at a rate of 30 -200o C
per hour, depending on the composition of steel
The rate of heating for annealing of rolled stock or forging maybe
as high as the furnace can provide. For welded assemblies rate of
heating may need to be controlled to avoid stresses and distortion
Holding time is usually 30 minutes to an hour per ton of charge
Slow cooling enables the austenite to transform to pearlite, ferrite
and / or cementite structure depending on the composition
The more stable the austenite is, the slower should be the cooling
to allow this transformation. Thus alloy steels, where the austenite
is more stable, should be cooled more slowly (at the rate of 30-
100o C per hour) than carbon steels (at a rate of 150-200o C per
hour)
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Solution Annealing
Normalizing
Stress
A0
Stress
E= if stress 〈 YS
Strain
P % Elongation
Plastic deformation
Creep Test
Tertiary
Primary Secondary /
Steady state
Strain
∆l
εs = Steady state creep rate
l − l0
tr = time to rupture
Strain =
time
l0
Creep is a slow time dependent deformation. All metals & alloys under go creep.
It is measurable if test temperature is > 0.5TM (melting point in deg Kelvin). It is a
strong function of stress & temperature. Creep test at a given temperature and
stress gives us time to rupture, steady state (minimum) creep rate, rupture strain
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Temp.
stress
strain
strain
time time
1000
Master rupture plot
700 650 600 550
Safe stress
Stress
100
tr
10
15000 16000 17000 18000 19000
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of resistance to deformation. Three common methods
of measuring hardness: Scratch, Rebound & Indentation Hardness.
Brinell P Fe : P = 30 D 2
P
BHN =
D (πD / 2)( D − D2 − d 2 ) Al : P = 5 D 2
d
Fatigue test
A metal subjected to a fluctuating stress fails at a stress much lower than that
required to cause fracture. This phenomenon is called fatigue.
Mild steel
σmax
Endurance limit
∆σ
σmin
1234
Al alloy
S-N curve
Rotating beam fatigue testing machine Log Nf 108
Inert: vac.
∆σ
Corrosive
environment
Log Nf
Fatigue strength = Endurance limit = f (size, surface finish, surface
prop, residual stress, UTS, inclusion content, environment)
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Fracture zone
Propagation zone, striation
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P
There is a critical stress below which delayed fracture
does not take place.
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fracture
KI III
C II
KI
da/dt
KISCC I
threshold
Log tr
K
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Impact testing
CVN, J
Temp.
HAZ has coarse grain & high transition temperature. This
was the cause for failure of Liberty ship.
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Fracture mechanics
σ
2a Eγ
New free Crack propagates when
σ=
surface: γ elastic stored energy is πa
large enough to create
new surface. γ =γ s +γ p
Ductile: γp >> γs Brittle: γs >> γp
Crack tip stress field
σy K c = Eγ
σ
r Criterion for unstable crack growth: K > Kc
σ y = f (K , r ,θ )
K = σ πa (GF )
Kc can be easily estimated if we know the load at which
GF = 1 for infinite plate
UCE takes place. Quite difficult for ductile material.
K = SIF
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Experimental FM
Pc P
w
P
δ K=
B w
P
( w)
f a Kc LEFM
Special tests
Fatigue tests
Stress rupture tests
Hydrogen tests
CTOD tests
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Dr.R.N.Ghosh
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.Shaju Albert
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THANK YOU
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Carburising wrought
iron by heating it out
off air contact
Decreasing carbon
content of pig iron by
oxidation
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Killed Steel
The term indicates that the steel has been completely deoxidised
by the addition of an agent such as silicon or aluminium, before
casting, so that there is practically no evolution of gas during
solidification
Rimmed Steel
Characterised by a great degree of gas evolution
Marked difference in composition across cross-section and from
top to bottom of the ingot
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Space applications
Cryogenic air separation plant
Chemical process industries
Storage tanks for liquefied chemicals & gases
Medical and food processing.
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Nickel Steels
Popular varieties are
2.25 %Ni
3.5% Ni
5 % Ni
9 % Ni
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Recommended Preheat
Temperature(deg.C )
Thickness
<12.7 mm 12.7-57 mm > 57 mm
0.5Cr – 0.5Mo 20 95 150
1.0Cr – 0.5Mo 120 150 150
1.25Cr – 0.5Mo 120 150 150
2.0Cr – 0.5Mo 150 150 150
2.25Cr – 1.0Mo 150 150 150
3.0Cr – 1.0Mo 150 150 150
5.0Cr – 0.5Mo 150 150 150
7.0Cr – 0.5Mo 200 200 200
9.0Cr – 1.0Mo 200 200 200
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Temperature Range
Reheat cracking of Cr – Mo – V
steels
Occurs during stress relieving
heat treatment of CrMoV steel
having coarse grain HAZ. On
heating fine carbides form within
the grains making them stronger
than the Grain Boundary before
stresses are relieved.
CS = %Cr+3.3x (%Mo)+8.1x (%V) -2
Cracking occurs if CS > 0
PWHT of P 91 / P 92 steels
Stringent control on PWHT is
essential to ensure proper
ductility and toughness at room
temp.Otherwise may not
withstand hydro test.
Rate of heating and cooling to
be contolled as per code
requirements
Composition of base metal and
weld metal is to be considered
to ensure that lower critical
temperature is not exceed
HAZ hardness after PWHT 200 –
275 BHN
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Weldability of QT steels
It is necessary to observe limitations of both maximum and minimum
total weld heat inputs. The total heat input involves consideration of
a) Preheat temperature
b) Inter-pass temperature
c) Arc energy input (Q in kJ/mm)
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.S.K.Gupta
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.Hassan Sheikh
Mr.R.Sengupta
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THANK YOU
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Welding of
Stainless Steels
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• Ferritic
• Austenitic
• Duplex
(Austenite +Ferrite)
• Precipitation hardening
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• Cr 11 –18%
C 0.1 – 1.2%
• AISI 403, 410, 416, 420,
& 440 A/B/C grades
• Martensitic structure -
higher carbon grades
used in tempered
condition.
• Used for cutlery, surgical
instruments, steam, gas
& hydel turbine blades,
ball bearings and races.
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• Cr 10.5 – 30%
C 0.02 – 0.2%
• AISI 405, 409, 430, 446
grades
• Ferritic structure -higher
ductility and resistance to
SCC & pitting corrosion.
• Used as thin sheet for
corrosion, oxidation & heat
resisting applications and
decorative purposes eg.
Automobile exhausts,
catalytic converters and
automobile trim.
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Schaeffler diagram
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Developments on the
Schaeffler diagram
• The Schaeffler diagram is useful to determine the phases
present in a stainless steel related to its composition.
• For castings the Schoefer diagram is more accurate for
estimating ferrite content
• In 1973 the WRC-Delong diagram was developed which
included the effect of nitrogen as an austenite stabiliser, as
30 X %N. It also showed Ferrite numbers in addition to
percent ferrite
• In 1992 the WRC-1992 diagram was developed and
replaced the Delong diagram as most acurate in predicting
ferrite particularly for higher alloyed grades.
Ni equivalent = %Ni + 35 X %C + 20 X %N + 0.25 x %Cu
Cr equivalent = %Cr + %Mo + 0.7 X %Nb
• Ferrite may also be directly measured by magnetic ferrite
meters and metallographic means.
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• Cr 16 – 26%
Ni 6 – 26%
• AISI 304, 310, 316, 321 &
347 grades
• Austenitic structure gives
good weldability with
excellent ductility and
toughness down to
cryogenic temperatures.
• Nickel improves general
corrosion resistance
• Widely used for chemical,
petrochemical, fertilizer
plant and food processing.
Also used for nuclear and
cryogenic plant
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Precipitation Hardening
stainless steels
• Cr 12 –18%
C 0.05 – 0.15%
Ni 3.0 – 27.0% +
Mo, Cu, Al, V, Cb, Ti
• Martensitic - 17-4 PH, PH 13-8Mo
Semi-austenitic - 17-7 PH, AM
350 Austenitic grades - 17-10PH,
A 286
• Low carbon martensitic structure
developed by quenching then
aged. For SA and A grades given
complex heat treatment to
develop strengths upto 1650 Mpa
• Available as forgings, castings,
bar and plate and used for
compressor blades, pumps, gears
for metering chemicals etc.
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• Corrosion resistant
grades (C) – used for
corrosion resistance
to aqueous media
( carbon upto 0.2% )
• Heat resistant grades
(H) – used for heat
resistant applications
above 650C ( higher
carbon upto 0.6% )
• Metallurgical structure
maybe Ferritic,
Martensitic, Austenitic
or Duplex ( ferritic-
austenitic) depending
on composition.
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Sensitization leading to
inter-granular corrosion –IGC
Hot cracking
Stress corrosion cracking –SCC
• Standard grades
304 – 19Cr / 9Ni
316 – 18Cr / 12Ni / 2.5Mo – for pitting
resistance
Physical properties of
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Limitations of Standard
Stainless Steels
• Low proof stress – 35% of UTS.
• Sensitive to stress corrosion in acidic Cl or F ion
media above 70 C and also hot caustic
• Sensitive to pitting corrosion in more aggressive
acid chloride media.
• Preferential attack on the ferrite phase in weak
reducing media ( urea carbamate )
• Inadequate corrosion resistance in stronger
reducing media such as hot phosphoric acid or
sulphuric acid in intermediate concentrations
Corrosion Resistance
• They are extremely corrosion resistant having high resistance to
intergranular corrosion. Even in chloride and sulphide environments,
they exhibit very high resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
• The super duplex grades are even more resistant to corrosion
Heat Resistance
• High chromium content gives protection against corrosion, but causes
embrittlement at temperatures over about 300°C.
• At low temperatures they have better ductility than ferritic and
martensitic grades. Duplex grades can readily be used down to at least
-50°C.
