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GRADUATE STUDIES
MODULE
In
EDUCATION 802
To understand the psychology of teaching and learning is to understand the interplay of the science of
psychology and the practical art of teaching. It is how we study the behavioral aspects of learners, find out its
sources, and addressing learners’ difficulties and needs by developing teaching and learning stratagems that
will suit every learner and will help him/her foster his/her full potentials.
To further comprehend the psychology of teaching and learning, there is a need to dissect each of its
aspects. Perhaps know the nature of psychology, recognize its importance in both the teaching and learning
processes, present the relationship between psychology as a science and teaching as an art, know the
significant of the art of teaching and the knowledge of psychology in the improvement of learning competence,
familiarize with the importance of behavioral analysis and understand strategy adjustments to counteract
problems encountered in the teaching and learning landscape.
I. Psychology: Definition
The word psychology comes from the Greek word psyche, meaning “soul”, since during the ancient
times; psychology was the study of the soul.
According to the Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary of English (2009), psychology is the scientific
study of the mind, its activities, and human and animal behavior. It studies the human mind and the reasons
for people’s behavior or how humans (or animals) think and behave the way they do. Psychology emphasizes
the objective approach. It is referred to as a biological science since the behavior of human beings is grounded
both in biology and in social interaction.
Psychology has made great strides in the development of principles and methods and the discovery of
facts which find useful application in various aspects of everyday life. It is a scientific method applied to the
study of behavior which aims to help man understand himself so that he can adjust to his environment better;
to predict human behavior and to influence or control the behavior of the individual so that he can achieve the
goal he desires.
The development of psychology into a larger body of knowledge started the emergence of its many
general fields. These are educational psychology, clinical psychology, social psychology, child psychology,
adolescent psychology, abnormal psychology, business psychology, and industrial psychology.
The English term education is derived from two Latin words “educare”, meaning to train or mould,
and “educatum”, meaning denoting the act of teaching. Education is a form of learning in which knowledge
skills and habits of group of people are transferred from one generation to the rest through teaching, training
and research. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has formative effect of the way one thinks, feels
or acts.
Educational Psychology is the interplay between the science of psychology and the art of teaching. It
delves on the study of learners’ attitudes, developmental level, interests, motivation, personality, prior
knowledge, traits, values, and the like. It is the study of the interrelationship of the mental, emotional and
social aspects of every learner and its importance with the development of methods, techniques, approaches
and strategies that will pedagogues in dealing with diverse kinds of students.
Science of Art of
Psychology Teaching
The word personality is derived from the Latin words “per” and “sonare”, which literally mean “to
sound through”. Apparently, the word “persona” came from these two words, which in ancient Rome referred
to as actor’s mask through which the sound of his voice was projected (Horrock, 1969). Personality is the
concept or construct that describes the uniqueness and totality of an individual as a social being.
Psychologically, personality covers how a person perceives his environment and how his environment
affects his behavior. It is defined as the configuration of characteristics and ways of behaving which describe
an individual’s unique adjustment to his environment. It includes characteristics that are important in a
persona’s adjustment and maintenance of self-respect.
Characteristics of Personality
Continuity of Personality Development
The development of personality continues throughout the entire life of each living organism parallel
to its physical development.
Individuals have unique patterns of personality and are different from others. The environment to
where an individual grows cultivates or limits its personality development.
As a Culture
The school reflects the total culture of which it is part to transmit the dominant values, mores, attitudes
and ideas of the society.
Culture context of education is necessary to sharpen our awareness of the kinds of experiences to which
we will be exposing children and to make us aware of alternative experiences and the kinds of personalities
that alternative might produce.
LESSON 2
Motivation and Learning
INTRODUCTION
Motivation is a force that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal (Eggen, Kauchak, 1994).
Wlodkowski (1986) suggested that motivation describes processes that (a) arouse a desire to investigate
behavior, (b) give direction and purpose to behavior, (c) continue to allow behavior to persist, or (d) lead to
choosing or preferring a particular behavior. In relation to learning, Crump (1995) stated that the act of
motivating could be defined as exciting the mind of the student to receive instruction.
In learning environment developing motivation is a difficult task for the teacher considering that every
student learns differently and every student is diverse in their own ways. Yet, it is the responsibility of the
teacher to guide and encourage them in a constructive manner (Shadlyn, 2004). Teacher’s instructional choices
can make a positive impact on the student’s motivation.
