BE8261 - BEEIE Lab Manual For II Sem Mech/ Aero

ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Accreited by NBA & NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
NH- 47, Salem Main Road, Pallakkapalayam, Komarapalayam Tk, Namakkal District- 637303, Tamilnadu
LABORATORY OBSERVATION BOOK

BE8261- BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING LABORATORY
B.E- Mechanical & Aeronautical Engineering- II Semester
Anna University- Regulation: 2017
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Prepared by
Mr. R.RAJARAJAN, M.E., (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor/ EEE
Approved by
Dr. G. NALLAKUMARASAMY, M.Tech., Ph.D
HOD - Mech
SRET
Publications
Group Institutions
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KOMARAPALAYAM
BE8261 - BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND

INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING LABORATORY
II Semester – B.E (AERO & MECH)
Manual
Student Name
Roll No
Department
Year/ Semester
Section
Excel Engineering College
Vision
 To create competitive human resources in the field of engineering for the benefit
of society to meet the global challenges.
Mission
 To provide the conducive ambience for better learning and to bring creativity in
the students.
 To develop sustainable environment for innovative learning to serve the needy.
 To meet global demands for excellence in technical education.
 To train young minds with values, culture, integrity, innovation and leadership.
Vision
 To create competitive man power in the field of mechanical engineering,
for the advantage of mankind.
Mission
 To create a conducive learning environment to make students as
competent engineers.
 To nurture the entrepreneurial ability among students.
 To maintain sustainable development for creative learning to serve the
engineering society.
 To inculcate human values and sensitivity.
3
EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Programme Educational Objectives (PEO’s)
I. Have a sound knowledge in mathematical and mechanical engineering aspects for solving
engineering problems.
II. Expertise in the areas of design, thermal, materials and manufacturing.
III. Practice their profession with good communication, leadership, ethics and social responsibility.
Programme Outcomes (PO’s)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and resear ch
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Programme Specific Outcomes (PSO’s)
1. Ability to apply their knowledge to design and analysis by using software tools.
2. Engage them professionally in industries or as entrepreneurs in the field of manufacturing and
design. 4
Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ASSESSMENT OF ATTAINMENT OF COURSE OUTCOMES
Course Code : BE8261

Course Name : Basic Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering Laboratory
Faculty Name : R.RAJARAJAN
Academic Year : 2018- 19
Class : I Year Mech- "A & B" Section- II- Semester
Regulation : R-2017 ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI
After the completion of this course, students should be able to [Blooms Taxonomy]
C116.1 Ability to determine the speed characteristic of different electrical machines
C116.2 Ability to design simple circuits involving diodes and transistors
C116.3 Ability to use operational amplifiers
Expected Course outcome and Program Outcome Mapping

3/2/1 indicates of strength of Correlation) 3- High 2 - Medium 1- Low
CO/PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
C116.1 3
C116.2 3
C116.3 3
C116 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tools for Course Outcome Assessment

Direct Tools Indirect Tools
1. Internal Assessement [20%] Course End Survey [20%]
1 Laboratory Exercise
2 Viva Voce
3 Model laboratory Exam
2.University Results Assessement [80%]
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BE8261 – Basic Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering Laboratory
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE

ATTENDANCE:
If you absent for a lab class then you have lost several things to learn. Laboratory should
be treated as temple, which will decide your life. So don’t fail to make your presence with your
record notebook having completed experiments, observation with completed experiments, day’s
experiment particulars with required knowledge about it and stationeries.
MAKING CONNECTIONS:
 Get circuit diagram approval from your staff in charge.
 Go to the respective worktable and start to give connection as per the circuit diagram
from source side.
 Make series circuit connections before the parallel circuits like voltmeter connections.
 Before switch on the power, get circuit connection approval from the staff in charge.
CALCULATION:
 Calculate the required quantities by suitable formulae and tabulate them with units.
 Draw the necessary graphs and write the result with reference.
 Get verification of observation and calculation from your staff in charge.
RECORD:
Record is show the equipment’s and your performance. It will be very useful for future
reference. So keep it as follows.
 Enter the things in the record notebook those have been written in your observation.
 Units should be written for all quantities.
 Draw necessary graphs and complete the record before coming to the next lab class.
 Don’t forget to write the theory with precaution and inference of each experiment.
SAFETY RULES
 Please don’t touch any live parts.

 Please don’t work bare footed.
 Never use an electrical tool near water.
 Never use an electrical tool that has fallen into water.
EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, Komarapalayam

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 Don’t carry unnecessary item with you during performance (like water bottle, bags etc)
 Before connecting any leads/wires makes sure power is switch off.
 In case of emergency, push the nearby red color emergency switch of any panel or
immediately call the laboratory staff.
 In case of electricity fire, never put water on it as it will further worse the condition; use
the class C fire extinguisher.
GENERAL
1. THINK SAFETY. Every machine in this lab is potentially lethal. Be aware of hazards
and use common sense. Don’t be afraid to ask questions. Your personal safety is always
the most important consideration.
2. FAMILIARIZE yourself with the specific safety rules concerning the machine you are
running.
3. DO NOT leave any running machine or experimental apparatus unattended.
4. NO HORSEPLAY.
5. NEVER put your hands into any mold or die while the machine is under power (this
includes air and electricity).
6. ALWAYS lock out (turn OFF the electricity to the machine and place a lock on the
circuit breaker panel with a sign that work is being done) any machine before working on
it.
7. If any machine is not functioning properly, shut it down and seek assistance at once.
8. DO NOT attempt to repair any machine yourself unless you are authorized by lab
supervisor to do so.
9. DO NOT attempt to repair any cable yourself unless you are authorized by lab supervisor
to do so.
10. DO NO ATTEMPT to lift or move anything beyond your capabilities - stop and get help.
11. NEVER WORK ALONE.
12. KNOW the location of the emergency stops, circuit breakers, and hydraulic controls and
how to use them.
13. DO NOT force any part of the machine beyond the limits that are specified by the
manufacturer.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND LTPC
BE8261 INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING 0042
LABORATORY
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (as per Anna University Syllabus- Reg- 2017)
1. Load test on separately excited DC generator

2. Load test on Single phase Transformer
3. Load test on Induction motor
4. Verification of Circuit Laws
5. Verification of Circuit Theorems
6. Measurement of three phase power
7. Load test on DC shunt motor.
8. Diode based application circuits
9. Transistor based application circuits
10.Study of CRO and measurement of AC signals
11.Characteristics of LVDT
12.Calibration of Rotometer
13.RTD and Thermistor
Minimum of 10 Experiments to be carried out:- TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

1. Swinburne’s test on DC machine.
8
INDEX
Marks
S. No. Date Name of Experiments Page No. Signature
Obtained
Load test on separately excited DC
01 11
generator
Load test on Single phase
02 19
Transformer
03 Load test on Single Induction motor 27

Measurement of three phase power
04 59
by using two Wattmeter method
05 Load test on DC shunt motor 63
06 Verification of Circuit Laws 33
Verification of Circuit Theorems

a) Thevenin’s Theorem 39
b) Norton’s Theorem 45
07
c) Superposition Theorem 49
d) Maximum Power Transfer 55
Theorem
Diode based application circuits

a) Single phase Half wave 71
08
rectifier
b) Single phase wave rectifier 77
Transistor based application

circuits.
a) Characteristics of common
Base Configuration 87
09
b) Characteristics of common
Emitter Configuration 81
c) Characteristics of common
Collector Configuration 93
10 Characteristics of LVDT 103
11 Calibration of Rotometer 107
12 RTD and Thermistor 110

Study of CRO and measurement of
13 97
AC signals
Swinburne’s test on DC machine.
14 (Content Beyond Syllabus) 118

9
Circuit Diagram for open circuit and Load Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Shunt Generator

10
Expt.No:1 Date:
LOAD TEST ON SEPARATELY EXCITED

DC SHUNT GENERATOR
AIM:
To draw the load characteristics of Separately Excited DC Shunt Generator by
conducting Open Circuit test and Load test.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO. APPARATUS REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1 Ammeter MC (0-2)A 1
2 Ammeter MC (0-20)A 1
3 Voltmeter MC (0-50)V 1
4 Voltmeter MC (0-300)V 1
5 Rheostat Wire wound 300 ,1.7A 1
6 Rheostat Wire wound 300 ,2A 1
7 Resistive load - 3KW 1
8 Tachometer Digital - 1
9 Connecting wires - - Req
FORMULAE:
1. Eg = V + Ia Ra, Volts.
2. Ra =Va/ Ia , Ohms.
3. Critical field resistance = ΔE0 / ΔIf
Where,
Eg - Generated emf at load condition, (Volts).
V - Terminal voltage, (Volts).
Ia - Armature current, (Amps).
Ra - Armature resistance, (Ohms).
Va - Armature Voltage,(Volts).
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All DPST switches should be kept open.