Heat Treatment
• They can not be hardened by heat treatment. Can however be work
hardened.
• Solution treatment or annealing can be done by rapid cooling after
heating to around 1100°C.
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to pitting corrosion
Welding of
Cast Irons
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Cast Irons
fcc
austenite
bcc
ferrite
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SG Cast Irons
• Graphite is spherodised by
addition of Magnesium or
Cerium during casting
• Available with pearlitic or
mixed ferrite matrix. Gives
greater strength and ductility
• Better weldability as less
likely to form martensite in
HAZ
• Annealing further improves
ductility by breaking down
cementite to give ferrite
matrix
• Austempering gives bainitic
matrix – major improvement Structure of Nodular CI
in strength & toughness.
Used in automobile crank
shafts and suspension arms
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Metallurgical Considerations
Composite Zone
– Austenite
Unmixed Zone
– White Iron
HAZ –
martensite
&un-dissolved
graphite
40
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Welding of
Dissimilar Materials
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dissimilar metals
• Explosion Welding
• Ultasonic welding
• Friction Welding
• Flash-butt resistance
welding
Diffusion welded Titanium to
aluminium
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dissimilar metals
• Laser Welding
selection of electrode
• Encountered in transition
joints between mild / low
alloy steels and stainless
steels or welding of clad
steels
• Problems of martensitic
cold cracking on MS side,
hot cracking in weld.
Differential thermal
expansion.
• Use E309 or E312 electrode
or consult Schaeffler
diagram
• Where thermal cycling is
encountered e.g. power
plant use Inconel electrode.
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
• Mr.R.Banerjee
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THANK YOU
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Contents
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
Copper and copper alloys
Nickel and nickel alloys
Titanium and its alloys
Magnesium and its alloys
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Nickel Steel
Aluminum Ti
Titanium
Al
Magnesium
Be
Attractions:
Low density Mg
A large negative free energy shows a strong affinity for oxygen. This
property has a major influence on the type of shielding required during
welding and the processes that can be used.
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Applications
Heat-treatable
Non-Heat-treatable (Age hardenable) alloys
(Work hardenable) alloys
Al - Cu - 2XXX
Unalloyed Al. - 1XXX
Al - Cu-Mg - 2XXX
Al - Mn - 3XXX
Al - Cu-Li - 2XXX
Al - Si - 4XXX
Al - Mg-Si - 6XXX
Al - Mg - 5XXX Al - Zn - 7XXX
Al - Fe - 8XXX Al - Zn-Mg - 7XXX
Al - Zn- Mg-Cu - 7XXX
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By solid-solution strengthening
By dispersed phases
By work hardening
Heat-treatable Aluminium Alloys:
Non-Heat-Treatable Al Alloys
Alloy Designation
• 1xxx: Pure aluminum (1050, 1200)
• 3xxx: Al-Mn (3003, 3005)
• 4xxx: Al-Si (4032, 4043)
• 5xxx: Al-Mg (5053, 5083)
Temper Designation
• O : Annealed
• H : Cold worked
• H1(CW)
H18 (full hard) H16 (3/4 hard)
H14 (1/2 hard) H12 (1/4 hard)
• H2 (CW + partially annealed)
• H3 (CW + stabilization treatment)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Heat-Treatable Al Alloys
Alloy Designation
2xxx: Al-Cu (2014, 2219, 2090 (contains Li))
6xxx: Al-Mg-Si (6061, 6262)
7xxx: Al-Zn-Mg (7020, 7075 (contains Cu))
8xxx: “Other” alloying elements (Li (8090), Fe, Ni)
Temper Designation
O : Annealed
T : Thermally treated (T1 – T10)
T3 (ST + CW + NA)
T4 ( ST + NA)
T6 ( ST + AG)
T7 (ST + overaged)
T8 ( ST + CW + AG)
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Age Hardening
Solution treatment
Heat to dissolve all the
coarse second phase
particles
Rapidly cool to achieve After ST After Aging
Prior to ST
supersaturation
Aging treatment
Heat and soak to form
precipitates with desired
morphology
Peak aged
Hardness
Underaged Overaged
Time
Typical aging curve
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Weld
Over-ageing of precipitates. Unaffected
B.M
Resulting in:
Over aged B.M
Joint Efficiency in as welded condition
60-70% of age hardened alloy.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Cracking
Sq.butt jt. Max dilution B.M :1100, F.M: 4043 (Al-5% Si)
If Dilution : 80%
Weld metal will have about 1% Si
which is crack sensitive
Mg2Si
Base Filler
1xxx 1xxx (1100, 1188) and 4xxx (4043, 4047)
Special considerations
Dissimilar welding or welding with dissimilar fillers: Dilution can result in a
susceptible weld composition
EBW or LBW: Loss of Mg can result in a susceptible weld composition
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Requirements: Advantages:
Weld and HAZ width are narrower.
Short arc length
Less softening of HAZ.
Helium shielding Sq. butt joints produced in Single pass
Faster welding speed
Mechanised welding
Top Bead
Process Options :
Conventional MIG (Un-pulsed)
Pulsed MIG.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 254 of 1119
Current, ampere
Advantages :
Clean weld. time, ms
5G positional welding.
Direction of welding
Stringer bead preferred.
Avoid wide weaving.
Use min. or no preheat.
Preheat <200ºC.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 260 of 1119
1. Pores
2. Lack of fusion/bonding.
Remedy: Adjust parameter (heat input),
Improve cleanliness.
3. Cracks
Remedy: Reduce heat input,
Select proper B.M
& filler metal combination.
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Pores :
Caused by dissolution of
hydrogen in weld metal.
Causes :
Impurity from gas,
filler metal, base metal
and environment.
Note : Aluminium has a very low
Remedy:
solubility for hydrogen at the
Keep B.M., F.M. clean. freezing point but a substantial
solubility at higher temperature.
Use argon with high purity Thus hydrogen is prime cause of
(Controlled moisture content). porosity in aluminium welds.
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Copper is a ductile metal and it has a low melting point but very
high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is used primarily for its
electrical and thermal properties and its excellent corrosion
resistance in certain environments, particularly sea water.
Copper is available in 3 forms
•Tough pitch copper – oxygen bearing
•Phosphorous de-oxidised copper
•Oxygen-free copper
Copper forms solid solution with a wide range of elements. The
most important alloys are :
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Copper alloys
Alpha Brasses (upto 30% Zn ) Single phase solid solution & work
hardening. Improved corrosion
Alpha-beta brasses eg. muntz metal 2-phase solid solution hardening.
(40% Zn), naval brass (40Zn-1Sn) Improved corrosion
Nickel silvers ( 20 – 45% Zn + Ni ) Improved strength and corrosion
resistance
Phosphor bronze (10% Sn), Improved strength and corrosion
Gun metal ( P-Bronze +5%Zn ) resistance
Si-bronze (3% Si),
Al bronze (5-10% Al + Fe / Ni ) - single Improved strength and corrosion
phase resistance
Al Bronze ( 12%Al + 5%Fe) 2-phase
Cupro-nickels Moderate strength, corrosion and
( upto 30%Ni ) oxidation resistance
Cu-chrome , Cu-Be alloys Precipitation hardening alloys for high
strength
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Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Phosphor C5010 F F G G G G E E -
Bronzes 0
Cu-Nickel- C7060 F G E E G G E E G
0
Aluminium C6130 NR G E E G G F NR G
Bronzes 0
Silicon C6510 G F E E G G E G G
Bronzes 0
Nickel alloys
LIMITATIONS
HIGH COST.
Titanium alloys
Mechanical Properties
Designation Nominal Composition, wt% Impurity limits (max.), wt%
At Room Temperature
Al Sn Zr Mo Others N C H Fe O UTS (MPa) YS %E
Unalloyed Grades
ASTM Gr.1 --- --- --- --- --- 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.20 0.18 262 A 186 30
ASTM Gr.2 --- --- --- --- --- 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25 414 A 310 28
ASTM Gr.3 --- --- --- --- --- 0.05 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.35 517 A 414 25
ASTM Gr.4 --- --- --- --- --- 0.05 0.10 0.015 0.50 0.40 621 A 517 20
ASTM Gr.7 --- --- --- --- 0.2Pd 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25 427 A 317 27
ASTM Gr.11 --- --- --- --- 0.12-0.25Pd 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.20 0.18
ASTM Gr.12 --- --- --- 0.3 0.6-0.9 Ni 0.03 0.10 0.015 0.30 0.25 510 A 414 33
Alpha and Near-Alpha Alloys
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn 5 2.5 --- --- --- 0.05 0.08 0.02 0.50 0.20 862 A 827 15
Ti-5Al- 5 2.5 --- --- --- 0.07 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.12
2.5Sn-ELI
Ti-8Al-1Mo- 8 --- --- 1 1V 0.05 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.12 924 A 855 14
1V
Ti-6Al-2Sn- 6 2 4 2 --- 0.05 0.05 0.0125 0.25 0.15 986 A 938 13
4Zr-2Mo
Titanium Alloys
Mechanical Properties
Designation Nominal Composition, wt% Impurity limits (max.), wt%
At Room Temperature
Al Sn Zr Mo Others N C H Fe O UTS (MPa) YS %E
Alpha-beta Alloys
Ti-6Al-4V 6.0 --- --- --- 4.0 V 0.05 0.10 0.0125 0.30 0.20 931 A 896 15
1117 STA 1034 12
Ti-6Al-4V 6.0 --- --- --- 4.0 V 0.05 0.08 0.0125 0.25 0.13
ELI
Ti-3Al-2.5V 3.0 --- --- --- 2.5 V 0.015 0.05 0.015 0.30 0.12 717 A 586 22
Beta Alloys
Ti-13V- 3.0 --- --- --- 11Cr, 13 V 0.05 0.05 0.025 0.35 0.17 910 A 869 10
11Cr-3Al 1207 STA 1138 4
Ti-8Mo-8V- 3.0 --- --- 8.0 8.0 V 0.05 0.05 0.015 2.5 0.17 883 A 848 12
2Fe-3Al 1241 STA 1207 8
Ti-11.5Mo- --- 4.5 6.0 11.5 --- 0.05 0.10 0.020 0.35 0.18 841 A 793 15
6Zr-4.5Sn 1524 STA 1427 6
(BetaIII)
Basic Characteristics
Special Requirements
MIG WELDING
Root shielding
gas inlet TIG torch
Contamination colours in
Titanium welds.
