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The term Beam refers to a slender bar that carries transverse loading;
that is, the bar is subjected to loads perpendicular to their longitudinal
axis.
In order to properly design a beam, it is important to know the variation
of internal shear and moment along the axis in order to find its points
where these values are a maximum.

Fig 1: Statically determinate beam

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Statically determinate Beam

1. Simple Beam: A simple beam is supported by a hinged reaction at
one end and a roller support at the other, but is not
otherwise restrained.
2. Cantilever Beam: A simple beam is supported at one end only, with a
suitable restrained to prevent rotation of that end.
3. Overhanging Beam: An overhanging beam is supported by a hinged
and a roller reaction, with either or both ends
extending beyond the support.
These beams are all statically determinate, their reactions can be
determined directly from the equations of static equilibrium.
Statically indeterminate Beam
1. Propped beam,
2. The fixed ended or restrained beam, and
3. The continuous beam

Fig 2: Statically
indeterminate beam

All these beams have at least one more reactive element than is
absolutely necessary to support them. These beams are all statically
indeterminate; the presence of these redundant supports requires the
use of additional equations obtained from considering the elastic
deformations of the beam.

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Loads Applied:
1. Concentrated load (or Point Load)
2. Distributed load
It may be distributed uniformly over the entire length, or over part of the
length. Distributed loads may also be uniformly varying or non-uniform. In a
uniformly varying or triangular load, the intensity of loading increases or
decreases at a constant rate; this condition might result from water pressure
acting on the face of a dam or from the dumping of a pile of sand. The
loading may also be non-uniform resulting from haphazard piling.

Shear and Moment

Fig 3: Equilibrium of
segments to left and right
of any exploratory
section a-a.

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Consider a simple beam shown of length L that carries a concentrated

load of P and is held in equilibrium by reactions R1 and R2. For the time
being, neglect the mass of the beam itself and consider only the effect
of the load P. Assume that the beam is cut at a-a section a distance of x
from the left support. The free body diagram of the left portion in fig. 3b
shows that the externally applied load is R1. To maintain equilibrium in
this segment of the beam, the fibers in the exploratory section a-a must
supply the resisting forces necessary to satisfy the static equilibrium.
Since the external load is vertical, so the condition ∑ Fx = 0 (the x-
axis is horizontal) is automatically satisfied.
To satisfy ∑Fy = 0, the vertical unbalance caused by R1 requires the
fibres in section a-a to create a resisting force Vr called the resisting
shear force. The net vertical unbalance V (which is equal and opposite
to resisting shearing force) would be found from the summation of
their vertical components of external loads. The net vertical unbalance
(parallel to any exploratory section a-a) is defined as the shearing
force in the beam. It is denoted by V and may be determined from the
summation of the vertical components of the external loads acting on

either side of the section. This definition of shearing force (also

called vertical shear or just shear) is expressed mathematically as

L indicates the left portion of the

beam segment

The resisting shear Vr set up by the fibres in any section is always equal
but oppositely directed to the shearing force V. In computing V, upward
acting forces or loads are considered as positive i.e. a positive shearing
force tends to move the left segment upward with respect to the right,
and vice versa.

For complete equilibrium of the free body diagram, the summation of

the moments must also be balanced. R1 and Vr are equal and opposite,
thereby producing a couple M that is equal to R1x and is called the

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bending moment because it tends to bend the beam. The fibers in

the exploratory section a-a must create a numerically equal resisting
moment Mr that acts shown in the fig.

Bending moments that

tend to bend a beam
element concave upward
(the beam ‘‘smiles’’) is
positive.

Bending moment is defined as the summation of moments about the

centroidal axis of any selected section of all the loads either to the left
or to the right side of the section.

The definition of shear force and bending moment may be summarized

mathematically as

Upward acting external forces cause positive bending moment with

respect to any section; downward acting external forces cause negative
bending moment regardless of whether they act to the left or the right of
the section.

In which positive effects are produced by upward forces and negative

effects by downward forces.

Summarizing the sign conventions we have presented, we state:

The shear V and the bending moment M at a given point of a beam are
said to be positive when the internal forces and couples acting on each
portion of the beam are directed as shown in Fig. 4a. These conventions
can be more easily remembered if we note that

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Fig 4: Sign convention for shear and

bending moment.

1. The shear at any given point of a beam is positive when the external
forces (loads and reactions) acting on the beam tend to shear off the
beam at that point as indicated in Fig. 4b.
2. The bending moment at any given point of a beam is positive when
the external forces acting on the beam tend to bend the beam at that
point as indicated in Fig. 4c.

Problem:
Write shear and moment equations for the beam loaded as
shown in the fig. and sketch shear and moment diagram.