2. Motor field rheostat should be in minimum resistance position and the
armature rheostat should be in maximum resistance position.
11
MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE
MODEL GRAPH:
OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Air gap line
Magnetization curve
E0(V)
Residual
Volatge
If(A)
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Armature reaction
drop
Eg, V IavsEg
Armature resistance
(V)
ILvs V drop
Ia,IL(A)
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3. Potential divider should be in minimum voltage position.

4. All the switches in the resistive load should in OFF position.
5. In the measurement of armature resistance, armature rheostat should be in
maximum resistance position.
PROCEDURE:
I. Open circuit test:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Close DPST switch 1.
3. Start the motor by gradually reducing the armature rheostat.
4. Bring the Motor-Generator set to its rated speed by adjusting motor field
rheostat.
5. Close DPST switch 2.
6. Vary the potential divider step by step and note the corresponding field current
(If) and Open circuit voltage (Eo) indicated by ammeter and voltmeter
respectively.
7. Repeat the same procedure till the voltmeter reads rated voltage of DC Shunt
Generator.
II. Load test:

1. Now close DPST switch 3.
2. Vary the resistive load and note down the corresponding load current (IL) and
terminal voltage (V) Indicated by the respective ammeter and voltmeter.
3. Repeat the same procedure till the load current reaches rated value.
III. Measurement of armature resistance (Ra):

2. Close the DPST switch.
3. Vary armature rheostat and take different values of armature voltage (Va) and
armature current (Ia) indicated by the respective voltmeter and ammeter.
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TABULATION:
I. Open circuit test:
Sl. Field current Open Circuit Voltage
No
If (A) Eo (V)
II. Load test:
Terminal Armature
S. Armature Generated EMF
Voltage (VL) in Current (Ia) in
No Resistance IaRa (Eg) in Volts
Volts Amps
14
THEORY:
In separate excitation, a separate DC source is needed for excitation purposes

only and is obviously inconvenient. The separately excited machine is most flexible
as full and independent control of both armature and field circuits. Permanent magnet
machines also fall in to this category.
The consideration of the magnetization characteristic will set the stage for
determining the performance of DC machines. A typical magnetization characteristic
is shown in Fig.
Air gap line
E0(V)
Residual
Volatge
If (A)
It is known as open circuit characteristic (OCC) because of the method by

which it is determined. It exhibits all the important characteristics of the
magnetization curve of iron, modified by the presence of an air gap in the magnetic
circuit.
In conducting the OCC test, field current must be raised gradually only in the
forward direction otherwise the curve would exhibit local hysteresis loops. Further, as
the machine would have been previously subjected to magnetization, a small residual
voltage would be present with field unexcited.
The extension of the linear portion of the magnetization curve, shown dotted
in Fig. is known as the air gap line as it represents mainly the magnetic behavior of
the machines air gap, the iron being unsaturated in this region consumes negligible
ampere turns.
15
III. Measurement of armature resistance (Ra):
Sl. Armature Armature Armature resistance

No voltage current
Ra (ohm)
Va (V) Ia(A)
Ra(ave) =
Ra = 1.3 * Ra(ave)
MODEL CALCULATION:
16
APPLICATIONS:
These types of dc generators are generally more expensive than self-excited dc

generators because of their requirement of separate excitation source. Because of that
their applications are restricted. They are generally used where the use of self-excited
generators are unsatisfactory.
 Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are
generally used for testing purpose in the laboratories.
 Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation
in field excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of
dc motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for various applications.
Example- Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What do you mean by separately excited DC Generator?
In a separately excited DC Generator, a separate DC source is needed for
excitation purpose. The separately excited machine is most flexible as full and
independent control of both armature and field circuits.
2. On what occasions DC generators may not have residual flux?

i) The generator may be put for its first operation after its construction.
ii) In previous operation, the generator would have been fully
demagnetized.
3. What are the reasons which cause the terminal voltage of DC Shunt generator to
get decreased as the load current is increased?
i) Armature circuit resistance drop.
ii) Demagnetizing effect / distorting effect.
iii) Weakening of field current.
4. Magnetization characteristic curve of a separately excited DC Generator gives
relation between __________.
(i) V and Ia (ii) Eoand If
(iii) E and Ia (iv) V and If
RESULT:
Thus the load characteristics of DC Separately excited Shunt Generator were drawn
by conducting open circuit test and load test.
17
18
Expt.No:2 Date:
LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

AIM:
To determine the variation of efficiency and voltage regulation of Single phase

transformer for a resistive load by conducting load test.
APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
S.No Name of The Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1. Ammeter MI (0-10) A 2
2. Voltmeter MI (0-300) V 2
3. Wattmeter UPF (300V, 10A) 2
4. Auto Transformer 1 230/(0-270V) 1
5. Resistive load - 3kW 1
6. Connecting wires - - Req
FORMULAE:
1. Percentage efficiency % η = (Output / Input) × 100
= (Ws / Wp) × 100
2. Percentage regulation up = (( oV2– V2) / V2) × 100
3. Percentage regulation down = (( oV2– V2) / oV2) × 100
Wattmeter Multiplication Factor:
1. M.F = (V×I× cos  ) / maximum no. of divisions on the scale.
2. Actual power measured = M.F. × No. of divisions
where,
Vp – Primary voltage, (Volts).
Vs – Secondary voltage, (Volts).
Ip – Primary current, (Amps).
Is – Secondary current, (Amps).
Wp – Primary input power, (Watts)

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MODEL GRAPH:
Percentage Efficiency Vs Percentage Regulation Vs
Output Power: Output Power:
Regulation Up
% Efficiency η
% Regulation Regulation down
Wo (W)
Wo (W)
TABULATION:
Multiplication Factor =
Sl. Vp Ip Wp Vs Is Ws % %
Actual Actual %η Reg. Reg.
No. (V) (A) Div (V) (A) Div
(W)) (W)
Up Down

20
Ws – Secondary output power, (Watts).
oV2 – No-load secondary voltage, (Volts).
V2 – Secondary voltage at load condition, (Volts).
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All DPST switches should be kept open.

2. Single phase auto transformer should be at minimum voltage position.
3. All the switches in single phase variable resistive load should be at OFF position.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Close the DPST switch 1.
3. Adjust single phase auto transformer till the voltage connected across the primary
winding reads rated primary voltage.
4. Note down the corresponding primary current, primary power input and secondary
voltage under no-load condition indicated by the respective meters.
5. Close the DPST switch 2.
6. Measure the secondary voltage, current & power by varying the resistive load .
7. Repeat the same procedure till the secondary load current reaches rated value.
THEORY:
The working principle of a transformer is noted that alternating current in the

primary winding generates alternating flux in the core and all this flux links with the
secondary winding. In practice, all the flux generated by the primary winding does not link
with secondary winding. Some part of the flux produced by the primary completes its path
without linking with the secondary. This flux is the leakage flux.
In a practical transformer however, R1, X1, R2,, X2 are present as well as some core
losses are also present. The transformer draws a small current from the supply to create
magnetic flux in the core. This current is called the magnetizing current of the transformer.
All electrical appliances are designed to operate satisfactorily at constant voltage:

therefore, the transformers from which electric supply is obtained must maintain their output
voltages without variations; the voltage in a transformer on load varies however and it is,
mainly due to its leakage reactance.

21
MODEL CALCULATION:

22
The regulation of a transformer is defined as reduction in magnitude of the terminal

voltage due to load, with respect to the no-load terminal voltage.
│V2 on no load │- │V2 when loaded│

% regulation = _______________________________ x 100
│V2 on no load │
For an ideal transformer, regulation is 0% since voltage drops, due to R1, X1, R2,, X2
are negligible.
For a practical transformer regulation has a +ve value. It can be considered that ,
less regulation is a better regulation . 0% regulation is the best.
APPLICATIONS
Main purpose of the transformer is step UP or step down AC supply. These are used
many application depends on requirement.
1. Regulated Power Supply(RPS) –Step down transformer

2. Potential Transformer (PT) – Step down transformer -Volt meters for measuring high
voltage.
3. Electronics home appliances – Step down transformer.
DISCUSSION QUESTION:
1. What are the typical uses of autotransformer?

(i) To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop.
(ii) As induction motor starters.
(iii) As furnace transformers
(iv) As interconnecting transformers
(v) In control equipment for single phase and 3 phase elective locomotives.