Golden colour.
Slight oxidation.
Mostly accepted.
Oxidised bead.
Not acceptable.
(Contd.)
Metal Density
lb/ft3 kg/m3
Common Mg Alloys
AZ91: Mg-9Al-1Zn-0.2Mn
General casting alloy
Properties
Yield Strength: 100MPa
UTS: 165MPa
Ductility: 2.5%
AE42: Mg-4Al-2.5RE
Mg engine blocks
Properties
Yield Strength: 145MPa
UTS: 235MPa
Ductility: 11%
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Common Mg Alloys
ZK60: Mg-5Zn-
0.5Zr
Forged car wheel
Properties
Yield Strength:
270MPa
UTS: 325MPa
Ductility: 11%
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Weldability of Mg alloys
Joint design
ER AZ101A 9.5-10.5 0.0002-0.0008 0.13 0.75-1.25 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30
ER AZ92A 8.3-9.7 0.0002-0.0008 0.15 1.7-2.3 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Dr. T. K. Pal
Mr. R. Banerjee
Mr. A. A. Deshpande
Dr. Janaki Ram
Mr. T. K. Mitra
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Thank You
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Contents
• Part-1 : Introduction
• Part-2 : Welding & related processes
• Part-3 : Brazing and soldering
• Part-4 : Cutting & edge preparation
• Part-5 : Plasma Cutting
• Part-6 : Thermal Cutting Standards
• Part-7 : Safety
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Part-1
Development of Welding
Processes
Welding Processes Year Introduced
• Carbon arc welding • 1887
• Thermit welding • 1896
• Oxyacetylene gas welding • 1903
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) • 1912
• CO2 gas shielded metal arc welding (MAG) • 1928
• Submerged arc welding (SAW) • 1935
• Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) • 1947
• Metal inert gas welding (MIG) • 1948
• Electro slag welding (ESW) • 1953
• Plasma arc welding (PAW) • 1963
• Explosive welding (EW) • 1963
• Electron beam welding (EBW) • 1965
• Laser beam welding (LBW) • 1965
• Ultrasonic welding • 1965
• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) • 1965
• Robotic welding • 1975
• Welding with programmable control system • 1995
• Friction stir welding • 1995
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Gas Welding
Nozzle
Types of flames
Correct mixture
Neutral Greenish, rounded
inner cone
Excess of O2
Oxidising Blueish, sharp
inner cone
Excess of FG
Reducing Long white
luminous feather
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Types of Flames
For most applications, a neutral flame is used,
however some materials are different:
– Welding brass, and bronze : Oxidising flame
– Nickel, and alloys : Neutral to slightly
carburising (reducing)
– Copper : Neutral to slightly carburising
(reducing)
– Oxy-cutting : Neutral
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Gas welding
FLAME
METAL FLUX FILLER
SETTING
Fuel Gases
Acetylene ( C2H2 )
Propane ( C3H8 )
LPG ( Mixture of propane and butane )
Methane (CH4 ) - Natural gas
Hydrogen ( H2 )
Propylene ( C3H6 )
Butane ( C4H10 )
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OXY OXY-LPG
ACETYLENE
Gas Equipment
CYLINDER
FLASHBACK
VALVE
ARRESTOR
OXYGEN
ACETYLENE REGULATOR
REGULATOR
FLASHBACK
ARRESTOR CUTTING
TORCH
WELDING
TORCH
OXYGEN AND
ACETYLENE FLASHBACK
HOSES ARRESTORS
Cylinders
Max
Service Pressure Construction Connection Colour
(Kg)
Cylinder manifolds
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Part-3
Brazing
Principle of brazing
Brazing Processes
Brazing processes are classified based on
methods of heating:
Torch brazing
Furnace brazing
Induction brazing
Dip brazing
Resistant brazing
Infrared brazing
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Page 344 of 1119
Furnace Brazing
Brazing is carried out inside a
furnace.
Fixturing / parts are assembled
before loading in the furnace.
Pre-placement of filler and flux
is necessary.
Vacuum or inert gas or special
atmosphere is possible
depending on the nature of the
base metal / job.
Batch/continuous production is
possible.
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Induction Brazing
Assembly to be made by
self-locating or non-interfering
fixturing
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SS & Heat
Ni Alloys >875
Resisting Alloys
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Problems in brazing
Problems Causes
Braze-welding
Similar to fusion welding but the filler wire
melting point is lower than the parent metal.
No fusion of parent metal or capillary action
takes place.
Main difference between brazing & braze
welding is in the joint clearance.
Brazing generally requires a joint clearance
of 0.04-0.20mm. This allows the liquid filler
to be drawn between the two closely fitted
surfaces by capillary action.
Braze welding does not require such a close
fitting joint and hence larger quantities of filler
alloy are used.
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Soldering
Soldering methods
Method Application
manual working, low volume and
Air-FG torch
maintenance jobs
manual working, electrical &
Soldering iron
maintenance jobs
Furnace batch production and automation
Al & Al bronze √
Brass √ √ √
Copper √ √ √
Steel/SS √
Cast iron √
Tin & Tin bronze √ √ √
Zinc √ √
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Fluxes
Inorganic fluxes Organic fluxes
Zinc chloride Stearic acid
Ammonium chloride Oleic acid
Tin chloride Glutamic acid
HCl Hydrazine hydrobromide
Phosphoric acid Acid based or acid
Metal chloride forming organics
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Page 355 of 1119
Solders
Solder Workpiece
Sn-Sb-Pb Copper, brass
Sn-Zn Aluminium
Sn-Ag, Sn-Cu SS, copper,
Cd-Ag Aluminium
Zn-Al Aluminium
Brazing Soldering
Part-4
Oxy-cutting Torch
Nozzle mix system
Torch head
Cutting oxygen
Heating oxygen
Acetylene
Mixed gas
Cutting oxygen
Cutting Nozzle
Pre-heat flame View from the bottom
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Oxygen cutting
NOZZLE
FUEL GAS AND
PREHEAT OXYGEN
DIRECTION OF CUT MIXTURE
CUTTING STREAM
DRAG LINES
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 363 of 1119
Drag Lines
As well as the roughness of the cut face, drag lines across the
surface of the cut can give the operator an indication if the cutting
speed is correct and the right cutting oxygen velocity is being
used.
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Page 364 of 1119
DEFECTS CAUSES
Fluted cut
Low speed
-gouging at the bottom
Carbon 0.3
Manganese 10
Silicon 2
Chromium 5
Nickel 3
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Page 368 of 1119
175
150
O2 CONSUMPTION
125
100
75
50
CUTTING SPEED
25
100 99.5 99 98.5 98
O2 PURITY %
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Page 369 of 1119
Cutting parameters
High speed vs standard nozzle
1.0
m/min
0.5
0.25 STANDARD
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
PLATE T H I C K N E S S mm > >
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 370 of 1119
Torch
CONTROLS Carriages
TBA
WORKPIECE
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 371 of 1119
Scrap
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 372 of 1119
Programming Station
CUSTOMERS’
ORDER DESIGN
DXF
BOM
FILES
FINISHED
GOODS PRODN PART TOOL PATH CNC
PLANNING LIBRARY NESTING GENERATION CUTTING
RAW PROGRAMMING
GRAPHIC
MATERIALS MIS MIS
STATION
EDITOR
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 374 of 1119
Adjusting Kerf
TORCH PATH
KERF FINISH START
COUNTER
CLOCKWISE
TRAVEL KERF OFFST =
½ KERF WIDTH
ON RH SIDE
CLOCKWISE OF TRAVEL
TRAVEL
START
SCRAP
DESIRED JOB
DIMENSION
JOB
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 376 of 1119
Kerf Setting
KERF
LEFT RIGHT
INSIDE CCW CW
PROFILE
OUTSIDE CW CCW
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 377 of 1119
Piercing
RETRACTION PIERCING SEQUENCES
(UPTO 40MM TK)
3-5 20-25
mm mm 3 4
1 2
Preheat Retract Release O2 Normal
& Move
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Part-5
Plasma Cutting
Plasma cutting of MS
Advantage- high cutting speed at lower thickness
Produces a taper cut which is often not acceptable
Taper not prominent in thin sheets. Therefore, popular for
cutting sheet metal, using low priced air plasma.
