Petroleum Engineering Department

WELL LOGGING

Mr. Saleh Emhanna

2018
 Course Outlines

 Introduction to Wireline Logging

 Borehole Environments
 Temperature Log: principles and uses of Temperature log
 Caliper Log: principles and uses of Caliper log
 Spontaneous potential: the Sp log and Sp curves, uses of Sp log
,factor effecting on Sp curve.
 Gamma Ray curve characteristic ,spectral gamma ray, use of
gamma ray to determine volume of shale
 Resistivity log devices measurement, normal tools- Induction tools:
measurement calculation of Sw, Rw calculation method and chart
method.
 Sonic log: interpretation ,type of sonic log ,porosity measurement
,analysis of The Sonic logs quick look Technique.
 Nuclear log : introduction , sources, devices, the interpretation of
the log:
o Density log , log pad content, pourse of shally formation.
o Neutron log interpretation ,tools measurement’s, correction,
Neutron density pattern – Radio element depositum.
 Examples for a reservoir simulation study and reserve estimation
by using well log.

1
 Introduction to Wireline Logging
1 Introduction

Well logs or wireline logs are continuous recordings of well depth versus
different petrophysical characteristics of the rocks through which the well
is drilled. There are many types of well logs, depending upon the
characteristics of the rock being measured.

1.1 Logging Objectives

The main purpose of well logging is:

 to provide data for evaluating petroleum reservoirs.

 to aid in testing, completion and repairing of the well.

To calculate the oil reserve in an oil pool we need to know the following.

 Thickness of the oil bearing formation.

 Porosity of the formation.
 Oil saturation.
 Lateral extent of the pool.

2 Types of Well Logging

Well logging is classified into three broad categories:

 Open Hole Logging

 Cased Hole Logging

2.1 Open Hole Logging

Logging surveys taken before the hole is cased are called open hole logs.
The logs included in this group are:

 Electrical surveys (induction, laterolog and microlog logs).

 Sonic logs.

2
 Caliper Logs.
 Dipmeter Logs.
 Radioactive surveys (density, neutron and gamma ray logs).

2.1.1 Electrical Logs

Electrical logs (Induction, laterolog, and microlog) measure the electrical

properties of the formation alongwith the formation fluids.

2.1.2 Sonic Logs

Sonic logs measure the elastic or (sound) wave properties of the

formation.

2.1.3 Caliper Logs

Caliper logs measure the size or geometry of the hole.

2.1.4 Dipmeter Logs

Dipmeter logs measure dip of the formations.

2.1.5 Radioactive Logs

Gamma ray & neutron logs measure radioactive and neutron absorption
properties. Density logs measure electron density of the formation which
is related to formation density.

2.2 Cased Hole Logging

Logging surveys taken after the casing is lowered are usually categorized
as cased hole logs. The surveys included in this group are:

 Gamma Ray
 Neutron
 Temperature
 Chlorine
 Pulsed Neutron
 Cement Bond Log
3
  Tracer Logs
Some of these surveys like the gamma ray, neutron and temperature logs
can be run in both open and cased hole wells.

3 Logging Equipment: Surface and Downhole

Log measurements are made using a measuring sonde (with electronic

cartridge) lowered on a cable from a winch, which is mounted on a
logging truck or offshore unit.

3.1 Logging Truck and Offshore Unit

The truck and units are laboratories containing:

 The main winch which may hold as much as 26,000 ft (8,000 m) of

multi-conductor steel-armored cable with a pulling capacity of several
tons.

 The auxiliary winch containing a thinner mono- conductor cable

generally for use on production or workover operations.

 The winch man control panel.

 The surface logging panels which power and control the downhole
tools, process the incoming information and transmit the information to
recording equipment.

 Depth measuring system.

 Electrical generator.
 Dark room for development of film.
 Printer for making log prints.
 Recent years have seen the introduction of fully computerized logging
unit which not only handle the data acquisition but permit well site data
processing/evaluations.
 Offshore units are mounted on skids and bolted (or welded) to the deck
of drilling vessel or platform.

4
 Fig. 1: A Logging Truck

Fig. 2: An Offshore Logging Unit

5
3.2 Computerized Logging Units

Service companies offer logging services from computer-based logging

units. The advantages of using computer-based units are many and their
use is to be encouraged. Some of the systems available include:

 Eclips 5700: Western Atlas

 Maxis 500: Schlumberger

Computer-based units offer the following features:

 All logs are recorded on 4 mm dats.

 Computer control of the data allows logs to be recorded either logging

up or down with all curves on depth.

 Calibration are performed under programme control and can be

performed more quickly, consistently and accurately.

 Logs can be played back from the data tapes on many different formats.
 Basic wellsite, processing/analysis of data is available.

4. Logging Cables

The logging cables fulfill three functions:

 Running in and pulling out the tool and control of tool speed.
 Electrical interface between the downhole logging tool and the surface
processing and recording equipment.

 Depth measurement.

Modern logging cables are of two types:

 Monoconductor cables.

 Multiconductor cables.

4.1 Monoconductor Cables

 Mono-conductor cables are mainly used for completion services such

as shooting perforating guns, setting wireline packers and plugs and for

6
production logging services such as flowmeters, temperature, pressure
and density logs in producing wells.