23

24
2. What is the purpose of laminating the core in transformers?

To reduce eddy current loss.
3. What are the functions of no-load current in a transformer?

No-load current produces flux and supplies iron loss and copper loss on no-
load.
4. Can the voltage regulation of a transformer go to negative? If so under what condition?
Yes,at leading power factor.
RESULT:
Thus the variation in the efficiency and regulation of single phase transformer for a
resistive load were determined by conducting the load test.

25
Circuit Diagram for Load Test on Single Phase Induction Motor
Wattmeter
150/ 300V
(0- 10A) 5/ 10A, UPF

MI
Fuse Centrifugal Switch S1 S2 Spring
M L
P Balance
D V Capacitor
C
R1
P
S
(0- 300V)
MI
T
S
R2
Rotor Brake Drum
S1
S2
Fuse
Single Phase Auto transformer Single Phase Induction Motor

(0- 270V)
26
Expt.No:3 Date:
LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
AIM:
To conduct the load test on single-phase capacitor start /capacitor run induction motor
and draw following characteristics,
a) Output Vs Percentage of efficiency
b) Output Vs Speed
c) Output Vs Line current IB
d) Output Vs Slip
e) Output Vs Power factor
f) Mechanical characteristics (Torque Vs Speed)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Ammeter 0 - 20 Amps MI 1
2 0-300 Volts MI 1
Voltmeter
3 Wattmeter 10Amps,300Volts UPF 1
Tachometer
4 - - 1
5 Connecting wires - - few
FORMULAE USED:
2NT
1) Output power Po = Watts
60
2) Input power Pi = W Watts

3) Torque T = S 1  S 2   R  t
2
 9.81 Nm
= 9.81F 1  F 2   rref Nm
Inputpower
4) Power factor Cos  o
VL  IL
120 f
5) Synchronous speed Ns  rpm
p

27
TABULATION:
Model Calculation:

28
Ns  N
6) Percentage of slip S = o  100 %
Ns
Where
F1= S1, F2 = S2 - spring balance readings in Kg

rref - Effective radius of brake drum
R-Radius of brake drum
T – Thickness of belt
N – Actual speed in rpm
f – Frequency of supply voltage
p- Number of poles in the induction motor
W – Wattmeter reading in watts
PRECAUTION:
 The autotransformer should be kept in minimum voltage position.
 The motor is started without any load.
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram and meters are checked for zero
correction.
2. The DPST switch is closed and the supply is switched ON
3. By varying the autotransformer make the voltmeter to read the rated voltage.
4. At no load, note down the spring balance, wattmeter, tachometer, ammeter and
voltmeter readings.
5. Then apply the load in step by step and corresponding readings are noted.
6. The motor is unloaded and the supply is switched OFF.

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MODEL GRAPH:
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Po Vs N
Po Vs %η
%Efficiency
Po Vs lL Te
x t
Po Vs T
Te
t x
Output power in watts

30
RESULT:
Thus the load test on single-phase capacitor start /capacitor run induction motor was
done and the characteristics were drawn.

31
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1. Kirchhoff’s current law:
R1=_____, R2=_____, R3=_____
TABULATION:
THEORETICAL
PRACTICAL VALUES
Voltage VALUES
S.No.
(volts) CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT I =I +I CURRENT CURRENT I =I +I
1 2 3 1 2 3
I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) (mA) I2 (mA) I3 (mA) (mA)

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Expt.No:4 Date:
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S LAW
AIM:
To verify two kirchoff’s law of given network with its theoretical calculation.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO NAME OF THE RANGE/TYPE QUANTITY

APPARATUS
1. Regulated power Supply RPS(0-30)V 1
2. Ammeter (0-25)mA, 2
(0-30)mA 1
3. Voltmeter (0-30)V 3
4. Resistor 100 Ω, 330 Ω, 560 Ω Each one
5. Bread board -- 1
6. Connecting wires -- As required
THEORY:
Kirchhoff’s current law

Kirchoff’s current law states that in a node, Sum of entering current is equal to sum of
leaving current (or) The summation of total current at a junction is equal to zero.
∑ I at junction point=0
Sum of the incoming currents = sum of the outgoing currents.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
In a closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the emfs and the voltage drops is
zero. i.e. the sum of the voltage rises = the sum of the voltage drops.
∑V =0

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
2. Kirchoff’s Voltage law
R1=_____, R2=_____, R3=_____
TABULATION:
PRACTICAL VALUES THEORETICAL VALUES

Voltage
S.No.
(volts) V1 V2 V3 V=V1+V2+V3 V1 V2 V3 V=V1+V2+V3
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)

34
FORMULA’S USED:
1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Req= R2* R3/ (R2+R3) Ω

RT= Req+ R1Ω
I1 = V/ RT mA
I2= I* R2 / (R2+R3) mA
I3= I* R3 / (R2+R3) mA
From KCL
I = I1+ I2 mA
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
RT= R1+R2+R3 Ω
I = V/ RT Amps
V1= IR1Volts
V2= IR2 Volts
V3 = IR3Volts
From KVL,
V = V1+V2+V3 Volts

35
THEORETICAL CALCULATION:

36
PRECAUTION:
1. Ammeter should be connected in series.
2. Voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
3. Voltage and current setting should be zero initially.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the supply, the input voltage is set to the required level.
3. Observe the readings of various meters and note down the values.
4. Same steps are repeated for various input voltages and the corresponding readings are
tabulated.
5. The validity of the laws is verified with the tabulated readings.
RESULT:
Thus the Kirchoff’s law was verified practically for the given network with its
theoretical values.

37
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
V=_____, R1=_____, R2=_____, R3=_____, RL=_____.
Theoretical setup:
Practical Setup:
To Measure Vth:

38
Expt.No:5(a) Date:
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN`S THEOREM
AIM:
To verify the Thevenin’s theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No NAME OF THE RANGE/TYPE QUANTITY

APPARATUS
2. Ammeter (0-10)mA 1
4. Resistor 100Ω,330Ω,560Ω,10 Ω Each One
5. Bread board -- 1
THEORY:
Thevenin’s Theorem
It states that any circuit having number of voltage sources, resistances and open
output terminals can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage
source in series with a resistance, where the value of the voltage source is equal to the open
circuit voltage across the output terminals and the resistance is equal to the resistance seen
into the network across the output terminals.
IL=Vth/ Rth+ RL
Where,
Vth - Thevenin’s Voltage, Voltage across the output terminal

Rth - Thevenin’s Resistance, Resistance across the output terminal.
RL- Load Resistance.

39
To Measure IL:
TABULATION:
Theoretical values Practical values
S.No Thevenin’s Load Thevenin’s Load

Supply Supply
Voltage Vth Current Voltage Current
voltage(V) voltage(V)
(V) IL(mA) Vth(V) IL(mA)

40
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid making loose connections.

2. Readings should be taken carefully without parallax error.
3. Avoid series connection of voltmeters and parallel connections of ammeter.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Open circuit the load resistance and short circuit the voltage source.
3. Calculate theoretically the value of Rth by using series and parallel method.
4. Open the load terminal, and use the voltage source and find the Voltage across R3
resistor, i.e., Vth is calculated by using Ohm’s law. The thevenin’s equivalent circuit
is obtained from this we can obtain the current through the load resistance (IL).
5. Practically the value of Vth is calculated by connecting the voltmeter across the R3
resistor and observes the reading from voltmeter (Vth), and from the thevenin’s
equivalent circuit we can calculate the current passed through the load resistance by
connecting ammeter in series with the load resistance.

41
For supply voltage V=_____

42
RESULT:
Thus the Thevenin’s theorem was verified with its theoretical value.

43
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R1=_____, R2=_____, R3=_____, RL=_____.
Theoretical setup:
100Ω 560Ω
330Ω RL
(0-30)V
47Ω
RPS
GND
Practical Setup:
To Measure IL:
100Ω
560Ω
RL
(0-30)V 47Ω
RPS (0-
330Ω 100)mA

44
Expt.No:5(b) Date:
VERIFICATION OF NORTON`S THEOREM
AIM:
To verify the Norton’s theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS
4. Resistor 100Ω,330Ω,560Ω,10 Ω Each One
5. Bread board -- 1
THEORY:
Norton's theorem:
It states that any circuit with voltage sources, resistances and open output terminals
can be replaced by a single current source in parallel with single resistance, where the value
of current source is equal to the current passing through the short circuit output terminals and
the value of the resistance is equal to the resistance seen into the output terminals i.e.
Norton’s equivalent resistance (R or RN).
TH
IL = (IN.Rth)/ (Rth+ RL)

Where,
IL - Load Current.
IN - Short Circuit Current,
Rth or RN -Thevenin’s Resistance,
RL - Load Resistance.