I. Learning: Definition
Learning – is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing existing knowledge, behaviors, skills,
values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is
possessed by humans, animals, and some machines which progress over time and tend to follow learning
curves.
II. Motivation: Definition
Motivation – is the inner state that arouses individual’s desire for a goal and maintains their efforts in a
certain direction and time (Kong, 2009). It is the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented
behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading
a book to gain knowledge (Kendra Cherry).
Self-actualization
needs, e.g. desire
for self-fulfillment
The essential point of Maslow’s perspective is that no learning will takes place the student’s basic
needs are met. Thus, students need to have their physiological needs met along with feelings of safety and
also experience a sense of belonging. This makes intuitive sense because a student who is hungry will never
perform well, nor will a student who is bullied (lack of safety), and neither will the student who feels that they
are an “outsider” and that they have no friends. If their basic needs are met then motivation to learn should be
present, especially if the student gains some esteem from their efforts. For Maslow, the best motivation for
learning will occur when we are attempting to self-actualize, for this is when we will be truly experiencing
growth and development. Ultimately, any factor which prevents us from self-actualizing will be a hindrance
to our motivation to learn.
In order to maximize the effectiveness of school-wide and individual classroom teaching programs,
administrators and teachers must consider students’ needs in the hierarchical order. Making this a top-most
priority in the development of educational programs will help students’ capability of reaching their highest
potentials.
Measurement of Motivation
Interview
Questionnaire
Rating Scale/Situational Test
INTRODUCTION
In any form and level of education, the development of the learners always comes as the prime priority.
The development of every learner shoots from the parallel processes of human growth and development.
Understanding these metamorphic modifications of the human behavior, mind, and body, starting from when
they are born to adulthood, will provide us the knowledge in designing solutions that will cure deficiencies or
impeding the occurrence of the same deficiencies or difficulties for other individuals.
Cognitive Development
Non-Cognitive Development
Non-cognitive development includes emotional maturity, empathy, interpersonal skills, and verbal and
non-verbal communication. Non-cognitive development involves emotional and social changes as humans
grow.
Hormones
Learning and Reinforcement
Individual Differences
Each child is a unique individual and differs from every other and presents individual problems.
Individual differences among children are related to their development state at any time. The developmental
state refers on the hand to the level of maturation and on the other hand to the resultant of the process of
growth and effects of experiences.
Intelligence
Special abilities
Family and cultural background
Alacrity in learning
Mental age
Motor ability
Sex differences
Nationality
Economic situation
Differences in respect of development
Differences relating of learning
Difference of interests
Personality
The objective of modern education is the complete development of the child. In connection to this, the
teacher has the following advantage to derive from knowledge of individual differences:
These can help him to form the proper attitude towards the brilliant and the dull-witted students. It is
too evident that very good results cannot be expected from dull-witted or mediocre students.
LESSON 4
Learning and the Cognitive Process 1 and 2
INTRODUCTION
Cognition involves intellectual processes (perception, memory, thinking and language) through which
information is obtained, transformed and used. This is a way of processing information and without
information the cognitive process is meaningless. Cognitive process is defined as encompassing all
information processing or as the ability to think and reason out which is a conscious event exclusive to humans.
One way we use the cognitive process in our daily lives is with learning. Learning is not just something we
do in school or informal settings. We learn everyday. Sometimes our every survival depends on how well we
can learn. Learning is broadly defined as change. The focus can be on what we learn (the product of learning)
or on how we learn (the process).
The major task of the school is the development of concepts and generalizations that either nay not be
learned outside of the school or may be learned systematically in school. The high school students studying
Biology learns such complex concepts, such as photosynthesis and blood circulation, which they would not
learned if they were not exposed to them systematically. It is now the functions of the school to thoroughly
inculcates or clarify these concepts.
I. Concept: Definition
A concept is a cognitive unit of meaning, an abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a
“unit of knowledge”. Concepts are typically associated with a corresponding representation in a language or
symbol. For instance, a third grade class is studying a unit on “Ships, Harbor and Cargoes”. In this unit the
children are to learn what a “harbor” is. The teacher describes a harbor as a “sheltered of water having piers”.
Discrimination is required:
The child must be able to distinguish what a harbor is. The child must be able to distinguish a harbor
from other geographical formation, particularly other bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, seas, or oceans.
A generalization is required:
The child must be able to utilize the description of a harbor to identify many examples of a harbor.
The concept of a harbor is the categorization or a grouping which applies to many kinds of harbors, each of
which is characterized by a sheltered body of water and piers.