 Mono-conductor cables are usually 0.25 – 0.5 inch in diameter. The

smaller diameters are used where high well head pressure is used.

4.2 Multiconductor Cables

 Multiconductor cables are mainly used for openhole logging services.

 These are slightly longer in diameters and contain individual insulated

conductors in the core.

 Multiconductor cables have a bearing strength near 18000 lb.

 A typical multiconductor cable is 15/32” or 7/16” in diameter.

4.3 Depth Measurement

 Film and tape movement are governed by cable motion, which is

transmitted by a calibrated spooler wheel to mechanical or electrical
drive system which permit choice of depth scale on film.

 The cable is marked magnetically every 100 ft or 25 m under constant

tension. These marks are detected at the cable passing the spooler device
and serve as the reference for precise depth.

4.4 Memorization

Where several tools are in combination, it is necessary to store in a

memory the readings of each tool as it passes a given depth and to
discharge this memory only when the last sensor reaches that depth. In
this way all the data is recorded on depth.

7
Fig. 3: Logging Tools in Combination Fig. 4: Memorization

5 The Logging Tool

 Logging tools vary in complexity from a simple electrode carrying

mandrel to a sophisticated system of electronic circuits, enclosed in a
pressure – resistant metal housing and capable of operating at high
temperatures.

8
 The sonde is generally attached below an electronic cartridge, which
carries in a protective housing the electronic modules or hardware for the
downhole instrument.

 Where several tools are being run in combination each of the sondes
and cartridges in the tool string has a pass through facility for the signals
to or from tools lower in the string.

 Each sonde-cartridge set can be connected electrically and mechanically

to the bridal or cable head by a quick connect system consisting of pins
and sockets and a thread ring.

 (Ex) Centralizers or stand-off may be attached to the sonde and

cartridge.

 Logging tools vary in sizes and shapes. A typical logging string is 3

5/8” in diameter and 35 ft long.

 Most tools are built to withstand 20,000 psi pressure and 350oF to 400oF
temp.

 Modern tools are “modularised” to allow combination tool strings by

appropriate mixing and matching.

 The need for pressure control equipment will limit the total length of
the tool string that can be safely assembled and run in the hole.

9
 Fig. 6: Logging Tools

Fig. 7: Electronic Cartridge

10
6. Modern Logging Tools

6.1 Formation Fluid Content Indicators

 Induction
 Laterolog
 Micro-focused (micro resistivity) devices
 Pulsed neutron
 Inelastic gamma (carbon/oxygen)
 MRI
 NMR

6.2 Porosity-Lithology Indicators

 Sonic (Acoustic)
 Density
 Neutron
 Natural Gamma Ray
 Spectral Gamma Ray

6.3 Reservoir Geometry Indicators

 Dipmeter
 FMS/FMI
 Star Imager
 Circumferential Acoustic Scanning

6.4 Formation Sampling Tools

 Formation Tester RFT, MDT

 Sidewall Coring

6.5 Auxiliary Tools

 Spontaneous Potential
 Caliper

11
 BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT
The borehole environment in which logging measurements are
made, is of some interest from the standpoint of logging tool
designs and the operating limitations placed upon them.
Furthermore, it is important in terms of the disturbance it causes in
the surrounding formation in which properties are being measured.

The downhole environment is not friendly to wireline

measurements. The greatest concern is the borehole shape
because irregularly shaped boreholes can often create misleading
wireline log measurements.

The drilling fluid, or mud, ranges in density between 9 and 16

lb/gal. The salinity of the drilling mud ranges between 1,000 and
200,000 ppm. The generally overpressured wellbore causes
invasion of a porous and permeable formation by the drilling fluid.

12
Invaded Zone
 Zone around the bore hole where the original fluid content
has completely or partly been replaced by drilling mud.
Invaded Zone = Flushed Zone + Transition Zone (”Annulus”)
 Depth of invasion depends on mud cake.
 Mud cake formation more efficient in porous rocks, causing
less deep penetration of mud filtrate in porous rocks
 Flushed Zone Resistivity; Rxo
 Residual oil in flushed zone. Usually70-95% is flushed out.
Sro= 1 –Sxo
Uninvaded Zone
 Pores uncontaminated by the mud filtrate.
 Pores contain formation waters, oil and/or gas
 HC bearing reservoir always have some formation water on
grain contacts.
 Uninvaded zone resistivity; Rt
 Ratio of Sw to Sxo is an index of HC moveability

13
Figure 1: Schematic model of the borehole and formation used to
describe electric-logging measurements and corrections.

Dh = Hole Diameter

R = Resistivity

14
Figure 2. Distribution of pore fluids in zones around a well which initially
contained hydrocarbons.

15
USES OF LOGS

Uses of well logging in petroleum engineering.

Logging applications for petroleum engineering

 Rock typing
 Identification of geological environment.
 Reservoir fluid contact location.
 Fracture detection.
 Estimate of hydrocarbon in place.
 Estimate of recoverable hydrocarbon.
 Determination of water salinity.
 Reservoir pressure determination.
 Porosity/pore size distribution determination.
 Water flood feasibility.
 Reservoir quality mapping.
 Interzone fluid communication probability.
 Reservoir fluid movement monitoring.