45
TABULATION:
Load Current IL(mA)

S.No Supply Voltage(v)
Theoretical Values Practical Values
For supply voltage V=_____

46
PRECAUTIONS:

PROCEDURE:
1. The current through the Load resistance is calculated theoretically from the circuit.
2. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
3. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
4. Practical value of the load current is noted from the Ammeter for the different source
voltage.
5. By comparing theoretical and practical values the Norton’s theorem is verified.
6. Switch off the supply.
7. Disconnect the circuit.
RESULT:
Thus the Norton’s theorem was verified with its theoretical value.

47
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
R1=_____, R2=_____, R3=_____.

Theoretical Setup:
100Ω 560Ω
RPS RPS
(0-30)V 330Ω (0-30)V
GND
Practical Setup:
With Source E1:
100Ω 560Ω
(0-100)mA
RPS
(0-30)V 330Ω
GND
With Source E2:

100Ω 560Ω
(0-100)mA
RPS
330Ω (0-30)V
GND

48
Expt.No:5(c) Date:
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
AIM:
To verify the superposition theorem and determine the current flow through the
load resistances.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS
3. Resistor 100Ω,330Ω,560Ω Each One
4. Bread board -- 1
THEORY:
Superposition Theorem
In any active linear bilateral network containing more than one source, then the
current in any resistor is equal to algebraic sum of separate Current in the resistor.
To calculate the current (or) voltage, the other voltage sources are short circuited and
current sources are open circuited.

49
With Source E1 & E2:
100Ω 560Ω
(0-100)mA
RPS RPS
(0-30)V 330Ω (0-30)V
GND
TABULATION:
Source Current through load resistor IL(mA)

S.No
Voltage(v)
Theoretical value Practical value
1. E1
2. E2
3.
E1&E2

50
PRECAUTIONS:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
3. Now allow one of the voltage source is shorted and the current flowing through the
resistance IL1 measured by ammeter.
4. Similarly, the other voltage source is shorted and the current flowing through the
resistance IL2 measured by ammeter.
5. Finally allow the both voltage sources to act simultaneously and note down the
current IL flowing through the load resistor R with ammeter.
6. Compare the value obtained with the sum of IL1&I IL2 should equal to IL.
7. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
8. Switch off the supply
9. Disconnect the circuit.

51

52
RESULT:
Thus the Superposition theorem was verified.

53
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
V=_____, R1=_____, R2=_____, R3=_____, RL=_____.
Equivalent Circuit:
Practical Setup:

54
Expt.No: 5(d) Date:
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
AIM:
To find the maximum power transferred to the load using maximum power transfer
theorem and verify it practically.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS
4. Resistor 220Ω, 560Ω, 330Ω Each One
5. Bread board -- 1
THEORY:
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
In a circuit, the power transfer is maximum when the source resistance = the load
resistance, in case of d.c circuit or in case of source with their internal impedance which is
resistive in Nature.
IL=Voc/ Rth+ RL
Where,
Voc - Voltage across the output terminal

Rth -Thevenin’s Resistance
RL - Load Resistance
Power delivered to RL is PMAX= Voc2 / 4RTH

55
TABULATION:
Theoretical values Practical values
Load Power
S.No Power Supply Load
Supply Voltage Curren Voltage PMAX
PMAX voltage Current
voltage(V) Voc (V) t Voc(V) (W)
(W) (V) IL(mA)
IL(mA)

56
Steps for Theoretical calculation:
1. Open circuit voltage (Voc or Vth) is found after removing the Load resistance.
2. All the energy sources are removed from the source circuit and Thevenin’s resistance Rth
is calculated. This is done by short circuiting the Voltage source and open circuiting the
Current source.
3. Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit is drawn with Voc, Rth and RL.
4. The Power is maximum when Rth=RL and is given by

Pmax=Voc 2/4RL.
PRECAUTIONS:

PROCEDURE:
1. Maximum Power transfer to the load is calculated theoretically.
3. By varying source voltage value the reading in the ammeter and Voltmeter are noted.
4. The load resistance RL value is calculated and compared with theoretical value.
5. The maximum power transferred to the load is calculated.
RESULT:
Thus the Maximum Power Transfer theorem was verified with its theoretical
value.

57
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
Power in Watts
Load
Wattmeter Wattmeter Total Power Factor
S. No Current in
Reading W1 Reading W2 Power P= COSØ
Amps
Observed Actual Observed Actual W1 + W2

58
Expt.No:6 Date:
MEASUREMENT OF THREE PHASE POWER BY TWO WATTMETER

METHOD
AIM:
To measure the three phase power using two wattmeter method of the given load.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE
S.No APPARATUS RANGE/TYPE QUANTITY
1. TPST switch ---- 1
2. Wattmeter 600V, 10A 2
3. 3 Phase Resistive load ---- 1
4. Connecting wires --- As required
FORMULA USED:
Total 3-Phase power P = W1 +W2
√3(𝑊1−𝑊2)
Power factor cos Ф = cos [tan-1 ( )]
(𝑊1+𝑊2)
Where,
W1 – Reading of wattmeter 1 in watts
W2 – Reading of wattmeter 2 in watts
THEORY:
Power consumed in three phase electrical circuit can be measured by using the
following methods,
1. One wattmeter method
2. Two wattmeter method
3. Three wattmeter method

59
MODEL CALCULATION:

60
Among that two wattmeter method is easier to use similarly the power factor of a 3
phase load can be measured by knowing the values of power, voltage and current in the
circuit. These can be measured separately by the wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter
respectively.
In this method, the current coils of the two watt meters are connected in any two lines
and the potential coil of each joined to the third line. The algebraic sum of their readings
gives the total power consumed whether the load is balanced or not. If the neutral wire is
available, it should carry no current or else the neutral of the load should be isolated from
the neutral of the source.
PROCEDURE:

2. Close TPST switch.
3. Increase the load by step and note down the load current, voltage and power.
4. Tabulate all the readings.
Result:
Thus the three phase power was measured using two wattmeter methods.

61
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Three point starter

(0- 20A) MC
+ Fuse _ L F A
+ A
S1 S2
Spring
Rheostat A Balance
D 360 Ω / 1.2A
220V P +
DC M
Supply S V (0-300V) MC
_ F
T AA Brake
S FF Drum
Fuse
Name Plate Details:

62
Expt.No:7 Date:
LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR
AIM:
To conduct load test on DC Shunt Motor and draw the following performance
characteristic curves.
(i) Percentage Efficiency Vs Output power

(ii) Torque Vs Output power
(iii) Speed Vs Output power
(iv) Line current Vs Output power
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Apparatus
S. No Range Type Quantity
Name
1 Ammeter 0- 20A MC 1
2 Voltmeter 0- 300V MC 1
3 Rheostat 360Ω/ 1.2 Amps -- 1
4 Tachometer -- Digital 1
Connecting
5 -- -- As required
Wires
FORMULAE:
1. Torque, T=9.81×R× (S1~S2), Nm
2. Output Power, Po = (2пNT) / 60, Watts
3. Input Power, Pi = V.IL Watts
4. Efficiency, η = (Output / Input) × 100, %
Where,
R – Radius of the Brake drum (m)
= Circumference of the Brake drum / 2п
N – Speed (rpm)
V – Supply Voltage (Volts)
IL – Line Current (Amps)
S1, S2– Spring Balance readings (Kg)

63
MODEL GRAPH:
CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF DC SHUNT MOTOR
% ηvsPo
ILvsPo
N (rpm) N vsPo
T vsPo
T (Nm)
IL (A)
%η
Po (W)

64
PRECAUTION:
1. DPST switch should be kept open.

2. Motor field rheostat should be in minimum resistance position and the armature
rheostat should be in maximum resistance position.
3. Loading arrangement should be kept in no-load condition.
PROCEDURE:

2. Close DPST switch.
3. Start the motor by using three point starter.
4. Bring the Motor to its rated speed by adjusting motor field rheostat.
5. Note down the no-load current and no-load voltage indicated by the respective
ammeter and voltmeter.
6. Adjust the loading arrangement and note down the corresponding input current taken
by the motor and the input voltage indicated by the respective ammeter and voltmeter.
Also measure the speed using Tachometer.
7. Repeat the same procedure till the load current reaches rated value.
THEORY:
There is no difference of construction between a d.c. generator and a d.c. motor. In

fact, the only difference is that in a generator, the generated e.m.f. is greater than the terminal
voltage, whereas in a motor the generated e.m.f. is less than the terminal voltage.
Shunt wound Machines
Shunt wound machine comes under self excited machines in which the field winding
being connected across the armature terminals.
Under normal operating conditions the field current and hence the flux produced by
the main poles remain constant. Desired no load speed can be set by the required field
current. The N VsIa characteristics then shows a slight fall in value with increase in Ia, due to
a slight decrease in Eb . The TdVsIa characteristics is a straight line passing through the origin
as now Td is proportional to Ia only.