Concept formation is a process in which a person interacts with his environment and organizes the
mass of stimuli that he is experiencing. From this organization, he interprets the environment and act on the
basis of this interpretation.
Concept cannot be learned without some relevant experience with the phenomena which are to be
conceptualized. Concept Formation of the Inferential/Influential Person To acquire a concept, a person must
abstract or infer from sensory data and his experiences.
The kinds of concept children develop will be limited by the kinds of experiences that are available to
them.
Concepts are learned through organized experiences and from casual, everyday experiences.
The child’s interpretation of new concepts will be influenced strongly by the concepts he had already
developed formally and informally.
Cognitive process is an important aspect in personality. Concepts are not learned in isolation; they are
not discrete entities attached to the personality of the child. Each learned concepts becomes the learner’s way
of depicting his world, each is a representation of what for him are known objects, and examples of the
unknown. And in turn, each learned concepts becomes his way of life, a way of acquiring, a way of
understanding, and a way of reacting.
A child, whose concept of a teacher is defined as harsh, demanding, punitive and unsympathetic, will
be different from a child who sees the teacher as helpful, kind, sympathetic and rewarding. Different
knowledge of concepts discriminates not only the mental activity of an individual from another individual,
but how he accept and reacts to such concepts which in the long run becomes part of his behavioral DNA and
personality.
Types of Personality
Introverts
Extroverts
Receptive type
Exploitative type
Hoarding type
Marketing type
Productive type
Endomorphic
Mesomorphic
Ectomorphic
“A force attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.”
- is a generalization stating the proportionality between three concepts – force, mass and distance.
Associative thinking is developed by attracting responses to certain stimuli called cues, so that when
cues on stimuli occur, the appropriate response to them is made easily and quickly.
Associative thinking is the ability to draw associations and patterns across elements.
Association by memory
Association by color
Association by ideas
Association by patterns
LESSON 5
Learning and the Attitudinal Processes 1 and 2
INTRODUCTION
We often notice how a person acts affable in front of a friend while civil to a stranger. The behavior
we often display or conceal when we encounter someone is associated with the liking or disliking of that
person. How we perceive someone or something defines our actions and behaviors towards it. It is often our
reaction after realization from the acquisition of a particular concept.
I. Attitude: Definition
An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, events, activities,
ideas, or just about anything in your environment (the attitude object). Prominent psychologist Gordon Allport
once described attitudes as “the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social
psychology.”
Attitude can be formed from a person’s past and present. Attitude is also measurable and changeable
as well as influencing the person’s emotion and behavior.
Attitude maybe:
As oriented process – processes assumed to be operative within the individual; these processes
influence his behavior in specifiable ways.
As inferred processes – this relationship between the predisposition to action and particular ways of
behaving is an important one.
An attitude is a state or condition of the organism which predisposes the individual to be motivated in
specific ways, but is not an existing motive; while motive is generally more specific than attitude.
Characteristics of Attitude
Theories of an Attitude:
Learning Theory
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) – some attitudes may associate a particular sensory
experience with an emotional reaction.
Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Iskinner) – an individual is reinforced for holding and voicing
certain attitudes.
Observational learning – some attitudes are acquired form observing people’s actions and learn
from them.
Consistency Theory
Balance theory – involves the relationship between a person and the two attitude objects. In
general, a balanced state is one in which the elements fit together harmoniously.
Cognitive Dissonance theory (Leon Festinger) – the focus of this theory is on the individuals,
who are assumed to strive for harmony among elements in their cognitive or thought.
Cognitive-Response Theory – attitude formation or change by how the recipient of message deals with
new information. It emphasizes the role of the person’s cognitive organization in determining
Attitude learning processes and the various attitudinal influences are categorized into four:
V. Influences: Definition
Influences are the effects of a person or situation’s actions and behaviors to another person or
situation’s actions and behaviors. Influences may be bad or good. Social influences occur when one’s
emotions, opinions, or behaviors are affected by others. Social influences take many forms and can be seen in
conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing.
Compliance – is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others.
Identification – is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone that is liked.
Internalization – is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups which
are influential to the individual.
Conformity – is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief or thinking to align
with those of others or to align with normative standards.
Attitudes are reflected in such words as like and dislike, while values are reflected in such words as
good or bad.
Values
Values, like attitude are presumably learned as ways of obtaining needed satisfaction. The socialization
process of a child insures that learning of certain behaviors by the application of rewards and punishments.