The Geologist: The Geologist may ask:

 Depths of the formation tops.
 Devotional environment.
 Is there evidence of Hydrocarbon.
 Type of Hydrocarbon?
 Are Hydrocarbons present in commercial quantities?
 What are the reserves?

16
The Geophysicist:
 Are the tops where you predicted?
 Are the potential zones porous as you have assumed from
seismic data?
 What does a synthetic seismic section show?

The Drilling Engineer:

 What is the hole volume for cementing?
 Are there any Key-Seats or severe Dog-legs in the well?
 Where can you get a good packer seat for testing?
 Where is the best place to set a Whipstock?

The Reservoir Engineer: The Reservoir Engineer needs to know:

 How thick is the pay zone?
 How Homogeneous is the section?
 What is the volume of Hydrocarbon per cubic meter?
 Will the well pay-out?
 How long will it take?

The Production Engineer: The Production Engineer is more

concerned with:
 Where should the well be completed (in what zone(s))?
 What kind of production rate can be expected?
 Will there be any water production?
 How should the well be completed?
 Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?

17
READING A LOG
Reading a log with ease requires familiarity with some of the
standard log formats. The formats for traditional logs and most
field logs are shown in Fig. 3 and can be seen to contain three
tracks. A narrow column containing the depth is found between
track 1 and tracks 2 and 3. The latter are contiguous.

Figure 3 Standard log presentation formats.

18
Depth of investigation (Radius of investigation) :

The distance away from the bore hole that a logging tool can
measure.

For any given well interval :-

1. Distinguish between reservoir and non-reservoir rock.
(Reservoir rock contains a reasonably high connected porosity).
2. For the reservoir intervals only, distinguish between
hydrocarbons and water filling the pores, hence calculate water
saturation in reservoir rocks.
(Hydrocarbons are electrical insulators, while water conducts).
3. For the hydrocarbon fraction, distinguish between oil and gas,
hence calculate gas and oil saturations in reservoir rocks.
(Gas has a much lower density than oil).

19
 TEMPERATURE LOG

The Temperature Log is a tool for measuring the borehole

temperature. Temperature sensors are attached to every tool
combination that is run in a well for the measurement of the
maximum temperature (assumed to be at the bottom of the well).

The borehole temperature is an important parameter in the

analysis of resistivity logs. The detection of fluid movement, the
analysis of fluid pressures and in geochemical modelling of
formations and the maturity of hydrocarbons.

Theory

Temperature in the sub-surface increases with depth. The rate at

which it does so is called the geothermal gradient or geotherm.
Typical geotherms for reservoirs are about 20 to 35oC/km.

 Low thermal conductivity rocks, such as shale, act as a

thermal insulator and have a large temperature gradient
across them.

 High thermal conductivity rocks, such as salt, permit the

conduction of heat efficiently, and have a small temperature
gradient across them.

Temperature measurements are always made at the bottom of the

well (highest temperature) and sometimes at intervals up the well.

20
Uses of Temperature Logs

1. Correction of other tools: The sensors of other logging

tools are sensitive to temperature. The temperature
measurement can be used to correct for this, or to recognize
temperatures that are outside the operating range of the tool and
likely therefore to be erroneous.
2. Correction of measurements: Some parameters
measured by other tools are sensitive to temperature. The best
example is resistivity logs. The temperature data is used to
correct ALL resistivity data to a standard 24oC (75oF) so they are
not depth dependent and can be compared.
3. Hydrocarbon maturation: The maturity of hydrocarbons
depends upon the maximum temperature that the organic
remains have been subjected to, as well as time and pressure.
4. Correlation: Continuous temperature logs record differences
in thermal gradient that result from differences in the thermal
conductivity of the formations. These difference can be used for
correlation.
5. Fluid movement: Continuous logs can observe intervals of
raised (or lowered) temperature caused by the influx of hotter (or
colder) fluids into the borehole through the rock matrix, or more
usually, through patent fractures. This effect may also be due to
cold drilling fluid escaping into the rock.
6. Overpressured zones: Continuous logs also note the
presence of overpressured zones, where the hot overpressured
fluids escape into the borehole and are noted by a rise in the
measured temperature.

21
FIGURE 1 Sketch showing how geothermal gradient may be determined from
two or more BHTs taken at different log runs.

TABLE 1 Thermal Conductivity of Various Rocks

22
FIGURE 2 Depth temperature plot showing the effect of rocks of differing
thermal conductivity (K) on geothermal gradient (G) and the vertical spacing
of isotherms.

23
 CALIPER LOG

A caliper tool is used to measure the diameter of a well and how it

changes with depth. It works by using one or more spring loaded
arms which are pressed against the well bore wall as the tool is
raised from the bottom of the well.
The arms move in and out from the bore wall and the motion is
recorded electrically and transmitted to the surface recording
equipment. Multi-arm tool gives a better resolution of the bore
shape than a single arm tool.
The results of the caliper logs can be used by the drillers to
calculate amount of cement to be used for cementing job if it is run
in the open hole prior to cementing to identify the large cavities.
Caliper logs are also used in addition to lithological logs when
interpreting the well geology.