65
TABULATION:
Load test on DC Shunt Motor:
Sl. Supply Line Speed Spring Balance Torque Output Input Percentage
No voltage Current reading T (Nm) Power Power Efficiency
N S1 S2 S1~ S2 Po (W) Pi (W)
V (V) IL (A)
(rpm) Kg Kg Kg
N
N, Td
N
N
Td
Ia
Ia
Electrical Characteristics Mechanical Characteristics

66
The Mechanical characteristic is the combination of the two electrical characteristics.

As the torque increases, the speed of the motor slightly falls down.
In the case of small machines the output power can be measured by some form of
mechanical brake where a belt on an air- or water- cooled pulley has one end attached via a
spring balance. The size of machine that can be tested by this method is limited by the
difficulty of dissipating the heat generated at the brake.
Applications
Shunt motors are normally preferred in places where constant speed is needed. Some
of the applications are Wood working machines, Battery operated fans etc.
APPLICATIONS:
There are three kind of characteristics for a motor viz. Speed-Torque, Speed-Current
and Torque-Current characteristics. After analyzing all three characteristics for D. C. Shunt
Motor it is observed that it is an approximately constant speed motor. It is therefore, used
where
 The speed is required to remain almost constant from no-load condition to full load-
condition.
 The load has to be driven at a number of prefer and any one of which is required to
remain nearly constant.
Industrial Use: - Lathes, Drills, Boring Mills, Shapers, Spinning and Weaving Machines etc.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. At what load does the efficiency is maximum in DC Shunt machines?

The efficiency of DC Shunt machines is maximum when the load condition
causes the variable loss equal to constant loss. The load current corresponding to
maximum efficiency is called critical load current.
2. What is the working principle of a dc motor?

Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, a
torque is produced over the conductor which tends to rotate it.
3. What is the condition for obtaining maximum efficiency?

The maximum efficiency occurs when constant loss is equal to variable loss.

67
MODEL CALCULATION:

68
4. Why does the motor efficiency decrease after obtaining maximum efficiency?
At maximum efficiency point, the constant loss is equal to variable loss. After
that the variable loss tends to increase which leads the total losses to increase much.
So, the efficiency gets reduced.
5. What will happen if a shunt motor is directly connected to the supply line?
Because at the time of starting, there is no back emf in the armature. The
armature circuit has low resistance, so, if the full line voltage is impressed, the
armature current will be high enough to damage the winding of the motor.
RESULT:
Thus the load test on DC Shunt motor was conducted and the graphs were plotted
between
(i) Percentage Efficiency Vs Output power

(ii) Torque Vs Output power
(iii) Speed Vs Output power
(iv) Line current Vs Output power

69
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Without Filter :
With Filter:

70
Expt.No:8(a) Date:
SINGLE PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS
AIM:
To construct a half wave rectifier circuit using diode and plot its regulation
characteristics with and without filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE
1. Transformer 230 V / 9 V 1
2. Diode IN4001 1
3. Capacitor 1000 µF 1
4. Resistor 2 KΩ 1
5. Voltmeter (0-10 V) 1
6. Ammeter (0-15 mA) 1
7. Bread Board - 1
8. Connecting wires - -
FORMULA USED:
Without Filter:
With Filter:

71
TABULATION:
Without Filter:
Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency
With Filter:
Vrms Vrpp Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency
MODEL GRAPH:

72
THEORY:
The operation of a half wave rectifier is pretty simple. From the theory part, you
should know that a pn junction diode conducts current only in 1 direction. In other words, a
pn junction diode conducts current only when it is forward biased. The same principle is
made use of in a half wave rectifier to convert AC to DC. The input we give here is an
alternating current. This input voltage is stepped down using a transformer. The reduced
voltage is fed to the diode ‘D’ and load resistance RL. During the positive half cycles of the
input wave, the diode ‘D’ will be forward biased and during the negative half cycles of input
wave, the diode ‘D’ will be reverse biased. We take the output across load resistor RL. Since
the diode passes current only during one half cycle of the input wave, we get an output as
shown in diagram. The output is positive and significant during the positive half cycles of
input wave. At the same time output is zero or insignificant during negative half cycles of
input wave. This is called half wave rectification.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

Output of half wave rectifier is not a constant DC voltage. You can observe from the
output diagram that it’s a pulsating dc voltage with ac ripples. In real life applications, we
need a power supply with smooth wave forms. In other words, we desire a DC power supply
with constant output voltage. A constant output voltage from the DC power supply is very
important as it directly impacts the reliability of the electronic device we connect to the
power supply.
We can make the output of half wave rectifier smooth by using a filter (a capacitor
filter or an inductor filter) across the diode. In some cases a resistor-capacitor coupled filter
(RC) is also used. The circuit diagram below shows a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. It is advisable not to increase the applied voltage beyond 15V.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections
as per the circuit diagram.
PROCEDURE:
Without Filter:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Give 230v, 50HZ I/P to the step down TFR where secondary connected to the
Rectifier I/P.
3. Take the rectifier output across the Load.
4. Plot its performance graph.

73

74
With Filter:
2. Give 230v, 50HZ I/P to the step down TFR where secondary connected to the
Rectifier I/P.
3. Connect the Capacitor across the Load.
RESULT:
Thus the Half wave rectifier circuit is constructed and their performance
characteristic was obtained.

75
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Without Filter:
With Filter :

76
Expt.No:8(b) Date:
SINGLE PHASE FULLWAVE RECTIFIERS

AIM:
To construct a full wave rectifier circuit using diode and plot its regulation
characteristics with and without filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE
1. Transformer 230 V / 9 V 1
2. Diode IN4001 2
3. Capacitor 1000 µF 1
5. Voltmeter (0-10 V) 1
6. Ammeter (0-15 mA) 1
7. Bread Board - 1
FORMULA USED:
Without Filter:
With Filter:

77
TABULATION:
Without Filter:
Vm Vrms Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency
With Filter:
Vrms Vrpp Vdc Ripple factor Efficiency
MODEL GRAPH:
Vm (volts)
Time (ms)
Vo (Volts)
Without Filter
Time (ms)
Vo (Volts)
With Filter
Time (ms)

78
THEORY:
Full-wave rectifier converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating d.c. voltage using both half
cycles of the applied a.c. voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half
cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at
the same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and voltage drop across RL will be equal to the
input voltage.
During the negative half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes negative and
at the same time the anode of diode D2 becomes positive. Hence D1 does not conduct and D2
conducts. The load current flows through D2 and voltage drop across RL will be equal to the
input voltage.
PRECAUTIONS:
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
PROCEDURE:
WITHOUT FILTER
2. Give 230v, 50HZ I/P to the step down TFR where secondary connected to the Rectifier
I/P.
WITH FILTER:
2. Give 230v, 50HZ I/P to the step down TFR where secondary connected to the Rectifier
I/P.
3. Connect the Capacitor across the Load.
RESULT:
Thus the full wave rectifier circuit is constructed and their performance
characteristic was obtained.

79
Pin Diagram:
Circuit Symbol for NPN Transistor:
Construction:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

80
Expt.No:9(a) Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON

EMITTER
AIM:
To plot the Input and output characteristics of common Emitter configuration using
NPN transistor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE
1. NPN Transistor SL 100 1
2. Resistor 33 KΩ, 2.2 KΩ Each 1
3. Breadboard - 1
4. RPS - single (0-30)V 2
5. Voltmeter (0-1.5) V, (0-15) V Each 1
6. Ammeter (0-1mA),(0-15mA) Each 1
THEORY:
The transistor has three regions namely: Emitter, Base and Collector. The base is
much thinner than the emitter while collector is wider than both.
The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers
(electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin; it passes most of
the emitter injected charge carries to the collector. The collector is moderately doped.
The transistor has two pn junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction between
emitter and base may be called emitter-base diode or simply the emitter diode. The junction
between the base and collector may be called collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
The emitter diode is always forward biased where as collector diode is always reverse
biased.