May be used low thickness MS (upto 20mm) for speed
advantage, compromising quality
WI produces good quality cut at high speed upto 40mm
thickness, with insignificant taper
Suitable for profile/straight cutting
Suitable for machine cutting(high amps) or hand cutting (low
amps)
Normally used for square edge cutting but possible to cut V
edge with expensive equipment
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Page 381 of 1119
PLASMA
GAS
PLASMA
CUTTING
TORCH
SECONDARY
GAS
RECTIFIER HIGH
POWER FREQUENCY
SOURCE SOURCE
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Air plasma
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 383 of 1119
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Steam Layer
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Plasma cutting
CUT QUALITY
T-1>T-2>T-3>T-4
T-1
T-2
T3 WORKPIECE
T-4
TAPER CUT
SURFACE
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 386 of 1119
Plasma cutting
Further refinements
Water-jet cutting
Water-jet cutting
Laser cutting
The heat is provided by laser
Assist gas removes the
vaporised/molten material to
form the kerf
O2 used as assist gas for MS
cutting (1”max) to improve
speed
CO2 Lasers are most popular
Can be used for profile cutting
Provides high quality clean
cut. Low HAZ
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Page 394 of 1119
Laser Cutting
Possible to cut intricate shapes
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 395 of 1119
Laser drilling
Various techniques of Laser drilling/micromachining
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 396 of 1119
Laser drilling
Close up picture of Laser drilled hole 100uM dia
In Stainless Steel In Plastic (PVC)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 397 of 1119
Laser drilling
Laser drilling rigs for petroleum exploration
-Swan Energy Inc, USA
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 398 of 1119
Performance comparison of
various cutting methods
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 399 of 1119
Pre-heat flame
Oxygen stream
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 401 of 1119
Part-6
Thermal Cutting
Standards
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 402 of 1119
1 2 3 4
Main Perpendicularity/
Mean height Tolerance
number of angularity
of profile RZ5 class
standard tolerance, u
Angularity of Roughness of
cut surface Dimensional
ISO 9013 cut surface to
along cutting accuracy
plate surface direction
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 404 of 1119
Part-7
Safety
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 405 of 1119
Protection Protection
Recommendation
of from
Use correct goggles
IR Radiation,
Eyes -shade # 3-6 for cutting
Spatter
-shade # 4-8 for welding
IR Radiation,
Skin Spatter, Wear leather gloves & apron
Hot metal, Burn
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron
Flame
• Symptoms
A bang Pressure MIXED
Wave GAS
Safety in brazing
Safety in soldering
Eye protection
Gouging
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 413 of 1119
1) S. Ghoshal
1) Ranajoy Banerjee
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 415 of 1119
Thank You
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 416 of 1119
Contents
Advantages of MMAW
Principles of MMAW
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 422 of 1119
OCV
Open circuit voltage ( ocv )is the voltage across
the output terminals of the power source when it
is under no load condition.
In case of AC welding ocv plays an important
role in ensuring easy arc starting and good arc
stability. Higher is the ocv better is the arc
stability. However higher ocv poses danger of
electric shock and hence its value is restricted to
100 v max
Commercially available transformers
generally have ocv values 60 v to 70 v.
Commercially available rectifiers generally have
ocv values 65 v to 80 v
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 424 of 1119
1. Power source
2. Welding and ground cables
3. Electrode holder
4. Ground clamp
5. Chipping hammer and steel wire brush
6. Hand-shield / welding helmet / head-shield
7. Welding electrode
8. Re-drying oven
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+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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MMAW Electrode
Core Wire
Electrode core wire: C 0.10 max; Mn 0.38-0.62; Si
0.03 max; S 0.03 max; P 0.03 max
Important feature: low level of C, Si, S & P
Coating
Arc characteristics – Stability, Striking & Re-
striking, Force, Capability to work in positions, and
in AC & DC sets
Slag characteristics – Good shielding, Capability
to bring impurities out of molten weld metal, Good
detachability, Flowability as well as quick freezing
nature
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+
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Coating Constituents
Arc stabilisers
Slag formers
Deoxidisers
Gas forming materials
Binders
Alloying elements
Deposition efficiency improvers
Extruding/slipping agents
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Coating types
Rutile
Basic
Cellulosic
Acid
Acid-rutile
Oxidising
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Types Of Electrodes
Based on application:
> Carbon-manganese steel electrodes AWS A5.1
> Stainless steel electrodes A5.4
> Low alloy steel electrodes A5.5
> Copper & Copper alloy electrodes A5.6
> Aluminium & Aluminium alloy electrodes A5.10
> Nickel & Nickel alloy covered electrodes A5.11
> Hardfacing electrodes
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 431 of 1119
Rutile: Merits
Easy striking/restriking
Good slag control
Good slag detachability
Good positional welding capabilities
Usable in low OCV sets
More welder friendly
Demerits
Limitation in mechanical properties
Alloy transfer difficult
High hydrogen level
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 432 of 1119
+
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Page 433 of 1119
Fluid slag
Slag volume low,
Thin friable slag
Slag removal is good
Chemically slag is “basic”
+
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Basic: Merits
Good mechanical properties
Low hydrogen level
Alloy transfer effective
Higher deposition efficiency
Demerits
Greater welder skill required
AC welding difficult, especially in low OCV
High temperature preheating before welding
necessary
Slag detachability not as good as rutile type
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 435 of 1119
Demerits
DC based
High hydrogen level
Operator skill is important
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Production Of Electrodes
The powdered coating materials are dry mixed and then liquid
silicate is added to form a paste.
The flux paste is extruded onto the core wire in an hydraulic
extruder. The two ends are brushed and linished for gripping
by the electrode holder and easy striking of arc.
The electrodes are then dried at between 110 – 130 C in
continuous or batch type ovens before packing.
Low hydrogen basic coated, stainless steel and other special
electrodes are further baked at 350 – 450 C to remove
moisture to very low levels.
Cellulose coated electrodes are dried at 80 – 90 C so that the
cellulose is not damaged and there is some residual moisture
to augment the arc force.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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2. Striking the electrode tip hard with base plate can cause peeling
of flux of electrode tip.
Deposition requirements
Joint design / fit up
Penetration requirements
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Selection of electrodes
Group contains
- Mild steels to IS : 2062
- Boiler quality steel to IS: 2002
- Micro-alloyed steels to IS : 8500
- Weathering steels to IS : 11587
For mild steel non-critical, applications in static
loading upto 40 mm combined thickness – E6013
medium coated electrodes
For mild / boiler quality steel for all applications above
40 mm combined thickness and sub-zero conditions
– E 7018 electrodes + pre-heat as required for higher
thicknesses
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Voltage
Try to use highest voltage setting available,
specially for basic coated low hydrogen
electrodes.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 453 of 1119
Operator control
Quality of welding
highly dependent on the
skill of operator
A high level of manual
dexterity is required to
co-ordinate the
electrode to match the
burn off rate and to
maintain a constant
ARC length.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 454 of 1119
Cleaning Of Joints
To avoid porosity and attain satisfactory
welding speed , remove excessive scale ,
oxide films, rust, moisture , paint , oil and
grease , dirt and other contaminations before
welding.
The cleaning procedure may involve light to
heavy brushing/grinding and removal of the
metal by goughing electrode .
In case of some non ferrous materials
chemical cleaning is recommended
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Submerged Arc
Welding
Process and Practice
Module 1~16 (IIW)
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Automatic process
Down-hand position
and H-V fillets only
Heavy section welding
of straight sections
Circumferential
welding
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 464 of 1119
SAW Features
SAW Equipment
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 466 of 1119
Consumables
Wire : solid / fluxcored
Soilid wires for mild and low alloy steel applications are
normally copper coated.
Flux cored wires are often referred as composite
electrodes and comes under “EC” designation in wire –flux
classification.
Flux :
A. Fused flux :
Ingredients ( ground minerals ) are mixed and melted in a
pot / furnace at high temperature [ 1600 – 1800 deg.C ].
melt is rapidly solidified and fragmented by quenching in
water. These flux fragments are dried , crushed , sieved ,
sized and packed.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 468 of 1119
Consumables contd.
B. Agglomerated flux ;
finely powdered ingredients are mixed and mix is steadily
moistened with liquid alkaline silicates.The mixer blades
are designed to assist agglomeration.
The green agglomerates are baked in rotary oven gradually
with final exposure at 600 to 800 deg.C.While baking the
water evaporates leaving the binder as bridges between
particles. The flux is then sieved , graded and packed.
C. Sintered flux :
Produced by grinding the dry charge together, pressing
into small balls and heating to just below melting point [
1000 – 1100 deg. C ] in furnace. These semi fused masses
are crushed, sieved, sized and packed.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 469 of 1119
SAW Fluxes
Fused Agglomerated
Heavier, higher bulk Lighter, lower bulk
densities, hence less densities, hence volume
volume for same weight is more for same weight
Thicker slag cover,
Thinner slag cover, less
more consumption
consumption
Higher manufacturing
temperature and so Lower manufacturing
ferro-alloys, alloy temperature and hence
addition not possible. ferro-alloys, alloys
additions possible
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 470 of 1119
[CaO+MgO+Na2O+CaF2+ ½ (MnO+FeO)]
---------------------------------------------------------------------
[SiO2+ ½ (Al2O3+TiO2+ZrO2)]
kg/m
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Welding Parameters
1. WELDING CURRENT
2. ARC VOLTAGE
3. SPEED OF ARC TRAVEL
4. SIZE OF ELECTRODE
5. ELECTRODE STICK OUT
6. HEAT INPUT RATE
Slag Inclusion
- Contaminants of flux, Usage of cold flux.
- Improper joint geometry
- Viscosity of the slag
- Inadequate interpass cleaning
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 480 of 1119
Influence of stick-out
Longer stick-out gives higher deposition rate, but
also more shallow penetration.
A: 25 mm
B: 57 mm
C: 83 mm
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 483 of 1119
Deposition rate
Recommended current range and deposition rate (kg/h)
for different wire diameters
Deposition rate
As a function of wire diameter and amperage
Kg/
h
16 f
Wire
14 d e g
diameter
a = 1,6 mm 12
b = 2,0 mm 10 a c
c = 2,4 mm b
8
d = 3,2 mm
e = 4,0 mm 6
f = 5,0 mm 4
g = 6,0 mm
2
Tandem SAW
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.R.Senguta
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.R.Ravi
Mr.N.K.Mukherjee
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 488 of 1119
THANK YOU
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 489 of 1119
Contents
– MMAW / SMAW
• Manual Metal Arc Welding / Shielded Metal Arc
Welding
– GMAW / FCAW *
• Gas Metal Arc Welding ( MIG / MAG )
• Flux Cored Arc welding
– GTAW *
• Gas Tungsten Arc welding
– SAW
• Submerged Arc Welding
• Electro – slag
70% 28%
2%
Manual Metal Arc
1%
20% Submerged Arc
% 9%
Gas Metal Arc
Developed 62%
Countries
India
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 493 of 1119
GMAW process
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 496 of 1119
GMAW equipment
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 497 of 1119
Shielding Gases
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 502 of 1119
• SPRAY TRANSFER
Higher currents and voltage used , droplet size
same as or lower than the wire diameter.