Theory
It uses a tool which has 2, 4, or
more extendable arms. The arms
can move in and out as the tool is
withdrawn from the borehole, and
the movement is converted into
an electrical signal by a
potentiometer.
Variations in hole diameter cause
the arms to close or open and the
movement is reflected in
resistance changes in the
potentiometer.

24
Geological Factors Influencing the Hole Diameter
The diameter of the hole depends mainly on:
(a) The lithology, since certain rocks may:
(1) be soluble in the drilling mud for example salt;
(2) disintegrate and cave in (for example sands, gravel,
shales), in which case hole caves will appear;
(3) flow, as in the case of swelling shales or low compaction
shales, when the hole will close in;
(4) be consolidated, in which case the hole will be in gauge.
(b) The texture and structure of the rock.
These influence the porosity and permeability of the rock and
hence determine whether a mud cake will develop and its
thickness, leading of course to a reduced hole diameter.
The texture and structure of the formation will also determine the
bedding, the shale distribution, and also the possibility of
microfractures brought about by drilling and radial cracking away
from the borehole. Fracturing linked with tectonic changes may
also be mentioned here.

25
26
APPLICATIONS

Hole diameter measurements are used for:

1. The detection of porous and permeable zones. (mud cake
presence) and the determination of mud cake thickness:

hmc, = (dbit- d h ) / 2

2. The measurement of hole volume in order to obtain an

estimation of cement volume.
3. Detection of consolidated and in gauge sections for the scaling
of packers for well testing;
4. The correction of several log types for the effect of the borehole
and of mud cake in order to obtain a more precise interpretation.
5. A guide to lithology.

27
 SP: SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
The spontaneous potential (SP) log was one of the earliest measurements
used in the petroleum industry, and it has continued to play a significant
role in well log interpretation. The SP device measures naturally
occurring (spontaneous) potential in the wellbore. This tool utilizes a
single moving electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the
surface, usually located in the mud pit. The SP curve therefore is a record
of the potential difference which exists between the surface electrode and
the moving electrode in the borehole.

PRINCIPLE

SP arises due to salinity contrast between formation water and mud

filtrate against permeable beds. The SP log is recorded by measuring the
potential difference in milli-volts between an electrode in the borehole
and a grounded electrode at the surface. The change in voltage through
the well bore is caused by a buildup of charge on the well bore walls.
Shales and clays will generate one charge and permeable formations such
as sandstone will generate an opposite one.

Figure 1: A Schematic for measurement of SP

28
Factors Affecting SP Measurement

• Drilling Mud: The drilling mud salinity will affect the strength of the
electromotive forces (EMF) which give the SP deflections.

o If the salinity of the mud is similar to the formation water then the
SP curve may give little or no response opposite a permeable
formation;
o If the mud is more saline, then the curve has a positive voltage with
respect to the baseline opposite permeable formations;
o If it is less, the voltage deflection is negative.

SP deflections vs. Salinity

• Hole diameter: A larger wellbore will cause, like a mud filtrate

invasion, the deflections on the SP curve to be rounded off and decrease
the amplitude opposite thin beds, while a smaller diameter wellbore has
the opposite effect.

• Depth of invasion and Bed thickness: Mud invasion into the

permeable formation can cause the deflections in the SP curve to be
rounded off and to reduce the amplitude of thin beds.

29
The current flow and hence the SP deflection depends on the difference
between the resistivity of the uninvaded formation water, Rw, and that of
the mud filtrate Rmf.

 In normal cases Rw<<Rmf, the SP deflection from the shale

baseline is negative (left).

 In the opposite condition, Rw>Rmf, found in fresh formation

waters, the deflection is positive (right).

Uses of the SP log

The SP log is usually recorded on the left track of the log (track 1) and is
used to:

1. Detect porous and permeable reservoir rocks.

2. Determine bed boundaries and bed thickness.

3. Evaluate the formation water resistivity (Rw).

4. Determine the volume of shale in permeable beds.

5. Correlation of permeable beds.

30
 Figure 5: Idealized SP log for various combination of rock types and fluids.

SP Log - Shale volume evaluations

31
 GR: GAMMA RAY LOG

The gamma ray log measures the natural gamma ray emissions from
radioactive formations. Since many gamma rays can pass through steel
casing, the log can be run in both open and cased holes.

Gamma ray logging was introduced in the late 1930s as the first
nonelectrical logging measurement. It was immediately useful for
distinguishing shaly from clean formations.

Figure 6 shows a gamma ray log. It is normally presented in track 1 on a

linear grid and is scaled in API units (0 – 200). Gamma ray activity
increases from left to right. Gamma ray tools consist of a gamma ray
detector and the associated electronics for passing the gamma ray counts
or count rates to the surface.

Figure 6. Gamma ray log.

32
Gamma Ray Tools:

Two types of devices are routinely used for determining formation

radioactivity.

1 The GR Tool:

The gamma ray log measures the total natural gamma radiation
emanating from a formation (Fig 6). This gamma radiation originates
from potassium-40 and the isotopes of the Uranium-Radium and Thorium
series. The gamma ray log is commonly given the symbol GR.

Its main use is the discrimination of shales by their high radioactivity.

Note that shales, organic rich shales and volcanic ash show the highest
gamma ray values, and halite, anhydrite, coal, clean sandstones, dolomite
and limestone have low gamma ray values.