∑MR1= 0, -(20x5)x2.5 + R2x10 - 30x14 = 0, R2 = 67 kN

∑MR2= 0, -(20x5)x7.5 + R1x10 + 30x4 = 0, R1 = 63 kN

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The section in the beam at which the loading conditions change are called
change of load points and are designated by the letters A, B, C, and D.

(a) (b)

(d)
(c)

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For Section AB (0 < x < 5m):

……….(a)

……….(b)
For Section BC (5m < x < 10m):
……….(c)

……….(d)
For Section CD (10m < x < 14m):
……….(e)

……….(f)

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Shear and Moment Diagram

Shear and Moment diagrams are merely the graphical visualization of the
shear and moment equations plotted on V-x and M-x axes, usually located
below the loading diagram.

 The highest and lowest points on the moment diagram always

corresponds to sections of zero shear. The value of x making M maximum
can be found by differentiating M with respect to x and equating the result
to zero. This result will be the shear equation. Thus the maximum or
minimum moment corresponds to the section of zero shear.

 The value of x corresponds to the section of zero bending moment

is called point of inflection. At this point the beam suffer no bending
deformation and are consequently straight. When such a point lies
between zones of positive and negative moment, it is known as point of
inflection. It might also be termed as that point on a beam where the
curvature reverses itself.

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Problem:
Write shear and moment equations for the beam loaded as
shown in the fig. and sketch shear and moment diagram.

Solution:
For Section AB (0 < x < 6 ft):

For Section BC:

For Section CD:

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Observe that the maximum shear and the maximum bending moment
always occurs at the restrained end of a cantilever beam. An exception to
this rule is possible if some of the loads are upward and the other loads
downward.

Problem:
Write shear and moment equations for the beam loaded as
shown in the fig. and sketch shear and moment diagram.

Solution:

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Relation Among Load, Shear and Moment

Consider a simple beam shown of length L that carries a

uniform load of w (N/m) throughout its length and is held
in equilibrium by reactions R1 and R2. Assume that the
beam is cut at point distance of x from the left support
and the portion of the beam to the right of C be removed.
The portion removed must then be replaced by vertical
shearing force V together with a couple M to hold the left
portion of the bar in equilibrium under the action of R1
and wx. The couple M is called the resisting moment or
moment and the force V is called the resisting shear or
shear. The sign of V and M are taken to be positive if
they have the senses indicated above.

The vertical shear at C in the figure shown in previous section is taken as

where R1 = R2 = wL/2

And the bending moment as

If we differentiate M with respect to x:

thus,

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Thus, the rate of change of the bending moment with respect to x is

equal to the shearing force, or the slope of the moment diagram at
the given point is the shear at that point.

Now differentiate V with respect to x gives

Thus, the rate of change of the shearing force with respect to x is

equal to the load or the slope of the shear diagram at a given point
equals the load at that point.

The free-body diagram of an

infinitesimal element of the beam,
located at the distance x from the
left end, is shown in Fig. 5(b). In
addition to the distributed load
w(x), the segment carries a shear
force and a bending moment at
each end, which are denoted by V
and M at the left end and by
V+dV and M+dM at the right end.
The infinitesimal differences dV
and dM represent the changes that
occur over the differential length
dx of the element.
Fig 5:
The force equation of equilibrium for the element is
V + wdx – (V + dV) = 0
Or, dV = wdx -------- (a)

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Integrating equ. (a) between any two points 1 and 2, we write

and

Because dx is infinitesimal, the last term can be dropped (this is not an

approximation), yielding
-------- (b)
Integrating equ. (b) between any two points 1 and 2, we write

The force equation of equilibrium

for the element is

Or,

The moment equation of equilibrium

yields

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Properties of Shear And Moment Diagrams

The following are some important properties of shear and moment
diagrams:
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section
is equal to the moment at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at
that point.
3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at
that point.
4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in
reference to property number 2, that when the shear (also the slope
of the moment diagram) is zero, the tangent drawn to the moment
diagram is horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is
concave upward.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is
concave downward.

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Without writing shear and moment equations, draw the shear

and moment diagrams for the beams specified in the following
problems. Give numerical values at all change of loading
positions and at all points of zero shear.

Problem:
Without writing shear and moment equations for the beam
loaded as shown in the fig. and sketch shear and moment diagram.

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Finding the Load & Moment Diagrams with Given Shear

Diagram
In the following problem, draw moment and load diagrams
corresponding to the given shear diagrams. Specify values at all
change of load positions and at all points of zero shear.

Problem:
Shear diagram as shown in Fig.

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Problem:
Shear diagram as
shown in Fig.

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