The experimental evidence suggests that the same kinds of influences that affect the acquisition of
values, also affects the acquisition of attitudes.
The child’s initial relations with his/her parents are dependent in character. The infant relies upon
his/her mother to provide him/her with the requisites for the sustenance of life. Obviously, the child cannot be
independent in satisfying his/her own biological needs. Out of this dependency relationship with the mother,
the child typically acquires dependency need, that is, s/he finds relying in his/her mother as a source of need
and satisfaction.
The school, through the teachers, tends to reinforce the general value standard of society. The teacher’s
relationship with the child is similar to that of the parents, in that both parent and teacher are sources of reward
and punishment according to their behavior.
Learning of Values
Some psychologists think values are impossible to teach and it is certainly true that telling kids to be
more honest or diligent or considerate does not work any better that telling adults to be. But if values are
impossible to teach, they are too important to leave a chance
LESSON 6
The Learner and His Environment
INTRODUCTION
“To heredity, the child owes his possibilities. However, to environment, he owes the realization of these
possibilities.”
The learning environment is the place where teaching and learning can take place in the most effective
and productive manner. It consists of the classroom and all the instructional features and non-threatening
classroom climate needed in planning and implementing all teaching and learning activities. It consists of both
physical and psychological environment, that surrounds the learner and that influences his/her learning.
The emotional climate of the home sets the foundation for almost everything the child does. Feelings
of physical safety and emotional security are vitally important for normal child development. When these are
present, children feel free to express themselves and explore their physical, intellectual, and social
environments. When these are absent, the child’s ability to grow (physically, intellectually, and emotionally)
is stifled.
Parental Control
Parental Maturity Demands
Parent-Child Communication
Parental Nurturance
Incidental learning is unintentional or unplanned learning that results from other activities (Kerka,
2000). It occurs for example reading a book for leisure and discovering new words along the way. It happens
in many ways: through observation, repetition, social interaction, and problem solving (Cahoon, 1995; Rogers,
1997); from implicit meanings in a classroom or workplace policies or expectations (Leroux and
Cultural Value – is defined as the individual’s desirable or preferred way of acting or knowing
something that is sustained over time and that governs actions and decisions.
Family Values / Familial Values – are traditional or cultural values, i.e., values passed on from
generation to generation within the families) that pertain to the family’s structure, functions, roles,
beliefs, attitudes, and ideals.
Teachers need to view students as cultural being and embrace student diversity. In doing so, classrooms
that model tolerance and appreciation of student differences should be created.
Peer pressure
Future problems
Risk behaviors
Aggression and prosocial behavior
Sexual promiscuity
VI. Psychological Needs to Relate Others
The need to belong is an intrinsic motivation to affiliate with others and be socially accepted. This
need plays a role in a number of social phenomena such as self-presentation and social comparison.
The need to belong is what drives people to seek out stable, long-lasting relationships with other
individuals. It also motivates them to participate in social activities such as clubs, sports teams, and religious
EDUCATION 802 (Advance Educational Psychology) Page 22
groups, and community organizations. By belonging to a group, they feel as if they are a part of something
bigger and more important that themselves. In Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, belongingness is part
of one of his major needs that motivates human behavior. He believed that the need for belonging help people,
to experience companionship and acceptance through family, friends, and other relationships.
The need to affiliate – is described as the person’s need to feel a sense of involvement and “belonging”
within a social group.
The need to achieve – stresses the importance of personal accomplishment and mastering skills, a
goal that often runs contrary with the need to affiliate.
Researchers found out that there is a strong, positive relationship between students’ level of motivation
and engagement and their perceptions of the classroom environment as being socially supportive. The
perception of a climate of mutual respect is required in order for students to increase their use of effective
studying strategies and increase feelings of confidence about their ability to successfully complete
assignments. Furthermore, when students perceived that they receive emotional support and encouragement
from their teachers and academic support from their peers they are more likely to be on-task in the classroom
and use self-regulated strategies.
Tell students what your expectations are the first day of class.
Come before and stay after class to talk to students.
Create a safe environment for student participation.
Begin teaching the subject matter the first day of the class.
Students working in group perform better on tests, particularly in regard to reasoning and critical
thinking skills (Lord, 2001). Having students with each other is an effective methodology because it forces
students to be active learners and to talk through course concepts in their own words.