2 Spectral Gamma Ray: (SGR)

The spectral gamma ray log measures

the natural gamma radiation
emanating from a formation split into
contributions from each of the major
radio-isotopic sources (Fig. 7).

The spectral gamma ray tool uses the

same sensor as the total gamma ray
tool. The output from the sensor is fed
into a multi-channel analyzer that
calculates the amount of radiation
coming from the energies associated
with each of the major peaks.

The two types of devices have similar depths of investigation and suffer
from minor environmental effects.

33
 Figure 8: General GR Response.

SOURCES OF NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

Gamma rays originate in three sources in nature. These are the

radioactive elements of the Uranium Group, the Thorium Group, and
potassium.

Most common sources:

–Potassium (K40)
–Thorium (Th 232)
–Uranium –Radium (U 235, U238)

Where Are These Elements Found?

• In zones containing potassium feldspars ( granites, feldspathic

sands).
• Volcanic and igneous rocks.
• Sands containing volcanic ash.
• Clays.

34
GR Log Uses

1. Estimate bed boundaries, stratigraphic correlations.

2. Estimate shale content .
3. Perforating depth control.
4. Identify mineral deposits of potash, uranium, and coal.
5. Monitor movement of injected radioactive material.

Estimating Shale Content from Gamma Ray Logs

Since radioactive isotopes are often associated with the clay minerals in
shales, it is a commonly accepted practice to use the relative gamma ray
deflection as a shale volume indicator. The simplest procedure is to scale
the gamma ray between its minimum and maximum values from 0 to
100% shale. The Gamma Ray Index is defined as a linear scaling of the
GR between Gmin, and Gmax, such that:

35
Identification of Reservoir and Non-Reservoir Rocks From SP & GR
logs

- Reservoir Rocks
 Low Gamma Ray
 Good SP development

- Non Reservoir Rocks:

 High Gamma Ray
 Flat SP development

36
37
 Resistivity Logs

Introduction

Resistivity is an intensive rock/fluid property, and is a measure of (the

inverse of) the electrical flow capacity of the rock

• Resistance is extensive and for linear, 1-D electrical flow,

r=(R ·L)/A
• r electrical resistance, 
• R electrical resistivity, ·m
• L length of electrical flow path, m
• A cross-sectional area perpendicular to electrical flow
path, m2

Resistivity logs record the resistance of interstitial fluids to the flow of an

electric current, either transmitted directly to the rock through an
electrode, or magnetically induced deeper into the formation from the
hole. Therefore, the measure the ability of rocks to conduct electrical
currents and are scaled in units of ohm-meters.

Resistivity logs are primarily used to differentiate between hydrocarbon

and water-bearing zones. Because a rock's matrix is non-conductive, the
ability of the rock to transmit a current is almost entirely a function of
water in the pore spaces. Hydrocarbons, like the rock matrix, are
nonconductive; therefore, as hydrocarbon saturation increases, the rock's
resistivity increases.

38
Resistivities:
 Rt - Resistivity of the formation in the virgin zone, ohm-m
 Rxo - Resistivity of the flushed zone, ohm-m
 Rm - Resistivity of the mud, ohm-m
 Rmc - Resistivity of the mudcake, ohm-m
 Rw - Resistivity of 100% formation water, ohm-m
 Rmf - Resistivity of 100% mud filtrate , ohm-m

Factors which Affect Resistivity Measurements

Resistivity tools are affected by:

 Invasion of mud filtrate.

 Mud in the borehole.
 Resistivity of the shoulder beds.
 Mud cake.

All resistivity readings must be compensated for these effects.

Applications of Resistivity Well Log Data

 Establish permeable zones.

 Discriminate hydrocarbon versus water saturated zones.
 Estimate water/moveable hydrocarbon saturations.
 Estimate porosity (based on resistivity).
 Correlate strata a really.

39
By far the most important use of resistivity logs is the determination of
hydrocarbon-bearing versus water-bearing zones. Because the rock’s
matrix or grains are nonconductive and any hydrocarbons in the pores are
also nonconductive, the ability of the rock to transmit a current is almost
entirely a function of water in the pores. As the hydrocarbon saturation of
the pores increases (as the water saturation decreases), the formation’s
resistivity increases. As the salinity of the water in the pores decreases (as
Rw increases), the rock’s resistivity also increases. A geologist, by
knowing (or determining) several parameters (a, m, n, and Rw), and by
determining from logs the porosity (φ) and formation bulk, or true,
resistivity (Rt), can determine the formation’s water saturation (Sw) from
the Archie equation:

where:

Sw = water saturation
a = tortuosity factor
m = cementation exponent
n = saturation exponent
Rw = resistivity of formation water
φ= porosity
Rt = true formation resistivity

Typical hydrocarbon/water contact on resistivity log

40
Families of Resistivity Tools

There are two basic types of resistivity logs used in the oilfield,
induction logs and electrode logs.

Electrode tools: electrical current sent by electrodes into formation.

Requires water-base muds. Electrode tools (also called galvanic devices
or, for presently available versions, laterologs) have electrodes on the
surface of the tool to emit current and measure the resistivity of the
formation.