81
TABULATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
S.No. VCE = 1V VCE = 2V IB = 0.2 mA IB = 0.4mA

IC
VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V)
(mA)
MODEL GRAPH:
Input Characteristics:

82
The resistance of the emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared to
collector diode (reverse biased). Therefore, forward bias is applied to the emitter diode is
generally very small where as reverse bias on the collector diode is much higher.
The NPN transistor with forward bias to emitter base junction and reverse bias to
collector base junction. The forward bias causes the electrons in n-type emitter to flow
towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the
p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin,
therefore only a few electrons combine with holes to constitute base current IB. The
remainder cross over into the collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way,
almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is
the sum of collector and base current i.e. IE = IB + IC
PRECAUTIONS:
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections
as per the circuit diagram.
PROCEDURE:
1. Ammeters are connected in series with base and collector so as to measure base and
collector current respectively.
2. Voltmeters are connected to measure the input voltage (VBE) and output voltage (VCE)
3. Ensure that the power supplies are at zero position.
4. Switch ON both the dc power supply.
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
5. Set the value of VCE. (i.e. The output parameter, namely VCE is made constant, for
eg:2V)
6. Now, Increase input applied voltage gradually to vary VBE in steps of 0.1V and note
down corresponding IB.
7. Repeat above steps for different values of VCE
8. Plot the graph between VBE and IB.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
9. Set the value of IB (i.e. The input current is kept constant and the variation of output
voltage and output current are measured, for eg:0.2mA)
10. Now, Increase applied voltage to vary VCE in steps of 1V and note down corresponding
IC.
11. Repeat above steps for different values of IB
12. Plot graph between VCE and IC

83
Output Characteristics:

84
RESULT:
Thus the Input and Output characteristic of NPN transistor under Common
emitter configuration was plotted.

85
Pin Diagram:
Circuit Symbol for

NPN Transistor:
CONSTRUCTION:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

86
Expt.No:9(b) Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON BASE
AIM:
To plot the Input and output characteristics of common Base configuration using
NPN transistor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE
2. Resistor 10 KΩ, 1 KΩ Each 1
4. Voltmeter (0-1.5) V, (0-30) V Each 1
5. Ammeter (0-1mA),(0-30mA) Each 1
6. Breadboard - 1
THEORY
In this configuration the base terminal is common to both the input and output. The
input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas output is taken out from the
collector and base, thus emitter current is the input current and collector is the output current.
The voltage gain of CB configuration is high. Due to the high voltage gain, the power gain is
also high. In CB configuration, Base is common to both input and output. In CB
configuration the input characteristics relate IE and VEB for a constant VCB. Initially let VCB =
0 then the input junction is equivalent to a forward biased diode and the characteristics
resembles that of a diode. Where VCB = +VI (volts) due to early effect IE increases and so the
characteristics shifts to the left. The output characteristics relate IC and VCB for a constant IE.
Initially IC increases and then it levels for a value IC =α IE. When IE is increased IC also
increases proportionality. Though increase in VCB causes an increase in α, since α is a
fraction, it is negligible and so IC remains a constant for all values of VCB once it levels off.

87
TABULATION:
S.No. VCB = 1V VCB = 2V IE = 0.2 mA IE = 0.4mA

IC
VBE (V) IE (µA) VBE (V) IE(µA) VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V)
(mA)
MODEL GRAPH:
Input Characteristics:

88
PRECAUTIONS:
PROCEDURE:
2. Voltmeters are connected to measure the input voltage (VBE) and output voltage (VCB)
5. Set the value of VCB. (i.e. The output parameter, namely VCB is made constant, for
eg:2V)
6. Now, Increase input applied voltage gradually to vary VBE in steps of 0.1V and note
7. Repeat above steps for different values of VCB
8. Plot the graph between VBE and IE.
9. Set the value of IE (i.e. The input current is kept constant and the variation of output
10. Now, Increase applied voltage to vary VCB in steps of 1V and note down corresponding
IC.
11. Repeat above steps for different values of IE
12. Plot graph between VCB and IC for constant values of IE

89
Output Characteristics:

90
RESULT:
Thus the Input and Output characteristic of NPN transistor under Common Base
configuration was plotted.

91
Pin Diagram:
Circuit Symbol for

NPN Transistor:
CONSTRUCTION:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

92
Expt.No:9(c) Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON

COLLECTOR
AIM:
To plot the Input and output characteristics of common Collector configuration using
NPN transistor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
NAME OF THE
4. Voltmeter (0-5) V, (0-30) V Each 1
5. Ammeter (0-250μA),(0-30mA) Each 1
6. Breadboard - 1
THEORY
In this configuration the collector terminal is common to both the input and output.
The input signal is applied between the base and collector whereas output is taken out from
the emitter and collector terminals, thus base current is the input current and emitter is the
output current. This is also called grounded collector configuration.
The common-collector input characteristics are quite different from either common
base or common-emitter input characteristics. The difference is due to the fact that the input
voltage (VBC) is largely determined by (VEC) level.
VEC = VEB + VBC
VEB = VEC - VBC
The Output characteristics operation is much similar to that of C-E configuration.
When the base current is ICO, the emitter current will be zero and consequently no current
will flow in the load. When the base current is increased, the transistor passes through active
region and eventually reaches saturation. Under the saturation conditions all the supply
voltage, except for a very small drop across the transistor will appear across the load resistor.

93
TABULATION:

S.No. VCE = 1V VCE = 2V IB = 0.2 mA IB = 0.4mA
VBC (V) IB (µA) VBC (V) IB(µA) VCE (V) IE (mA) VCE (V) IE (mA)
MODEL GRAPH:
Input Characteristics: Output Characteristics:

94
PRECAUTIONS:
PROCEDURE:
2. Voltmeters are connected to measure the input voltage (VBC) and output voltage (VCE)
5. Set the value of VCE. (i.e. The output parameter, namely VCE is made constant, for
eg:2V)
6. Now, Increase input applied voltage gradually to vary VBC in steps of 0.1V and note
7. Repeat above steps for different values of VCE
8. Plot the graph between VBC and IB.
9. Set the value of IB (i.e. The input current is kept constant and the variation of output
10. Now, Increase applied voltage to vary VCE in steps of 1V and note down corresponding
IE.
11. Repeat above steps for different values of IB
12. Plot graph between VCE and IB for constant values of IB
RESULT:
Thus the Input and Output characteristic of NPN transistor under Common Collector
configuration was plotted.

95
Basic Structure of CRO:
Front Panel of CRO:

96
Expt.No:10 Date:
STUDY OF CRO AND MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNALS
AIM:
 To study the basic structure of CRO.

 To get familiar with the use of different control switches of the device.
 To observe sine wave, square wave and triangular wave on the CRO and to
measure amplitude and frequency of the waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS
1. Function generator (0-30)KHZ 1
2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope -- 1
THEORY:
CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode, anode, grid,
X&Y-plates, and a fluorescent screen. When the cathode is heated (by Theory Cathode-ray
Oscilloscope applying a small potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons.
Having a potential difference between the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the
emitted electrons towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the
screen. When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is
produced. The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of
electrons passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y-
plates are responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.

97
Model Waveforms:

98
An AC (time varying) signal requires several parameters to be completely described.

The problem of measuring AC signals is how to determine these parameters. The
Oscilloscope can be used for measurement of any AC measurement. The wave-shape can be
visually examined on the screen of the instrument. It should emphasize that only periodic
waveforms can generate a stationary pattern on the screen of an analog oscilloscope. Latest
digital storage Oscilloscope display voltage and frequency directly on the LCD and does not
require any calculations. It can also store waveform for further analysis. The function
generator is a versatile AC signal. It can provide several wave shapes, and the amplitude and
frequency can be adjusted.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the instrument which is used to observe signal
waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude of the signal
with respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen. X-axis represents time and Y-axis
represents amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms.
It is also used to observe shape of the waveform. In this practical, we will measure
amplitude and frequency of the different waveforms like sine wave, Square wave and
triangular wave.
Applications of CRO:
 Measurement of current
 Measurement of voltage
 Measurement of power
 Measurement of frequency
 Measurement of phase angle
 To trace visual display of sine waves
 It helps us to find gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Amplitude = No. of vertical divisions * (Volts / div)
2. Time period = No. of horizontal divisions * (Time / div)
3. Frequency = 1 / T
4. Amplitude taken on vertical section (Y)
5. Time period taken on horizontal section (X)

99

100
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect function generator output at the input of CRO at channel 1 or at channel

2.
2. Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 select CH1 and if
signal is connected to channel 2 select CH2.
3. Adjust Time/Div knob to get sufficient time period displacement of the wave on
the CRO screen.
4. With fine tuning of Time/Div make the waveform steady on screen.
5. Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable.
6. Keep volt/div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen without clipping.
7. Measure Peak to peak reading along Y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/div
gives peak to peak amplitude of the ac i/p wave.
8. Measure horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied by
time/div gives time period of the i/p wave.
9. Calculate frequency using formula f=1/T
10. Note down your readings in the observation table.
11. Draw waveforms of sine, square, ramp and triangular in the graph sheet.
RESULT:
Thus the basic structure of CRO, measurement of voltage and Frequency was studied.