LESSON 7
Problem Behavior in the Classroom-Solving Process
INTRODUCTION
Problem behavior of a learner is another crucial task for a teacher since it interferes with his/her
learning. Teachers should at the outset identify and understand the cause or the nature of the problem, because
the “problem child” remains at the classroom even his problem is being treated elsewhere.
Problem behavior is difficult to understand for the reason that it serves as an escape oftentimes of
people from or defense against anxiety. Unconsciously, children and adults alike utilized this behavior as ways
of coping with anxiety or tension. These behaviors are, in some ways, termed “defense mechanism” or “escape
mechanism”.
Problem behavior, most of the time, is produced and aggravated by emotional conflicts. One of the
most common pattern encountered by teachers, is when a student cannot or does not know how to solve his/her
problems, s/he more often results to frustration which reflects to his overall performance inside the academic
venue.
It is obligatory for teachers to understand all of his/her students’ emotional area. But, the so called
“problem child”, who has more than the usual amount of problems and is more severely and is more
EDUCATION 802 (Advance Educational Psychology) Page 24
severely troubled than most children, should be given utmost attention. Many adults, usually, are easily
tempted deal with children’s displaying problem behavior. This direct and drastic treatment such as approach
often does not produce the desired results. There is a better chance of success if the treatment of a problem is
based on understanding of what lies behind the classroom. However, understanding problem behavior is not
as easy as what is supposed to be. Sometimes, it is necessary to call on psychologist or psychiatric experts for
special help.
Problem Behavior is a term used that applies any kind of behavior that creates difficulties or reveals
the presence of difficulties.
Teachers should take responsibility of dealing with the problem behavior, since interferes with both
the teaching and learning processes.
Teachers, with the help of parents, should hand in hand take the time to recognize the nature of such
problem behavior to find adequate solutions.
Teachers should consult to experts, i.e., school guidance counselor, psychologist and the like,
whenever they feel in need of expert help in the treatment of the problem behavior.
Behaviors indicating a student having a problem (the student owns the problem)
A no-problem behavior, or “wala lang” behavior
Student behaviors of the student that have a direct and concrete effect on the teacher, causing the
teacher to own the problem
The resolution can begin at once the owner of the problem is determined. If the student owns the
problem, the teacher can use such as critical, active listening, or door openers to help the student understand
how their behavior is affecting the teacher.
The fourth area of owning the problem is when the students’ behavior causes both the teacher and the student
to own the problem. Problems such as these are usually resolved by one of three methods:
Method I : The teacher wins by using authority and power, and the student losses.
Method II: The student wins and the student losses.
Method III: A preferred method of resolving classroom conflicts is the “No Lose” method. The conflict
is resolved when the teacher actively listens and uses the I-messages until s/he fully hears the student’s
problems and needs.
The following are the six steps involved in using Method III to resolve a conflict:
Step 1. Defining the Problem: The teacher helps an individual student focus on the problem.
Step 2. Generating Possible Solutions: The teacher involves the students in contemplating numerous
possibilities for solving the problem.
Step 3. Evaluating and Deciding on Solutions: With the guidance of the teacher, the students should
assess all possible solutions to determine which can be agreed upon by all involved.
Step 4. Implementing Solutions: Established an agreement as to who will do what and when they will do it
and schedule a meeting to reevaluate the results.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Highly motivated Passive
Active Doubtful
Optimistic Anxious
Consider problems as negative stimuli Inferior
Needed to be addressed by positive response Peer or Group
Withdrawal
Realistic Problem – are problems seeking what is achievable or possible, based on known facts.
Unrealistic Problem – are problems which resemble but do not duplicate “life” conditions of the
situation in which the students were actually placed in a room with full-sized materials.
The school can create problems for children by placing them in situations which arouse their curiosity
provoke their interest and require them to expend effort to attain desires goals.
The school prepares a child for problem-solving by encouraging the development of attitudes
consistent with critical thinking.
The school provides the background of information and knowledge that prepares the child for his
critical analysis and also teaches him ways of seeking out relevant information.
The school may also develop the child’s ability to make and test hypotheses.
The school is appropriately concerns with the development of the child’s ability reason inductively
and deductively.
LESSON 8
Psychological Concepts of the Teaching-Learning Process
INTRODUCTION
Theories of learning are beliefs, policies and procedures, proposed or followed as bases of action.
These are scientifically acceptable general principles or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.
These are also hypotheses assumed for the sake of argument or investigation.