Induction tools: generate a magnetic field that induces a current in the

formation Oil-base, air, or fresh-water muds. Induction tools use coils to
induce a current and measure the formation’s conductivity.

These two types of tools have many variations, which are summarized
in Table 1.

Table 1. Classification of Resistivity Logs.

41
Depth of Resistivity Log Investigation

 Tools Measuring the Uninvaded Zone (Rt)

These tools (deep induction and deep laterolog) essentially measure Rt.

 Tools Measuring the Invaded zone (Ri)

The actual quantitative value of these readings is not as important as how

these readings relate to Rt and Rxo. By comparing them, we can obtain:
• Corrected Rt values.
• Depth of invasion of the mud filtrate.
• An idea of the formation's permeability.
• An estimate of movable oil.
 Tools Measuring the Flushed Zone (Rxo)
Four different Rxo tools are available, the ML, MLL, PL and MSFL.
They are intended for different conditions of salinity, mud cake thickness
and diameters of invasion.

42
Resistivity of Rocks

Reservoir rocks contain the following constituents:

1. Matrix material High resistivity.
2. Formation waters Low resistivity.
3. Oil High resistivity.
4. Gas High resistivity.
5. Water-based mud filtrate Low resistivity.
6. Oil-based mud filtrate High resistivity.

43
1-Electrode tools:

Modern Resistivity Log:

Laterologs: (LL)

It is a type of modern electrodes which have a number of electrodes.

• LL3 has 3 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is 1ft).

• LL7 has 7 current emitting electrodes (vertical resolution is 3ft).
• LL8 is similar to the LL7, but has the current return electrode
(vertical resolution is 1ft).

Dual Laterologs: (DLL)

It is the latest version of the laterolog. As its name implies, it is a

combination of two tools, and can be run in a deep penetration (LLd) and
shallow penetration (LLs) mode. These are now commonly run
simultaneously and together with an additional very shallow penetration
device. The tool has 9 electrodes. Both modes of the dual laterolog have a
bed resolution of 2 feet. The resistivity readings from this tool can and
should be corrected for borehole effects and thin beds, and invasion
corrections can be applied.

The dual laterolog is equipped with centralizes to reduce the borehole

effect on the LLs. A micro resistivity device, usually the MSFL, is
mounted on one of the four pads of the lower of the two centralists.

NOTE: Separation of the LLs and LLd from each other and from the
MSFL is indicating the presence of a permeable formation with
hydrocarbons.

44
Spherically Focused Log: (SFL)

The spherically focused log (SFL) has an electrode arrangement that

ensures the current is focused quasi-spherically. It is useful as it is
sensitive only to the resistivity of the invaded zone.

Micro-Resistivity Logs

Micro Log: (ML)

It is a rubber pad with three button

electrodes placed in a line with 1 inch
Spacing The result from this tool is
two logs called the 2”normal curve
(ML) & the1½“inverse curve (MIV).

The difference between the two curves

is an indicator of mudcake (so it is
used in making sand counts).

Micro laterolog: (MLL)

It is the micro-scale version of the

laterolog. The tool is pad mounted,
and has a central button current
electrode. The depth of investigation
of the MLL is about 4 inches.

45
Proximity Log: (PL)

This tool was developed from

the MLL. It is used to measure
RXO. It has a depth of
penetration of 1½ ft., and is not
affected by mudcake. It may,
however, be affected by Rt when
the invasion depth is small.

Micro Spherically Focused Log: (MSFL)

It is commonly run with the

DLL on one of its stabilizing
pads for the purpose of
measuring RXO. It is based on
the premise that the best
resistivity data is obtained when
the current flow is spherical
around the current emitting
electrode. The current beam
emitted by this device is initially
very narrow (1”), but rapidly
diverges. It has a depth of
penetration of about 4” (similar
to the MLL).

2- Induction Tools:

These logs were originally designed for use in boreholes where the
drilling fluid was very resistive (oil-based muds or even gas). It can,
however, be used reasonably also in water-based muds of high salinity,
but has found its greatest use in wells drilled with fresh water-based
muds.

The sonde consists of 2 wire coils, a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx).
High frequency alternating current (20 kHz) of constant amplitude is

46
applied to the transmitter coil. This gives rise to an alternating magnetic
field around the sonde that induces secondary currents in the formation.
These currents flow in coaxial loops around the sonde, and in turn create
their own alternating magnetic field, which induces currents in the
receiver coil of the sonde. The received signal is measured, and its size is
proportional to the conductivity of the formation.

Calibration:

Induction logs are calibrated at the wellsite in air (zero conductivity) and
using a 400ms test loop that is placed around the sonde. The calibration is
subsequently checked in the well opposite zero conductivity formations
(e.g., anhydrite), if available.

1- The 6FF40 Induction-Electrical Survey Log (IES-40)

It is a 6 coil device with a nominal 40 inch Tx-Rx distance, a 16 inch
short normal device and an SP electrode.

2- The 6FF28 Induction-Electrical Survey Log (IES-28)

It is a smaller scale version of the IES-40. It is a 6 coil device with a
nominal 28 inch Tx-Rx distance, a 16 inch short normal device and an SP
electrode.