101
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

102
Expt.No:11 Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF LVDT
AIM:
i). To study the basic principle and operation of LVDT
ii). To draw the characteristics curve for a given LVDT
iii). To measure the displacement using LVDT
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
SNO APPARATUS TYPE QUANTITY

1. Trainer kit 1
2. Multimeter Digital 1
3. Patch Chords 7
FORMULA USED:
% ERROR = Core Displacement – Micrometer Displacement

X100
Micrometer Displacement
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While taking reading on scale parallel error has to be avoided.

2. Smooth gradual movement of the core to be ensured.

103
TABULATION:
Micrometer Core Signal Conditioned

Sl. No. Displacement Displacement Output Voltage % Error
(mm) (mm) (V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
MODEL GRAPH:

104
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply to the LVDT module.

2. Connect the LVDT sensor to the trainer using the D type pin and place the LVDT at the
null position (10mm) and adjust the offset to display zero on the DVM (actual
displacement).
3. Set the micrometer position at 20 mm and calibrate the display at 10mm using span
potentiometer.
4. Repeat the zero and span calibration until the core displacement is 0.00mm for 10 mm
displayed in micrometer and core displacement is 10.00mm for 20.00mm displacement
in micrometer.
5. After completion of the calibration, place the core of the LVDT to 10mm by adjusting
the micrometer
6. Gradually increase the micrometer displacement from 10.00mm to 20.00 mm and note
down the forward core displacement from zero mm to 10.00mm on the displayed and
signal conditioned voltage (V) across T6 and T7.
7. Similarly, decrease the Micrometer displacement from 10.00mm to zero 00 and note
down the reverse core displacement of zero to –10.00mm on the display and signal
conditioned voltage (V) across T6 and T7.
8. Tabulate the readings of actual displacement and the one displayed on the DVM.
9. Plot the graph between core displacement (mm) along x – axis and Signal conditioned
ouput voltage (V) along y – axis.
10. Plot the graph between micrometer displacement (mm) along x – axis and % Error along
y – axis
RESULT:
Thus the principle and operation of LVDT was studied, the characteristics curve
plotted and the non electrical quantity displacement was calculated.

105
ROTAMETER TEST RIG

106
Expt.No:12 Date:
CALIBRATION OF ROTOMETER
AIM:
To determine the percentage error in Rotometer with the actual flow rate.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Rotometer setup
2. Measuring scale
3. Stopwatch.
FORMULA USED:
1. ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Q act = A x h/ t (m3 / s)
Where,
A = Area of the collecting tank (m2)
h= 10 cm rise of water level in the collecting tank (10-2 m).
t = Time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in collecting tank.
CONVERSION:
Actual flow rate (lit / min), Qact = Qact x 1000 x 60 lit /min
Rotometer reading ~ Actual x 100 %

Percentage error of Rotometer =
Rotometer reading
= R ~ Qact / R x 100 %
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the motor and the delivery valve is opened
2. Adjust the delivery valve to control the rate in the pipe
3. Set the flow rate in the Rotometer, for example say 50 liters per minute
4. Note down the time taken for 10 cm rise in collecting tank
5. Repeat the experiment for different set of Rotometer readings
6. Tabular column is drawn and readings are noted
7. Graph is drawn by plotting Rotometer reading Vs percentage error of the
Rotometer

107
TABULATION:
Rotometer Reading Actual Discharge in Percentage of error in

S.No
in (LPH) (LPH) %
MODEL CALCULATION:

108
Model Graph
Actual Discharge
Rotometer Reading
RESULT:
The percentage error of the Rotometer was found to be………….…. %

109
Expt.No:13 Date:
CALIBRATION OF TEMPERATURE USING RESISTANCE

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR AND THERMISTOR
AIM: To study the characteristics of the Thermistor, Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD) and plot the Resistance verses temperature characteristics
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.Temperature Measurement Trainer kit

2. Thermistor
3. Thermometer
4. Multimeter
5. Water bath
6. Power Chord
THEORY:
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)
Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTDs for short, are wire wound and thin film
devices that measure temperature because of the physical principle of the positive
temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the larger
their resistance. They, in the case of Platinum known variously as PRTs and PRT100s, are
the most popular RTD type, nearly linear over a wide range of temperatures and some small
enough to have response times of a fraction of a second. They are among the most precise
temperature sensors available with resolution and measurement uncertainties or ±0.1 °C or
better possible in special designs. Usually they are provided encapsulated in probes for
temperature sensing and measurement with an external indicator, controller or transmitter,
or enclosed inside other devices where they measure temperature as a part of the device's
function, such as a temperature controller or precision thermostat. The advantages of RTDs
include stable output for long period of time, ease of recalibration and accurate readings
over relatively narrow temperature spans. They are active devices requiring an electrical
current to produce a voltage drop across the sensor that can be then measured by a
calibrated read-out device.
110
The lead wires used to connect the RTD to a read out can contribute to the measurement
error, especially when there are long lead lengths involved, as often happens in remote
temperature measurement locations. Those calculations are straight forward and there exist
3-wire and 4-wire designs to help minimize or limit such errors, when needed.Often the
lead error can be minimized through use of a temperature transmitter mounted close to the
RTD. Transmitters convert the resistance measurement to an analog current or serial digital
signal that can be sent long distances by wire or rf to a data acquisition or control system
and/ or indicator. RTDs, as mentioned above, work in a relatively small temperature
domain, compared to thermocouple, typically from about-200°C to a practical maximum of
about 650°C to 700°C. RTDs can be made cheaply in Copper and Nickel, but the latter have
restricted ranges because of non-linearities and wire oxidation problems in the case of
Copper. Platinum is the preferred material for precision measurement because in its pure
form the Temperature Coefficient of Resistance is nearly linear; enough so that temperature
measurements with precision of ±0.1°C can be readily achieved with moderately priced
devices. Better resolution is possible, but equipment costs escalate rapidly at smaller error
levels. All RTDs used in precise temperature measurements are made of Platinum and they
are sometimes called PRTs to distinguish them. RTD works on the principle that electrical
resistance of the most metals increases linearly with temperature.
THERMISTOR
Temperature – measuring sensor based on the fact that the resistance of a material
may change with temperature is known as a THERMISTOR. Thermostats differ from
resistance temperature detectors in that they are fabricated from semi conducting materials
instead of metals. The semi – conducting materials, which include oxides of copper, cobalt,
manganese, nickel and titanium, exhibit very large change in resistance with temperature.
Resistance with temperature can be expressed by an equation of the form