Despite the differences in theoretical perspectives, the basic premises of learning theories are true
to all their perspective. People learn things that are beneficial to them. Sometimes, their behavior changes in
a way that is not helpful to them. Likewise, they learn things that do not help as to advance either as individuals
or as species. Moreover, people are not always aware of what they have learned. Learning is not always
deliberate, and they may not be conscious of what they have learned. Sometimes, they learn some things
without realizing them. They are unaware of what they have learned, or they learn something that they did not
set out to learn.
I. Theory: Definition
A theory is a system of ideas intended to explain something, such as a single or collection of facts
and events of phenomena. It is a general explanation for observation made overtime.
Explaining how something works is important, not only for the sake of knowledge itself.
Explanation can lead to solutions. People cannot fix something if they do not understand what went wrong.
To interfere in the process, they have to understand the process, in all its overwhelming complexities.
One of the essential characteristics of human beings is their need to make sense of the world around
them. If they cannot fit their impressions of the universe into some meaningful framework, they become
overwhelmed by anxiety, and panic. It is quite that this requirement is related to a basic need to avoid danger
and make the environment safe, but it may be a way of dealing with distracting stimuli in order to be able to
concentrate on making the decisions and carrying on the actions needed for everyday existence.
Indeed, many findings of behavioral scientists are contrary to our ideas of “common sense”. Like
scientists in the natural and physical fields, psychologists also become skeptical. They have had to be
suspicious of the simple obvious explanations of human behavior. With these suspicions, they are forced to
find answer with a great deal of curiosity resulting to the development of such theoretical concepts.
Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement – desired, follow-up stimuli added to strengthen a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement – inhibiting follow-up stimuli withdrawn to strengthen a behavior.
Approaches in Teaching
Thematic Approach – is a way of teaching and learning, whereby many areas of the curriculum are
connected together and integrated within the theme.
Discovery Approach (Jerome S. Bruner) – is a technique that encourages students to take a more
active role in their learning process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designated
to introduce a general concept.
The Discovery Method refers to how much guidance the teachers should give their students. There
are three levels of guidance in teaching:
Cognitive Approach (John Dewey) – also known as “Practical Approach” posits “Learning by doing”.
Teacher-Centered Approaches
Objectivism – posited that learning assumes that knowledge can be transferred from teachers or
transmitted by technologies and acquired by learners.
Instructivism – stresses the importance of goals and objectives that exist apart from the learner.
Behaviorism – is a world view that operates the principle of stimulus response.
Cognitivism – paradigm essentially argues that “black box” of the mind should be opened and
understood.
Student-Centered Approaches
Classroom management, often called classroom discipline has been a priority of teachers for nearly
40 years, or for as long as there have been opinion surveys of educational priorities. Although there is no
agreed-upon definition of classroom management, the framework offered by Evertson and Weintein states
that classroom management has two distinct purposes: “it not only seeks to establish and sustain an orderly
environment so students can engage in meaningful academic learning, it also aims to enhance students’ social
and moral growth.
It is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers. Once a teacher loses control
of their classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for them to regain that control. From student’s
perspective, effective classroom management involves clear communication of behavioral and academic
expectations as well as cooperative learning environment. Classroom management is closely linked to issues
of motivation, discipline and respect.
A teacher is a person who provides education for students. The first and most important role that
teachers play in every student’s life id to educate them. Understanding a particular concept of any subject is a
very easy job, but it gets tougher when it has to be made simple for kids to understand. They make education
a simpler process by explaining the subject in literal ways, using examples and demonstrations. To teach a
child completely new and unheard topic, so that s/he remembers it and learns to apply it in the right manner
is a very difficult task.
The second importance of teachers in the students’ lives is to inspire them. Teachers motivate
students deal with changes in their lives, since most of the times; parents fail to understand specific needs of
their own children. Teachers become an inspiration to students in self-improving and bringing out their very
best in every phase of their lives.
Refers to situations where teacher expectancies of the students’ performances become self-
fulfilling prophesy; students perform better or worse that other students based on the way their
teacher expects them to perform.
One way to look at this idea is to say that “they get what they expect” and if they expect
something to happen; their expectation will tend to make it so.
Rosenthal explains the differences in term of teachers’ expectations. When teachers expect greater
intellectual development from certain children, these children did show greater intellectual development.
Rosenthal defines four (4) key factors whish drive this Pygmalion Effect:
Climate Factor: teacher who expect more certain students tend to create a warmer climate for those
children, both verbally and non-verbally (for example, they will smile more often at them).