Higher deposition rate penetration and fluidity
of the molten pool , increases the productivity
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 506 of 1119
4 steps in
Short
circuiting
transfer
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 508 of 1119
Spray Transfer
• Spray transfer GMAW occurs when the molten
metal from the electrode is propelled axially
across the arc in the form of minute droplets.
• With Argon-rich gas shielding it is possible to
produce a very stable, spatter-free axial spray
transfer mode.
• The mode requires Direct current with a positive
electrode (DCEP) and a current level above a
critical value termed the spray transition current.
Below this level, the transfer is globular.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 509 of 1119
•Molten metal is
propelled axially
across the arc in
minute droplets
•Argon-rich gas
shielding produces
stable spatter free
axial spray transfer
mode
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 510 of 1119
• GLOBULAR TRANSFER
An intermediate stage between dip and spray
transfer. Droplet sizes are more than the wire dia.
Produces excessive spatter and erratic arc
behaviour
• PULSED TRANSFER
Controlled method of spray transfer. Heat input to
the job is controlled by low background current
with high pulses using special type of equipment
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 512 of 1119
Globular transfer
• Globular transfer is normally encountered with CO2 as shielding gas
at higher current and voltages.
• The higher surface tension of molten metal with CO2 produces a
larger size droplet greater than the wire diameter.
• The CO2 gas also dissociates in the welding arc to CO and oxygen
and then recombines back on top of the weld.
• This sets up some electro-magnetic forces in the upward and
tangential directions which act on the metal droplet. It also produces
greater heat due to the burning of the CO.
• When the droplet finally detaches by gravity or it falls in an uneven
manner on to the workpiece, This causes higher spatter and a more
uneven bead.
• As a result of the large molten droplets this mode of transfer is
generally limited to flat and horizontal welding positions.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 513 of 1119
Pulse Transfer
Combines the control on heat input of short arc with the higher
deposition rate of open arc.
Gives extremely precise control on metal transfer and penetration
to give superior weld quality
In synergic pulsed systems wire feed rate synchronised with
pulsed current to control individual droplet detachment.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 515 of 1119
Spatter generated
T-GK 3 (10)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 517 of 1119
Carbon di-oxide
20% 10%
Helium Argon
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 521 of 1119
70
60
Welding 50
40
speed
30
cm/min 20
10
0
2
2
2
2
O
CO
O
CO
2%
C
%
8%
2-
20
O
-
Ar
-
C
Ar
-5%
Ar
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 522 of 1119
Total Savings 15 - 25 % 20 - 30 %
Mechanical Properties
UTS (kg/cm2) 54.8 62.5
YS (kg/cm2) 45.1 49.8
% El 24 30
Impact (Joules) - RT 149 180
- (-)300C 60 100
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 527 of 1119
• Lower distortion
• Current ( amps )
• Voltage ( volts )
• Shielding gas flow rate. ( litres / min )
• Stick out
• Torch angle
• Welding speed
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 529 of 1119
Arc Burn -
Back Rate
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 530 of 1119
Torch angle.
This rake angle should be utilised for the welding of all joint types in the
flat and overhead position.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 533 of 1119
Process Variations
MIG Brazing
• MIG brazing is a variation of the MIG
welding process used for brazewelding. It
uses the heat generated by an arc struck
between a continuously fed consumable
filler wire and the workpiece to fuse the
metal in the joint area.
• The consumable wire used in MIG brazing
is solid and an additional shielding gas is
required to protect the arc and weld area in
the same manner as that used for MIG
welding.
• The main features of the process are low
welding currents, low heat input and high
deposition rates.
• The filler wire is usually of copper-silicon
alloy, although other copper alloy wires
have also been used.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 536 of 1119
Tandem MIG
• Independently controlled power sources
frequency coupled - master and slave operation.
• Electrically seperated contact tubes allows
independent volts and parameter settings.
• Phase shift in pulsed welding achieves high
quality spatter free welding
• Argon - 5O2 and Argon - 18CO2 gas mixtures
used
• Applications in Ship building, tank welding, truck
wheels, rail coaches
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 541 of 1119
FCAW PROCESS
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 542 of 1119
Application of FCAW
• For fabrication of
- mild and low alloy steels
- stainless steels
- high nickel alloys
• For surfacing
- for wear or corrosion/oxidation resistance
- wide range of hardness / compositions available
- self shielded wires mainly used here
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 544 of 1119
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
• Mr.R.Banerjee
• Mr.R.Srinivasan
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 548 of 1119
THANK YOU
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 549 of 1119
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 552 of 1119
TIG WELDING
Names
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
HELIARC WELDING
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 554 of 1119
TIG WELDING
An Arc Welding Process.
Arc between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and the workpiece.
An inert gas sustains the arc and protects the
molten metal from atmospheric contamination.
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 555 of 1119
Joint Design
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 560 of 1119
GTAW process
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 561 of 1119
SHIELDING GAS
WORK PIECE
WATER COOLER
CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY (OPTIONAL)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 562 of 1119
straight
(machine
Short head
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 564 of 1119
For AC operation the tip of the electrode should be rounded off and not
pointed. This is because when using AC the tungsten tends to form a ball
on the end of the electrode rather than keeping a point.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 567 of 1119
Back Purging
When TIG welding certain materials, such as
stainless steel or nickel alloys, it is necessary to
prevent the reverse side of the weld area oxidising,
particularly in pipework when post-weld cleaning of
the root is impossible.This is usually achieved by
passing a stream of inert gas through the pipe, or
over the reverse side of a plate, to exclude, or purge,
oxygen from the area.
The gases most frequently used for purging are
argon or nitrogen. Which gas is chosen will depend
on technical, practical or economic reasons.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 570 of 1119
AC Cleaning
Oxide Layer
Arc
GTAW
• Electrode DC –ve for mild steel, stainless steel,
Ni and Ni alloys, Cu and Cu alloys
• AC for aluminium, magnesium & Al-Bronze.
• Sometimes electrode DC +ve used for thin
sheet.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 579 of 1119
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 581 of 1119
Pulsed welding
In pulse-TIG welding the current changes
according to the settings of frequency and pulse
ratio, between pulse and pause currents.
tc
I
ts Build-up of a bead consisting
of diverse nuggets
Is
It
t
I ave = Average current
t c = Cycle time / Frequency
PL = pool length
t s = Pulse time OL = overlapping length
I s = Pulse current DN = distance between
I t = Pause current two nuggets
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 583 of 1119
AC waveforms
+
0 • Sine wave
- t
– Traditional AC - transformer
(50Hz)
– Low noise,half cycle ignition bad
+ • Square wave
0 – Traditional or inverter power
- t source
– High noise, good oxide cleaning
– AC frequency adjustable
+
• Formed square wave
– Available in modern power
0 sources
- t – Combined sine- and square
wave
– Optimum AC properties
– AC frequency adjustable
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 586 of 1119
AC - balance adjustment
70%
• Maximum positive balance
+ – Low penetration
– Good oxide cleaning
0
– A hotter electrode, tip wears round
-
30% • Maximum negative balance 2.4
3.2
– Deep penetration BALANCE
30% – Bad oxide cleaning 4.0
Deep penetration
Bad oxide cleaning
A colder electrode, stays sharper
Low penetration
Good oxide cleaning
A hotter electrode, tip
wears round
HF - Ignition Unit
• High frequency (HF) unit ignites the arc without
contact between the electrode and workpiece.
• Usually TIG welding equipment are compact, so
that the high frequency unit is mounted inside the
machine.
• Separate units are mainly used with multiprocess
power sources.
• HF has been known to create difficulties and
interference with computer systems, telephones,
and other electronic items, including heart
pacemakers
• For example at nuclear power plant constructions
the use of HF - spark is prohibited.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 591 of 1119
AC Freq.50 Hz.
EN/EP 50/50
DC Suppressor in AC
Function of DC Suppressor
Additional accessory to remove unwanted DC from
output - provides only AC output for welding
Why DC Suppressor?
In the positive half cycle, the oxide layer formed on
the surface of the job behaves as a PN junction
diode in the reverse bias and does not conduct
current
A DC suppressor removes the DC component and
facilitates AC output free from unwanted DC
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 593 of 1119
DIAMETER l / min A
3 - 5 mm
1 - 5 mm
Bead oxidised
Tungsten inclusion
Lack fusion /
penetration
excess penetration
Crack in weld
Crater crack
+
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 598 of 1119
Tungsten Inclusions
Touching a tungsten electrode into a molten weld pool
will often result in some tungsten being melted off and
taken into the weld metal. Similarly, if the tip of a
tungsten electrode for AC operation is ground to a point,
this will be removed on initiation of the AC arc and end
up in the weld metal.
The resultant tungsten inclusions will be classified as a
defect and will have to be ground out and the weld
repaired.
Welders should be careful not to allow the electrodes to
come into contact with the weld pool and to ensure all
tungsten electrodes are correctly ground and prepared
for welding.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 599 of 1119
Orbital TIG
Orbital TIG is an automatic process used primarily of the
welding together of pipes. The welding head comprises
of a method to hold in place both of the pipes to be
welded. It also contains a compact welding torch and a
drive mechanism allowing it to move completely around
the pipe. There will also be an integral wire feed system
on models for use with pipe that cannot be welded
autogenously.