Inp = A0 + A1 / T + A2 / T2+ ............. + An / Tn
Where P is the specific resistance of the material.
A1, A2, ............................An are material constants.
T is the absolute temperature.
Thermistor have many advantage over other temperature sensors and are widely used in
industry. They can be small and consequently, permit point sensing and rapid response to
temperature change. Their high resistance minimizes lead – wire problems. Their output is
more than 10 times that of a resistance temperature detector. The disadvantages of
thermistor includes non-linear output with temperature and limited range. Since the
111
instrumentation tutors are not instrument as a whole the accuracy of the measurement
cannot be claimed. It is very clear that the instrumentation tutor are only for demonstration
purpose and cannot be used for any external measurement other than conducting
experiments.
.PRECAUTIONS FOR RTD
1. Gradually heat the water and note the corresponding resistance simultaneously.
2. The multimeter / ohmmeter should be in the range (0-200) to measure for (0-
100)°C.
PRECAUTION FOR THERMISTOR
1. Check the following two things before applying power to the heater (230V AC).
2. Water level in the water bath should above the heating filament. Otherwise
sterilizers will be spoiled.
3. Thermistor and thermometer should not touch the body of the sterilizer (Any
temperature source)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
112
Procedure for Temperature- Resistance Measurement for RTD
1. Patch the wires of RTD to the T1 and T2 terminal of the RTD input block and
switch ON the unit.
2. Place the RTD and thermometer into the holes provides in the water bath.
3. Keep the SW1 in right direction.
4. Place the multimeter in the resistance mode across T3 and T4 terminals.
5. Switch ON the water bath and note the temperature in thermometer and
corresponding resistance value in multimeter.
6. Plot the temperature Vs resistance graph. This gives the characteristic curve of the
RTD.
Procedure for Temperature- Voltage Measurement for RTD
1. Patch the wires of RTD to the T1 and T2 terminal of the RTD input block.
2. Switch ON the ITB-06CE Unit.
3. Keep the switch SW1 in left direction and switch SW2 in external mode.
4. Now adjust the ‘Zero’Potentiometertoread0°Catthedisplay. This is done for initial
setup of the unit and this adjustment should be left undisturbed.
5. Place the multimeter in voltage mode across the T6 and T7 terminals.
6. Insert the RTD and thermometer into the water bath and note the temperature
without any heating at ambient condition.
7. Switch ON the water bath and note down the actual temperature in thermometer,
output voltage of the unit and the displayed temperature simultaneously.
8. Plot the graph for Actual Temperature Vs Voltage.
9. Calculate the % error and plot the graph for Temperature Vs % Error.
Procedure for Temperature- Resistance Measurement for Thermistor
1. Interface the thermistor across T1 and T2 & switch ON the ITB-06A unit.
2. For resistance measurement, SW1 should be in resistance mode.
3. Connect the multimeter (in resistance mode) across T3 & T4.
4. During zero calibration, SW2 should be in EXT mode.
5. The OFFSET POT is adjusted to 5V because thermistor is NTC. Type
6. Before conducting the experiment, SW2 should be in INT mode.
7. Insert the thermometer and thermistor into the water bath.
8. Switch ON the water bath.
9. Note down the temperature in thermometer rand corresponding resistance output of
the thermistor.
10. Plot the graph between temperature and resistance along X and Y axis respectively.
Procedure for Temperature- Voltage Measurement for Thermistor
1. Interface the thermistor across T1 and T2 & switch ON the ITB-06A unit.
2. For resistance measurement SW1 should be in Thermistor mode.
113
3. Connect the multimeter (in DC -Volt mode) across T5 & T6.
4. During zero calibration, SW2 should be in EXT mode.
5. The OFFSET POT is adjusted to 5V because thermistor is NTC type
6. Before conducting the experiment, SW2 should be in INT mode.
7. Insert the thermometer and thermistor into the water bath.
8. Switch ON the water bath.
9. Now note down the temperature of the thermometer and corresponding voltage
output.
10. Plot the graph between temperature and resistance along X and Y axis respectively.
Tabulation for RTD to Measure output voltage

Thermometer Reading in Display Reading
S.No Output Voltage in mv
°C (RTD)
Tabulation for RTD to Measure Resistance

RTD Resistance from Display in
S.No Thermometer Reading in °C
KΩ
114
Tabulation for Thermistor to Measure output voltage

Thermometer Reading in Display Reading
S.No Output Voltage in mv
°C (Thermistor)
Tabulation for Thermistor to Measure Resistance
Thermistor Resistance from

S.No Thermistor Reading in °C
Display in KΩ
115
MODEL GRAPH FOR RTD

TEMPERATURE (°C) VS RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE (  )
TEMPERATURE ( o C )
TEMPERATURE(o C ) VS OUTPUT VOLTAGE ( V )

OUTPUT VOLTAGE ( V )
TEMPERATURE ( o C )
116
MODEL GRAPH FOR THERMISTOR

Temperature Vs Resistance
Resistance in Kilo Ohms
Temperature
TEMPERATURE Vs OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Output Voltage in Volts
Temperature
RESULT
Thus the calibration of temperature using RTD and Thermistor was
completed successfully.
117
Experiment No. 14 Date: __/ / _

SWINBURNE’S TEST
AIM:
To determine the constant losses and hence to find the efficiency of a given
DC Machine at any desired load.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. No. Particulars Range Type Quantity

0-300V MC 01
01 Voltmeters
0-30V MC 01
Ammeters 0-5A MC 01
02
0-1/2A MC 01
Rheostats 0-750Ω,1.2A 01
03 -
0-38Ω,8.5A 01
04 Tachometer - Digital 01
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram (6.a).
2. Keeping the rheostat R1 in the field circuit of motor in cut-out
position, the rheostat R2 in the armature circuit of the motor in cut-in
positions the supply switch(S1) is closed.
3. The motor is brought to its rated speed by cutting out the rheostat R2 and
cutting in the rheostat R1 if necessary.
4. Readings of all the meters and speed are noted down.
5. All the rheostats are brought back to their respective initial positions and
the supply switch (S1) is opened.
6. The graph of Efficiency v/s Load current is plotted as shown in Model Graph.
Determination of Armature Resistance (Ra ) by V-I method:
a. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram(6.b)

b. Keeping the rheostat in cut-in position, the supply switch (S1) is
closed, Rheostat is adjusted to any value of current (say 1A) and the
readings of ammeter and voltmeter are noted down.
c. The supply switch (S1) is opened.
118
TABULAR COLUMN: Tabulation of Results:

VL IL If Sl. Load
Sl. No Volt Amp Amp No. (X) %m %g
1. Full
Load
2. ¾ of
Determination of Armature Resistance (Ra): F.L
V I Resistance 3. ½ of
Sl. No. (Volts) (Ampere) Ra = V/I Ω F.L
4. ¼ of
F.L
MODEL GRAPH:

119
CALCULATION:
IL = No-load motor current, Ampere

If = Field current, Ampere
VL= No-load motor terminal voltage, Volt
i. No-load input power = VL×IL Watts

ii. Armature copper loss = ( IL – If)2 ×Ra Watts
iii. Constant losses, Wc = No load input power – armature Cu loss
I. Efficiency when working as a

motor a. Ia = (x.IFL- If)
Ampere
Where x= (1, ¾, ½, ¼)
b. Armature copper loss = (Ia)2 ×Ra Watts = (x.IFL - If)2
×Ra Watts c. Total losses = (Wc + armature copper loss) Watts
d. Input to the motor = V1 (x.IFL) Watts
(V1 is the rated voltage of the Motor)
e. Output of the motor = (Input - Total losses) Watts
f. %η = (Output / Input) × 100
II. Efficiency when working as a

generator a. Iag= (xIFL+ If
)Ampere
Where x= (1, ¾, ½, ¼)
b. Armature copper loss = (Iag)2 ×Ra Watt = (x.IFL + If)2 ×Ra
Watts c. Total losses = (Wc + armature copper loss) Watts
d. Output of generator = V1(x.IFL) Watts
(V1 is the rated voltage of the Generator)
e. Input to the generator = (Output + Total losses)
Watts f. %ηg = (Output / Input) × 100

120
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Determination of Armature Resistance (Ra):
Sl. V I Resistance
No. (Volts) (Ampere) Ra = V/I Ω

121
Model Calculation
Result:

122

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE

LABORATORY OBSERVATION BOOK

BE8261 - BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND

II Semester – B.E (AERO & MECH)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Course Code : BE8261

Expected Course outcome and Program Outcome Mapping

Tools for Course Outcome Assessment

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CANDIDATE

 Please don’t touch any live parts.

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, Komarapalayam

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, Komarapalayam

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS (as per Anna University Syllabus- Reg- 2017)

1. Load test on separately excited DC generator

Minimum of 10 Experiments to be carried out:- TOTAL: 60 PERIODS

CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

03 Load test on Single Induction motor 27

06 Verification of Circuit Laws 33

Verification of Circuit Theorems

Diode based application circuits

Transistor based application

10 Characteristics of LVDT 103

11 Calibration of Rotometer 107

12 RTD and Thermistor 110

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, Komarapalayam

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

LOAD TEST ON SEPARATELY EXCITED

S.NO. APPARATUS REQUIRED TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1. All DPST switches should be kept open.

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE

OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS

Air gap line

3. Potential divider should be in minimum voltage position.

I. Open circuit test:

II. Load test:

III. Measurement of armature resistance (Ra):

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

II. Load test:

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

In separate excitation, a separate DC source is needed for excitation purposes

Air gap line

It is known as open circuit characteristic (OCC) because of the method by

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

III. Measurement of armature resistance (Ra):

Sl. Armature Armature Armature resistance

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

These types of dc generators are generally more expensive than self-excited dc

2. On what occasions DC generators may not have residual flux?

(iii) E and Ia (iv) V and If

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

To determine the variation of efficiency and voltage regulation of Single phase

APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of The Apparatus Type Range Quantity

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

Percentage Efficiency Vs Percentage Regulation Vs

Output Power: Output Power:

% Regulation Regulation down

Excel Engineering College, Komarapalayam

Ws – Secondary output power, (Watts).

oV2 – No-load secondary voltage, (Volts).

V2 – Secondary voltage at load condition, (Volts).

R1=___, R2=_, R3=___

R1=___, R2=_, R3=___

V=___, R1=_, R2=_, R3=_, RL=___.