Input Factor: teachers will tend to teach more material to children they think are smarter.
Response Opportunity Factor: children who are expected to bloom academically get more chance to
respond.
Feedback Factor: if more is expected of a child. S/he gets praised more when s/he is right but gets
more differentiated feedback when s/he makes a mistake. Children who are not expected to perform
get less feedback when they are wrong because teachers would seem to think that the children in
question would not understand the correction and so the teachers spend less time trying to correct them.
The teacher should not insult student in class because of his inability to give correct answer.
EDUCATION 802 (Advance Educational Psychology) Page 39
The teacher should never enter the class under the influence of liquor.
The teacher should make the learning experience of the students enjoyable, fruitful and meaningful.
S/he should be firm, gentle in matters of discipline.
He should never allow him/herself to be influenced by any considerations other than merit in the
evaluation of students’ work.
He should always maintain his/her dignity and self-respect when dealing with students.
LESSON 10
Discipline and the Learning Situation
INTRODUCTION
“Everyone will experience the consequences of his own acts. If his acts are right, he’ll get good
consequences; if they’re not, he’ll suffer for it.”
Classroom discipline and management causes the most fear and consternation in new teachers.
However, this is a skill that is not only learned but practiced daily. An effective discipline plan that is clearly
understood by students, teachers and parents can lead to the students’ success. It is imperative that students
fully understand behavioral expectations and consequences very early in the educational experience.
Establishing an effective discipline plan will help ensure order and maintain the instructional integrity of the
The use of proximity control – simply moving to the student who is off task – can be effectively
accomplished without a break in instruction. If these subtle efforts do not produce results, seat relocation may
correct the behavior.
I. Discipline: Definition
The word discipline comes from three Latin words, diciplina (instruction), discipulus (pupil) and
discere (“to learn”). In its original sense, discipline is the systematic instruction to given disciples to train
them as students in a craft or trade, or any other activity which they supposed to perform or to follow a
particular code of conduct or order.
Discipline is the process by which acceptable impulses, desires and behaviors are checked or
discouraged. In the classroom, it refers to the teaching-learning environment to maximize learning.
II. Discipline: Styles
Teacher-Imposed Discipline
In structured situation, students learn some of the techniques and attitudes that are necessary
to maintain the social or interpersonal “structure”. They also learn to enjoy some of the
security and stability that develops when the structure is largely created and maintain by the
teacher.
Group-Imposed Discipline
From the very beginning of school, the peer group plays an important role in socializing the
child. With respect to formation of the children’s and adolescent’s groups, adults are inclined
to take one or two courses:
Either to ignore young people’s tendencies to develop their own standards of
behavior and to enforce their own discipline.
To prevent the formation of groups on the grounds that they often defy and resist
adult authority and control.
Self-Imposed Discipline
The important thing to keep in mind is that the ultimate goal is self-discipline. When children
have learned to respond to adult direction, they have successfully passed-through one stage
of social and emotional maturity.
Task-Imposed Discipline
EDUCATION 802 (Advance Educational Psychology) Page 41
It is based on positive motivation. Individual must somehow see the task as important to
their self concept as a part of their perceived selves.
III. Punishment: Definition
Causes of Misbehavior
Boredom
Release of frustration and tension
Desire for attention, recognition and status
Classroom Control
Most beginner teacher does not have enough experience to develop and effective behavior repertory,
and they find that problems relating to discipline are major source of anxiety. Discipline is one of the major
differences between new teachers and experienced teachers however, is that the better are less concerned about
problem of the discipline and are more concerned about ways of improving their general effectiveness as
teachers.
LESSON 11
Psychological Services
INTRODUCTION
In all levels of the child educative process, s/he, from to time, faces apprehensions, concerns, fears
and problems. With every phase of the learner’s journey finding solutions, s/he needs someone whom they
can be treated with special attention. S/he is someone who will listen, understand and may help the learner in
tackling the problem which is causing him/her so much of the anxieties that weakens their ability to learn.
Schools are unable to give to give the needed individual attention to each student.
Schools are overcrowded and individual attention to students is getting more difficult to most schools.
Most teachers can quickly identify the types of students, if you pain attention in your school, then
you would have noticed this too.
Basically there are three types of students among gifted or honor students:
First, there are the really smart kids who quickly learn new concepts, vocabulary and material.
Second, there are good students who have good memory.
Third, there are good students who are hard workers.
The trick to teaching students is to address the students’ shortcomings on an individual basis.