Welding heads are produce in different diameters
suiting only a limited range of pipe diameters.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 602 of 1119
Schematic view of
mechanised butt welding
of tubes using a pipe welding
clamp
- Orbital welding -
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 603 of 1119
Narrow-Gap TIG
In this variation, the components to be welded are
brought together in either as a square edge joint with a
small gap and a backing bar or 'U' preparation. These
combinations mean that distance between the two sides
of the joint are much smaller, hence the term 'narrow
gap'. The TIG torch, perhaps with some modification,
can be lowered into the gap and withdrawn slowly as
the weld progresses. Hot-wire filler addition may be
used together with pulsed current and other techniques
to assist the process.
Using a small gap between the component faces allows
thicker plates to be welded with fewer weld passes,
saving consumable costs, but, more importantly, labour
costs.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 605 of 1119
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
• Mr.R.Banerjee
• Mr.R.Srinivasan
• Mr.T.K.Mitra
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 614 of 1119
THANK YOU
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 615 of 1119
Resistance Welding
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 616 of 1119
Weld
Nugget
Distance
Resistance
Bottom Electrode
Resistance welding is a process where heat is generated by the resistance of the
parts being welded to the flow of a localized electric current.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 618 of 1119
Seam welding
Butt Seam welding
Flash Butt welding
Projection Welding
Flash Butt welding
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 619 of 1119
Squeeze pressure,
Current,
Weld time,
Hold time
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 621 of 1119
Hold time is the time, after the welding, when the electrodes
are still applied to the sheet to chill the weld. Considered
from a welding technical point of view, the hold time is the
most interesting welding parameter.
Hold time is necessary to allow the weld nugget to solidify
before releasing the welded parts, but it must not be to long
as this may cause the heat in the weld spot to spread to the
electrode and heat it.
The electrode will then get more exposed to wear. Further, if
the hold time is to long and the carbon content of the
material is high (more than 0.1%), there is a risk the weld will
become brittle. When welding galvanized carbon steel a
longer hold time is recommended.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 624 of 1119
P Pressing Time
R
E
S T im e
S
U
R
Initial Pressure Run Time Holding Time Off time
E
WELDING SEQUENCE
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 625 of 1119
Joule heating
Top Electrode
Cooling Water
Weld
Nugget
H=I2Rt
H=Heat
I=Current
Distance
R=Resistance
t=time
Resistance
Bottom Electrode
Temperature profile
Properties of Nugget
Electrode
Tip
Molten
Nugget
Electrode
Tip
FN ≥ FE : Expulsion
FN = Force of expanding nugget
FE = Force of Electrode
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 630 of 1119
Properties of Nugget
F Electrode
Pressure Tip
lines
HAZ
Electrode
F Tip
Welding defects
Welding diameter
3.5 √ t 5√t No nugget
Splash
Welding Time
Pressure
Interfacial
splash
Good
weld
Explosion
Welding time, ms
250
120
Weld Time, ms
50 dn=3.3-3.5mm dia. 60
4 5 6 7 8 9 6 7 8 9
Weld Current, kA Welding current, kA
0.8mm thick IF-coated steel 0.9mm thick IF-bare steel
4.5 7 KA
4 7.5 KA
3.5 8 KA
3 8.5 KA
2.5 9 KA
2
50 70 90 110 130 150
Weld Time (ms)
Increase in weld time increases nugget size
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 636 of 1119
High Speed
Economical
Dimensional Accuracy
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 640 of 1119
C-GUN
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 648 of 1119
X-GUN
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 649 of 1119
TROLEY
GANTRY
전원,AIR
,냉각수
SPRING
BALANCE T/R
SHUNT T/C
1
POINT HOLDER
Guide Rod CAP TIP SCR
GANTRY
SHANK BOX
ADAPTOR
HOLDER
GUN BODY
MOTOR
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 650 of 1119
Switching circuit
Secondary has a few turns
only and delivers very low
voltage while it is capable of
delivering very high current
Mains Supply
(5,000-20,000Amps)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 653 of 1119
Peltier effect
Current
Metal-1 Metal-2
Direction of sss COLD
heat travel
sss
DC
power
HOT
DC power source
Current
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 654 of 1119
MF DC
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 656 of 1119
The electrodes are made of copper alloys since pure copper is soft and
would wear out fast.
Ceramic tips are also available which have longer life but higher resistivity
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 658 of 1119
Specific testing
Shear-tension
Cross-tension
Cross-tension test
Test Results
4.2
Shear strength, N
4.0
3.8
3.4
3.2
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Nugget dia., mm
Bigger nuggets are stronger.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 666 of 1119
Electrodes
COPPER
RAILS
MAGNETIC
TABLE
FOIL
SPOOLS
GUIDE
Safety
Protection from Use / provide
Sharp and hot Leather gloves and
workpiece safety shoes
Spark, Splashes Eye glasses
Pinch point injury Electronic device
Mechanical injury Suitable guards
Fumes Ventilation
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 684 of 1119
20 HP
Experimental Setup of FSW Motor
V-Belt and
Pulley System
Vertical
Head
Dynamometer
Tool
Sample
Backing
Plate
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 686 of 1119
Operating Sequence
1 Rotate 2 Plunge
3 Axial Force
4 Travel
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 687 of 1119
Welding
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 688 of 1119
Typical parameters
Parameters (Variables) are:
Rotational Speed (RS)
Sample
AA 6061-T6: 76.2 x 457.2 x 6.35 mm (3 x 18 x ¼”)
Rotational Speeds:
1000-5000 RPM
Travel Speeds:
290-1600 mm/min (11.4 in/min–63 in/min)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 690 of 1119
Limitations of FSW
Application Area
Applications Of FSW
Applications Of FSW
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 696 of 1119
Thank you
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 698 of 1119
Introduction to Wear
and Surfacing
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 699 of 1119
Contents
Types Of Wear
Wear by Adhesion
Rebuilding of Sprockets
Abrasive Wear
Excavator bucket
Undercarriage components
Coal Grinding,
Cement Grinding
Mill tables
Hardfaced with
high Cr-carbide
deposit, 60 HRc
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 716 of 1119
Erosive Wear
Impact Wear
Wear by Impact
Furnace fixtures,
guards, walls and
bottom plate are
subjected to cyclic
thermal loads.
Spalling damage costs
are enormous
They are reclaimed to
combat spalling and
oxidation.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 724 of 1119
Wear By Corrosion
When water contacts steel, small electric cells are set up. The
acidified moisture attacks the steel surface, gradually changing
it to oxide.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 726 of 1119
Wear By Corrosion
Wear by Fatigue
Wear by Fretting
Heat Corrosion
Chromium High Alloy Cr-Ni Stainless Resistance
Resistance Carbide Tool Steel steel
Irons
Group-6 Group-7
High Cobalt and Nickel Alloys
Base High
Group-9
Impact Resistance
Low High
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 732 of 1119
Idlers
Tractor Rollers
Cladding valves
with 12%Cr steel
overlay (SS 410)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 736 of 1119
Alloy Comparison
Weld metal hardness
62
60
0.5C-8Cr-0.5Mo
58
M7 (0.8C-3.5Cr-
56 9Mo-1.8W-1.8V)
2C-7Cr-6Ti
54
1C-6Cr-7Nb-1Ti
52
50
Hardness HRc
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 741 of 1119
Alloy Comparison
Weight Loss
1.4
1.2
0.5C-8Cr-0.5Mo
1
0.8 M7 (0.8C-3.5Cr-
0.6 9Mo-1.8W-1.8V)
2C-7Cr-6Ti
0.4
0.2 1C-6Cr-7Nb-1Ti
0
Weight loss (ASTM G65 A wear
test)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 742 of 1119
Chevrons
welded on
roller press
rolls used in
cement
industry with
this alloy
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 744 of 1119
As carbides are
undermined and
knocked out by moving
abrasive particles,
additional carbides are
exposed which further
resist abrasives and
delay wear as shown
below
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 746 of 1119
20
18
16
14
12 5C- 25Cr
10 6C-27Cr
8 5C-25Cr-Mo-V-B
6 5C-25Cr-Nb-V
4
2
0
Wt. Loss Cu mm(ASTM G65 test)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 748 of 1119
Surfacing Processes
Gas Welding
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding Process
Thermal Spraying
Plasma Arc Spraying
Cladding
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 749 of 1119
Surfacing processes …
Surfacing Processes …
A regular job of
transport repair shops
is welding brass,
bronze components
and other copper
alloys.
Can be reclaimed
using suitable
consumables ensuring
high success rate and
minimum scrap.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 753 of 1119
Surface Preparation
Surface Condition
Removal of cracks by gouging / grinding
Rough machining
Cleaning to free from rust & scale by brushing/
grinding/ solvent cleaning
Job Positioning
Job to be preferably positioned in down-hand
position
For positional welding, process and
consumables suitably chosen
Preheating is often required to
Prevent cracking in hardenable alloys
Prevent cracking of large areas of very hard
deposits
To minimize distortion
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 755 of 1119
Control of Distortion
Control of Distortion…
Counterbalancing
stresses:
Weld or clamp 2
similar parts back to
back & alternate
welding from one
part to another OR
weld or clamp to a
strong-back, fixture
& plate
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 757 of 1119
Control of Dilution
The advantages:
wear service life
cost savings
minimum downtime
efficiency
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 761 of 1119
Indian Institute of Welding-ANB
Refresher Course-Module
Thermal Spraying
Cladding
What is Cladding?
Cladding is a method of joining Two or more metals or alloys
by a roll-bonding and thermal treatment process OR BY Laser
that produces a bond at the atomic level.
Basic cladding has been around for centuries. It originally
served as a way to bond decorative gold or silver surfaces onto
base metals.
Most famous example of an early clad metal “product” is the
Damascus sword – crafted from layers of steel and valued for
its ability to take and keep an edge
Why Clad?