3- The Dual Induction-Laterolog (DIL)

It has several parts: (i) a deep penetrating induction log (ILd) that is
similar to the IES-40, (ii) a medium penetration induction log (ILm), a
shallow investigation laterolog (LLs) and an SP electrode. The ILm has a
vertical resolution about the same as the ILd (and the IES-40), but about
half the penetration depth.

4- The Induction Spherically Focused Log (ISF)

It combines (i) IES-40, (ii) a SFL, and (iii) an SP electrode. It is often run
in combination with a sonic log.

5- Array Induction Tools (AIS, HDIL)

It consists of one Tx and four Rx coils. Intensive mathematical
reconstruction of the signal enables the resistivity at a range of
penetration depths to be calculated, which allows the complete invasion
profile to be mapped.

47
 POROSITY LOGS
Type of porosity logs:

1. Sonic log
2. Density log
3. Neutron log

 None of these logs

measure porosity
directly.
 The density and neutron
logs are nuclear
measurements
 The sonic log use
acoustic measurements
 A combination of these
logs gives good
indications for lithology
and more accurate
estimates of porosity

48
THE SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOG

Introduction

The sonic log is often grouped with the neutron and density logs, as
porosity logs. The tool response of all porosity logs is affected by the
formation matrix, fluid and porosity. The porosity logs all have very
shallow depth of investigation, usually a few inches into the formation,
generally within the flushed zone.

The sonic or acoustic log measures the travel time of an elastic wave
through the formation. The sonic log is a porosity log that measures
interval transit time (Δt) of a compressional sound wave traveling
through one foot of formation. The sonic log device consists of one or
more sound transmitters, and two or more receivers. Interval transit time
time (Δt) in microseconds per foot is the reciprocal of the velocity of a
compressional sound wave in feet per second. Interval transit time is
recorded in tracks #2 and #3. The interval transit time is dependent upon
both lithology and porosity.

Principle of the Sonic Log

 Transmitter emits sound

waves.
 Receivers pick up and
record the various
waves.
 Measure the first arrival
of the compressional
wave
 Travel time is the
difference in arrival of
the compressional wave
at the receivers
o (1’, 2’, 3’ Sonic)
o Δt = (t2 - t1)/Ls
 where Ls is span
between receivers.

49
Sonic affected by:

 Lithology
 Porosity
 Fluids
 Compaction/consolidation
 Borehole conditions
 Gas in drilling mud

Calibration:

The tool is calibrated inside the borehole opposite beds of pure and
known lithology, such as anhydrite (50.0 μs/ft.), salt (66.7 μs/ft.), or
inside the casing (57.1 μs/ft.).

Log Presentation

The interval transit time Δt is recorded on the log in microseconds per

foot (μs/ft.).

50
Depth of Investigation

The refracted wave travels along the borehole wall. As wavelength λ =

V/f (i.e., velocity divided by frequency), for any given tool frequency, the
higher the velocity the formation has, the larger the wavelength and the
deeper the penetration.

Logging Speed
The typical logging speed for the tool is 5000 ft/hr (1500 m/hr), although
it is occasionally run at lower speeds to increase the vertical resolution.

Sonic Log Problems

1) Noise:
Caused by tool movement along the borehole, generating a high
frequency noise component that is superimposed onto the normal acoustic
signal
.
2) Mud Arrivals:
Clearly the first arrival should be from a P-wave that has traveled through
the formation. In some circumstances the P-wave that has traveled
directly through the mud arrives first. This occurs if the Tx-Rx is smaller
than a critical distance that depends upon the velocities of the P-wave
through the formation and the mud, the diameter of the borehole and the
diameter of the tool. Tools are designed to avoid this by making the Tx-
Rx distance large enough for most applications.
3) Δt Stretch:
In heavily attenuating formations the value of Δt can be slightly too large
due to the thresholding method employed by the detection circuitry.
However, this problem is rarely significant, and is impossible to detect
from the log.
4) Cycle Skipping:
This is the occurrence of a failure in the thresholding to detect the first
cycle of the wave’s first arrival. Triggering may then occur at the second
or even third cycle. This causes a marked and sudden shift to higher Δt
values, followed by a shift back again to the correct value.
5) Altered Zone Arrivals:
The formation next to the borehole may not be typical of the rock, For
example, it may be filled with solid mud and have a higher velocity than
the virgin formation, or it may be fractured or altered and have a lower
velocity.

51
Sonic log types

1. Early Tools
2. Dual Receiver Tools
3. Borehole Compensated Sonic (BHC) Tool.
4. Long Spacing Sonic (LSS) Tool.
5. Common Industry Tools.

1 Early Tools

Early tools had one Tx (transmitter) and one Rx (receiver) (Fig. 2). The
body of the tool was made from rubber (low velocity and high attenuation
material) to stop waves travelling preferentially down the tool to the Rx.

Fig. 2 Early sonic tools.

2 Dual Receiver Tools

These tools were designed to overcome the problems in the early tools.
They use two receivers a few feet apart, and measure the difference in
times of arrival of elastic waves at each Rx from a given pulse from the
Tx (Fig. 3). This time is called the sonic interval transit time (Dt) and is
the time taken for the elastic wave to travel through the interval D (i.e.,
the distance between the receivers).