Every student needs special and individual attention at some time or other during his/her educational
career. Some need it frequently. Sometimes, students need to talk to someone about personal problem that is
causing too much anxiety that their ability to learn is momentarily impaired.
Individual guidance is necessary to meet individual differences in abilities, capabilities, interest and
aptitude and desired.
School Psychologist – perform tasks related to diagnosis and remediation of learning process that may
be have been manifest in lack of educational or personal-social adjustment. S/he is skilled in the use
or psychological test for diagnosis.
School Nurse – provides information regarding the physical health of a pupil in order that teachers,
parents, and administrators may better understand the child.
School Physician – serves as medical consultant and examines students. S/he is more concerned with
preventive rather than s/he is with therapeutic measures. Among his/her duties are the prescription of
inoculations, advice to the nurse, and acting as a referral source.
Psychiatrist – is a doctor specialist in psychiatry, the branch of medicine which deals with mental and
emotional problems.
Teachers – are regarded as guidance workers. S/he facilitates learning among students and possibly
increases the holding powers of schools and minimizes dropouts.
Religious Leader – guides students in their spiritual and moral needs and problems. S/he may be a
nun or a priest, a pastor, or a minister.
V. Educational Psychology and Guidance
Educational psychology refers to that area of specialization in psychology that focuses on the
application of psychological principles and theories of teaching-learning situation. In a more limited game,
guidance utilizes these principles and theories to enhance learning for the total development of the learners.
With these perspectives, guidance is seen as part of the educational psychology.
Literally guidance means “to direct”, “to point out”, and “to show the path”. It is the assistance or
helped rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to solve certain major problems
of the individual, i.e. educational, vocational, and personal, etc.
Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept, guidance is concerned with the optimal
development of the individual. As a process, guidance helps the individual in self understanding
(understanding one’s strengths, limitations, and other resources) and in self-direction (ability to solve
problems, make choices and decision on one’s own). The terms “guidance” and “counseling” have been
loosely or interchangeably used. Guidance is a term which is broader than counseling and it includes
counseling as one of its services.
Principles of Guidance
Holistic development of individual : guidance needs to be provided in the context of total
development of personality.
LESSON 12
Measurement and Evaluation in School
INTRODUCTION
Evaluation is the process in making judgments to be used as basis for planning. It consists of
establishing goals, collecting evidence concerning growth towards goals, making judgments about the
evidence and revising procedures and goals in the light of judgments. It is for improving the product, the
process and even the goals in themselves. It is the process of determining to what extent the educational
objectives are being realized.
Summative Evaluation
Examines the effects or outcomes of some object
Types of Summative Evaluation
Outcome Evaluation
Impact Evaluation
Cost-Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit Analysis
Secondary Analysis
Characteristics of Evaluation
Validity
A valid evaluation is one which actually tests what is set out to test.
Reliability
The reliability is a measure of consistency with which the questions test or examination
produces the same result under different but comparable conditions.
Instructional
Objectives
Learning Evaluation
Experience
Decision-Based
Value-Based
Naturalistic Approach
V. Types of Test
Types of test according to Functions
Psychological Test
Achievement Test
- Teacher-Made Test
- Oral Examination
- Essay Examination
Types of test according to Scoring
Objective Test
- Multiple Choice
- True or False
- Filling the Blank
- Arranging in Chronological Order
- Identification
- Matching Type
Types of test based on where test is performed
Types of test according to how responses are made
VI. Grades and Grading System
Grades are symbols summarizing the extent of change in any student, differentiating individual
performances among students, or the total progress of a student in a course or subject.
LESSON 13
The Teacher and the Improvement of Educational Practice
INTRODUCTION
An effective teacher must possess three characteristics: good classroom management skills, mastery
of subject matter taught, positive expectations for student success. The interplay of these make up the
improvement of educational practices for real teacher would always think of something that would make their
students excel anytime and anywhere.
2. Events in the classroom happen simultaneously. Teachers, aside from their usual teaching loads have
other activities that might happen at the same time.
EDUCATION 802 (Advance Educational Psychology) Page 53
3. Classroom events should be dealt with immediately, and require quick thinking.
4. The events in a classroom can be unpredictable, and must be handled appropriately.
5. Classrooms are constantly under the public eye.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
MODULES
UNPUBLISHED THESES
JOURNALS
www.psychologytoday.com
www.ehow.com www.simplypsychology.com
www.generalpsychology.com www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com www.wordpress.com
OTHER REFERENCES