A single metal can not be designed to exhibit all desired
properties.
Cold-rolled cladding of metals makes it possible to put
disparate metals together in a way that opens the doors of
design to an exciting new world of possibilities.
Cladding not only allows you to expand your design
possibilities, but also can provide significant improvements in
product performance and manufacturability.
And may even yield meaningful reductions in product costs as
well.
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Laser cladding
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.Soumya Sarkar
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.Shaju Albert
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.P.K.Das
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.D.K.Sharma
Mr.R.Ravi
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THANK YOU
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S.K.Gupta
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Contents
JUPITER WAGONS
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STATIC IMPACT
VARIABLE
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TENSION
COMPRESSION
LOAD
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Types of Load
TENSILE LOADING
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Types of Load
COMPRESSIVE
LOAD
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Types of Load
LOAD
SHEAR
SHEAR LOADING
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2
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY = STRESS N/mm
STRAIN
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ALUMINUM
CAST IRON
RUBBER
STRAIN
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S
T
R ENDURANCE
ENDURANCE
E
S
S
“ N “ CYCLES OF STRESS
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Strength
At elevated temperatures
secondary stresses such as
those due to thermal gradients
or due to non-uniform heating
and cooling can be relatively
large and difficult to assess.
These stresses may affect
service performance of a
structure with regard to strength
characteristics.
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CREEP STRENGTH
B D
C – CREEP AT
APPROXIMATELY
F CONSTANT RATE
D – CREEP AT
INCREASING RATE
A
E – ELASTIC
CONTRACTION
The terms
“low temperature” and
“cryogenic”
may be defined as involving
temperatures to
–100 degree and –273 deg. Centigrade.
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NOTCH TOUGHNESS
Influence of Notches
3.5.10.Types Of Fractures -- I
Types of Fractures
Types of Fractures
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar tearing -
- layers of plate
seams open up at
fractured surfaces
showing clean
separation.
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STEELS
CHROMIUM – MOLYBDENUM STEELS SUCH AS 2.25
Cr.,1.00 Mo STEELS ARE USED EXCLUSSIVELY FOR A
VARIETY OF TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS UPTO
450 DEG. CENTIGRADE
12.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED
UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 705 DEG. CENTIGRADE
17.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS UPTO A TEMPERATURE OF 816 DEG
CENTIGRADE
27.00 PERCENT Cr. STAINLESS STEELS ARE USED IN
APPLICATIONS FROM 870 to 1095 DEG CENTIGRADE
WHERE MOST SEVERE OXIDATION IS
ENCOUNTERED.
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0 0
45 60
B
A ROOT GAP
D
C
LAND SPACER
E RIGHT WRONG
F
BACK GOUGING
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EFFECTIVE
THROAT LEG
LEG
THEORETICAL
THROAT
ACTUAL THROAT
FILLET WELD
NOMENCLATURE
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Single-bevel tee joint can withstand more severe
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w = ¾ t
This assumes that :
1. Fillet welds on both sides of the plate
2. Fillet weld for full length of the plate
3. t = thickness of the thinner plate
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W = 1/4 t – 3/8 t
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Vay
r N/m
h = In
WHERE :
V = TOTAL SHEAR ON SECTION AT A GIVEN
POSITION ALONG BEAM, ( N )
2
a = AREA OF FLANGE HELD BY WELD ( m )
y = DISTANCE BETWEEN THE C.G. OF FLANGE AREA
AND N.A. OF THE WHOLE SECTION (m)
4
I = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF THE WHOLE SECTION ( m )
n = NUMBER OF WELDS JOINING EACH FLANGE TO WEB
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GIVEN :
Width of the flange= 250 mm. Thickness of the flange = 70 mm
Thickness of the web = 15 mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm
Total shear on section = 860 Kn
3 6
Then : r = (V.a.Y)/I.n ( 860/10) x (70 x 250)/10 x 1270/2000
h =
3 3
{ ( 250/12000) x (1.340 ) – 2.35 x 1.2 } x 2/12
= 0.2934712 MN/m
If the size of the fillet is w, and allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m2
Then, 0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712.
or w = 4.32 mm
250
70
AREA OF
FLANGE
HELD BY
WELDS
1200
860 kN
WELD LEG
SIZE w
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70
y = distance between the c.g. of the
flange area and the n.a. of the
whole section = (1200 + 70 )/(2 x 1000) m 15
= 0.635 m
1200
I = the moment of inertia of the section
= 1/12 { (250/1000) x (1340/1000)33
- (235/1000) x (1200/1000) }
= 0.16282262 m4
n= number of welds joining
70
each flange to web = 2
Throat area for a parallel loaded fillet weld
= 0.707w 250
Allowable shear strength = 96 MN / m
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A TYPICAL S a
a Av+
FATIGUE T MAX
LOAD R
PATTERN E a
CURVE Av-
S a
S MIN
TIME
THERE ARE TWO WAYS TO REPRESENT THE FATIGUE LOAD :
1. AS A MEAN OR AVERAGE STRESS WITH A SUPERIMPOSED
VARIABLE STRESS
2. AS A STRESS VARYING FROM A MAXIMUM VALUE TO A
MINIMUM VALUE . HERE THE CYCLE CAN BE
REPRESENTED BY THE RATIO
K = a Min / a Max
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c e a
100
95
ALLOWABLE FATIGUE STRESS X 100
KNOWN FATIGUE STRENGTH
90
85
80
75
70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N / Na
b
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THEN , c
a = a x(N /N )
A B B A
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Melt smoothing ;TIG Torch (140% impr.) Fatigue strength of welds does
not depend on the yield and
Introducing Compressive stresses tensile strengths of parent
Shot or grit blasting (25-100% impr.) metal.
Structures: Applications
FILLET WELD 36 w 50 w 62 w 62 w
ALL 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r 1 – 0.5r
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AND BY :
1 FOR CORNER AND SLOT
1.3 – 0.3 x { P(min)/ P(max)} WELDED JOINTS
THANK YOU
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Contents
Welding stresses
Repair Welding
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Residual stress
Transverse residual
stress develops as
the heat source
moves along X-X.
p3
p2
p1
P1 : macro stresses
P2 : micro stresses
-py P3 : submicro stresses
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d = 0.005 ( A .d.2 L ) / I
Wherel : w
Types of distortion
Types of distortion
Weld placement
Place the welds around the
neutral axis,
Balance welds intermittently
on either side of joint,
Weld alternatively on opposite
sides of the joint,
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Prevention of Distortion by
Fabrication Technique
Tack Welding
Ideal for setting and
maintaining joint gap
Alternative tack-welding
sequences (ref figure )
a) Tack-weld straight through
to end of joint
b) Tack-weld one end, then
use back-step technique for
tacking rest of joint
Tack space = 100 mm + 16T
c) Tack-weld the center, then
Tack length = 3T
complete the tack-welding
Thickness of plate = T by the back-step technique
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Prevention of Distortion by
Fabrication Technique
Longitudinal stiffeners welded along
each side of the butt-welded seam
prevents bowing
Back-to-back assembly – clamping
two identical components back-to-
back for tacking and welding
Use balanced welding about the
neutral axis
Keep the weld deposit to the
minimum specified size
Use MIG in preference to MMA
Keep time between runs to a
minimum and deposit weld metal as
quickly as possible
Use least number of runs to fill the
joints
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Mechanical techniques
Hammering
Pressing
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Repair Welding
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+
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Acknowledgements
Mr.S.K.Gupta
Mr.A.Choudhuri
Dr. Amitava De
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Thank You
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Contents
Welding Arc
Welding Arc
Electrode Ionisation = breaking down of atoms into
(+ve) electrons and +ve neucleus (ions)
Plasma = Ions and electrons at high
temperature (>10,000 deg.C)
+
Current = movement of electric charges
+
-
Maintenance of arc through AC cycle is
Welding - + achieved by adding Sodium/potassium
Arc salt to electrode coating
Welding Arc
Electrical discharge between two bodies without
physical contact
Welding Arc
ELECTRODES
Welding Arc
MMAW : Starting of the arc by “fuse blowing”
Welding Arc
GTAW : Arc starting by high frequency
Arc starting by HF :
HF is superimposed
with the welding
current and the HF
helps ionisation of the
intervening medium to
start the arc.
Electrode is never
touched to the plate
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Welding Arc
Have you ever wondered why lightning always propagates in a thin line ?
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Welding Arc
Pinch Effect
Current Flow of current through arc results in
magnetic field enveloping the arc and
tends to compress it –‘pinch effect’.
Higher the current, higher the pinch.
The magnetic field also generates an
axial force which causes hot ionized gas
in the arc to be set in motion from the
electrode to the workpiece, and assists
Magnetic
field
to detach molten metal from the end of
the electrode and transport it to the
molten pool – even against influence of
gravity.
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Welding Arc
Welding Arc
AC The current supplied to an
arc is generally
Half wave DC straightforward AC or DC,
but some modern welding
Full wave DC power sources have square
SCR control DC
wave output or allow welding
current to be pulsed between
Square wave high and low values.
Pulsed DC
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Welding Arc
The initial arc formed in the manner just described will not
grow into a stable welding arc if the power source cannot
deliver the current required.
Power sources must therefore have appropriate dynamic
responses.
Once the arc has been established, it has to be maintained
during the current zero period if it is an AC arc and during
inadvertent arc length variations when the welding is in
progress.
All other things being equal the voltage required by an arc
depends directly on its length or the gap between the
electrode and the molten pool in the workpiece.
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Welding Arc
The rate at which energy is applied to the workpiece
by the welding arc has an important influence on the
metallurgical properties of both weld metal and heat
affected zone.
Heat input is generally defined as kilo-joules/mm of
weld-run, i.e.,
Current X Arc-Volts
Welding speed
Arc Welding
Power Sources
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Arc Welding
Power Source
Static Dynamic
characteristics Characteristics
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A
Also note, higher the droop,
lesser the change in current
Welding current
B
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AC Power Sources
Moving Coil
When the primary coil is
away from the secondary
coil, the magnetic coupling
becomes “loose”
AC Power Sources
Moving Iron or Moving Core
Inverters
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DC Power Sources
Unidirectional flow of current ensures better arc stability
Easier arc starting & Maintenance
Improved dynamic control
More efficient melting of consumable electrodes
Higher deposition rate
Lower spatter
Possibility of using all types of electrodes
Can be used for welding non-ferrous metals
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DC Power Sources
Basic configuration
Transformer rectifier type– mainly comprised of 2 parts : Step-
down transformer, and Rectifier bank which converts AC to DC.
In the earlier models, bulky selenium rectifiers were used. Now
silicon diodes are invariably used which are compact and more
efficient. Using a diode “bridge” enables full wave rectification.
Mains Supply
Half wave DC
Full wave DC
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DC Power Sources
Thyristor (SCR) controlled power source
Thyristor type comprises of 3 parts: Transformer, The rectifier
(SCR bridge), and the firing control circuit. By changing the firing
angle θ, stepless current control is achieved.
Thyristor Bridge SCR control DC
_ + θ θ θ
Mains Supply
No Conduction
Full conduction
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Welding current
Mains Supply
Time
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Inverters
Basic Principles
Inverters
1) Mains voltage is rectified to DC
2) The Inverter converts the to high frequency AC by HF switching
circuits using IGBT
3) A small transformer using a ferrite core, changes the HF AC to suitable
welding voltage.
4) The AC is rectified back to DC.
5) Filters remove the disturbing frequencies and ripples (EMI) in the DC.
6) The entire process is monitored by a control circuit. The output is
controlled with sensors & suitable closed-loop electronic circuitry to
achieve required static and dynamic characteristics.
7) A DC voltage is available for welding purpose.
8) Microprocessor based real time adaptive process control can improve
output further for optimum performance.
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1 2 3 4 5
7
ARC
Feedback
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Why Inverters
Following are the advantages compared to traditional power
sources :
Lower weight, due to high frequency of operation (>50 KHz)
Smaller volume, occupying less workspace
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Why Inverters
Low energy consumption
No load looses for different types of similar capacity
1400
1200
1000
Watts
800
600
400
200
0
Converter (MG Set) Thy. Rectifier Transformer Inverter
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Why Inverters
High efficiency
Energy Consumption (kWh / year)
14000
12000
Energy consumption
per year for different
10000
types of MMA-welding
8000
power source. The
6000 differences depend on
4000 different efficiency
2000 and No-load losses.
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Actual Welding Current (A)
Converter Transformer Inverter
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Why Inverters
Excellent dynamic response resulting in higher spatter
level & higher current stabilizing time
8 600
(milliseconds)
6 400
5 300
4 200
3 100
2 0
80A/17.2V 155A/18.8V
1
Thy. Rectifier Inverter
0
The time elapsed from the tip of the
Transformer Thy. Rectifier Inverter wire touching the work piece until a
stable welding arc is established. Wire
Spatter level in welding dia. 1.0mm with 80:20 Argon/CO2
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Features Of
Inverter Power Sources
• Very light and compact - portable
• Power consumption reduced by 40-50 %
• Can quickly modify static and dynamic output
characteristics for multi-process capability.
• Excellent arc stability, can TIG weld at 1 amp
• Hot start and adjustable arc force for SMAW
• For GMAW-P and synergic MIG possible to achieve spray
transfer at lower currents
• High switching frequencies of >50,000 hertz facilitates
microprocessor based real time adaptive process control.
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TON Current
Duty cycle = X 100
T
TON TOFF Time
T
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Safety
Protection Protection
Recommendation
of from
IR, UV Radiation, Use correct goggles
Eyes
Spatter (shade # 6-14)
IR, UV Radiation, Wear leather gloves
Skin
Spatter, Hot metal, Burn & apron
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron
Ear Sound Use ear plug
Feet Spatter, Burn Wear safety shoes
Follow safety
Body Electric shock
instructions
Ventilate, use
General Toxic Fumes
extractor
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Safety
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1) Aloke Mitra
2) S. Ghoshal
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Thank You
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Insufficient reinforcement
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Burn-through
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Lack Of Penetration
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Incomplete Fusion
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Tungsten inclusion
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Cracks
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Cracks
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Porosity - Types
Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified
weld bead.
• Single Pore
• Uniformly Scattered
• Cluster
• Linear
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Porosity
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Clustered Porosity
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Quality Assurance of
Welded Structures
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Business Scenario
New technology
Competition
–from domestic & international
manufacturers, at home and abroad
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Product quality
Competitive Price
In order to meet the competition one should naturally be
at par or better than the competitors
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Inspection ?
PARTIES
8 Measurement
6 Resource
Analyses
Management Improvement SATISFACTION
ISO 9001
Quality Management System
The system addresses all aspects of business
that can affect quality
( Review, Planning, Design, Process validation & control,
manufacturing, Monitoring & measurements, Training,
CAPA, etc.)
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Special Process
11
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12
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Equipment
Production and testing equipment; Suitability of
equipment; Equipment maintenance
Welding and related activities
Production planning; Welding procedure
specifications (WPS); Process Qualification of the
welding (WPQR); Work instructions;
Welding Consumables
Batch testing; Storage and handling
Storage of parent materials
Avoidence of damage and mixup
Control Measures
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Certification of companies in
accordance with ISO – 3834 Parts 2, 3
or 4
Certification of personnel in
accordance with ISO 14731
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INDUSTRY
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International Institute of
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Welding - IIW
As a member of the International Union of Technical
Associations and Organisations (UTAO), IIW is a part of
the International Council for Engineering and Technology
(ICET), one of the twelve key formal umbrella organisations
associated with UNESCO.
ISO 3834-2
Comprehensive Quality Level
Quality Level
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Welding Co-ordinator
Responsible and competent person
Specified tasks and responsibilities
Qualified for each task
Welding Inspection
Is part of welding co-ordination
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Welding Inspection
It is part of Welding Coordination
Inspection personnel should be qualified as per IIW-
IWIP of required level or have other equivalent
qualification and demonstrated experience consistent
with current production by means of a Certification (e.g
National, TWI, AWS etc.)
• 3834 does not specify criteria for organisations
performing inspection & test but based on objective
evidence to confirm satisfactory process control.
National Accreditation of a laboratory is considered one
acceptable criteria.
• NDT Personnel qualification to conform to requirements
of ISO 9712 and destructive tests should conform to the
applicable ISO standards
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Fabrication companies
Construction companies - on-site work
Repair and maintenance contractors
Manufacturers of welded products
Welding workshops on sites under the
same technical and quality management
Owners of plant with their own
workshop(s)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Concept of QA & QC
Page 1073 of 1119
Some Definitions
Concept of QA & QC
Page 1074 of 1119
Some Definitions
Normative Documents
Code
Standard
EN 287-1 Welding
Steel Co-ordination EN ISO 14731
(ISO 9606-1) Personnel
ISO 14732
Aluminium ISO 9606-2 Welding Operator (EN 418)
ISO 9712
Copper ISO 9606-3 NDT personnel (EN 473)
Nickel ISO 9606-4
Titanium &
ISO 9606-5
Zirconium
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 47
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1084 of 1119
Process Validation
Personnel qualification
ISO 14731 and ISO 9606
Process qualification
WPQR – ISO 15614 Parts 1-13
Defined procedure for carrying out the
process
WPS – ISO 15607 & 15609
Equipment qualification
Welding machine and consumables
February 26, 2011 CII workshop, Mumbai : Introduction to ISO 3834 by R. Banerjee 48
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1085 of 1119
Ranges acceptable for Code Proof that procedures can Proof of Welder's ability to
What is documented
Welds produce required properties make sound welds
A Welder is qualified by
A WPS is prepared by listing A WPS is qualified by
welding test coupons,
what is to be welded, how it is welding a test coupon,
prepairng test specimens,
Documentation to be welded and specifies preparing test specimens
recording rest and results
ranges for each variable on & recording tests and test
and ranges qualified on a
the WPS results on a PQR
WPQ
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1088 of 1119
1) Joints
2) Base metal
3) Filler metal
4) Position
5) Pre-heat
6) PWHT
7) Shielding Gas
8) Electrical Characteristics
9) Technique
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Procedure Approval
Applicable Standards (ISO/EN)
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1090 of 1119
As per
ASME
Sec IX
As per
ISO
9606
Module 1~16 (IIW)
As per
ASME
Sec IX
As per
ISO
9606
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1096 of 1119
As per
ASME
Sec IX
As per
ISO
9606
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1097 of 1119
Inspection of Welds
Inspection
Page 1100 of 1119
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1101 of 1119
1) Dimensional accuracy
2) Visual inspection of the weld
3) Post Weld Heat Treatment (if any)
4) Evaluation of internal and surface defects with
or without the aid of Destructive/Non-
destructive testing.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1104 of 1119
Testing
Destructive Non-destructive
Weld Quality
Discontinuity
An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as a
lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristics.
A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect but all defects are
discontinuities.
Defect
A defect is a rejectable discontinuity, which occurs in an amount
great enough to render a particular object or structure unsuitable
for its intended service based on criteria in the applicable code.
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1107 of 1119
Classification of Defects
D Moderate
C Intermediate
B Stringent
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1109 of 1119
Crater- All crater shall be filled up to the full Applicable Applicable Applicable
cross section except for the ends of the
intermittent fillet welds outside the effective
length
As per BS 5289
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1118 of 1119
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module
Mr.A.K.Bose
Mr.N.Sadasivan
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.Hiren patel
Module 1~16 (IIW)
Page 1119 of 1119
Thank You