52
 Fig. 3 Dual receiver sonic tools in correct configuration.

Borehole Compensated Sonic

(BHC)

A simple tool that uses a pair of

transmitters and four receivers to
compensate for caves and sonde tilt.
The normal spacing between the
transmitters and receivers is 3’ – 5’.
It produces a compressional
slowness by measuring the first
arrival transit times.

Used for:

 Correlation
 Porosity
 Lithology
 Seismic tie in / time-to-depth
conversion

53
Uses of the Sonic Log

1) Seismic Data Calibration

The presence of a sonic log in a well that occurs on a seismic line or in a
3D survey enables the log data to be used to calibrate and check the
seismic data.
2) Synthetic Seismograms.
A synthetic seismogram is a seismic trace that has been constructed from
various parameters obtainable from log information.

3) Identification of lithologies
The velocity or interval travel time is rarely diagnostic of a particular
rock type. However, high velocities usually indicate carbonates, middle
velocities indicate sands and low velocities, shales. It is best to use the
sonic log with other logs if lithological identification is important.

4) Compaction
As a sediment becomes compacted, the velocity of elastic waves through
it increases. If one plots the interval transit time on a logarithmic scale
against depth on a linear scale, a straight line relationship emerges. This
is a compaction trend.

54
5) Overpressure

The sonic log can be used to

detect overpressured zones in a
well. An increase in pore
pressures is shown on the sonic
log by a drop in sonic velocity or
an increase in sonic travel time.

6) Stratigraphic Correlation
The sonic log is sensitive to small changes in grain size, texture,
mineralogy, carbonate content, quartz content as well as porosity. This
makes it a very useful log for using for correlation and facies analysis..

55
7) Porosity Determination

Calculation of Porosity from Sonic Log

Wyllie’s time averaged equation is based on a model of alternating solid

and liquid layers. The model’s travel time, Δ𝑡, is weighted sum based on
porosities, 1−∅ for the solid layer and ∅ for the liquid layer, with
resulting equation is:

56
where Δt is the travel time (µsec/ft) and Δtma is the matrix travel time and
Δtf is the fluids travel time. The velocities and corresponding travel times
of the rock and matrix are:

57
The time-averaged equation, due to its simplistic model, is most suitable
for clean , consolidated and compacted sandstones. The alternative, the
Raymer-Hunt equation (or “field observations”) results in slightly lower
values of porosity for clean quartz sandstones up to about 30% porosity.

Fig. 9 Chart for estimating porosity from compressional interval transit time.

Hydrocarbon Effects
The interval transit time (Δt) of a formation is increased due to the
presence of hydrocarbons. If the effect of hydrocarbons is not corrected,
the sonic-derived porosity is too high. Hilchie (1978) suggests the
following empirical corrections for hydrocarbon effect:

58
 DENSITY LOG
Introduction

The density log belongs to the group of active nuclear tools, which
contains a radioactive source and two detectors. Density Tools Can Run
in open and cased Hole. Density logging tools rely on gamma-gamma
scattering or on photoelectric (PE) absorption.

The formation density log is a porosity log that measures electron density
of formation. The density logging device is a contact tool which consists
of a medium-energy gamma ray source that emits gamma rays into a
formation. The gamma ray source is either Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137.

Gamma Ray Scattering

1- Compton Effect (Medium to High Energy GR’s)

 Scattered by electrons in formation

 Each interaction loses energy
 More electrons => more scattering
 Related to electron & rock density.

2- Photoelectric Effect (Low Energy GR’s)

 Absorbed by atoms
 More electrons => more absorption
 Indicates the atomic number –lithology

Density is measured in grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3 (or Kg/m3 or

Mg/m3), and is indicated by the Greek letter ρ (rho). Two separate density
values are used by the density log:

1. The bulk density (ρb or RHOB)

2. The matrix density (ρma).

Formulation bulk density is a function of matrix density, porosity, and

density of the fluid in the pores (salt, mud, fresh mud, or hydrocarbons).
Density is one of the most important pieces of data in formation
evaluation. In the majority of the wells drilled, density is the primary
indicator of porosity. In combination with other measurements, it may
also be used to indicate lithology and formation fluid type.

59
HISTORY:

1950s

•single detector tool developed initially to measure bulk density, rb, insitu
as an aid to geophysicists in gravity meter interpretation

Early 1960s

•accepted tool as a source for porosity

Late 1960s

•dual detector system, Compensated Formation Density (FDC) to correct

for borehole effects

Early 1980s

•development of Lithodensity Tool (LDT) to measure photoelectric

effect, Pe, with bulk density

60
 The density log; some typical responses.

Principle of the Density Log

Equipment:

 A radioactive source. This is usually caesium-137 or cobalt-60,

and emits gamma rays of medium energy (in range 0.2 – 2 MeV).

 A short range detector. This detector is very similar to the

detectors used in the natural gamma ray tools, and is placed 7
inches from the source.

 A long range detector. This detector is identical to the short range

detector, and is placed 16 inches from the source.

61
These pass through the mudcake and enter the formation, where they
progressively lose energy until they are either completely absorbed by the
rock matrix or they return to one the two gamma ray detectors in the tool.
Dense formations absorb many gamma rays, while low-density
formations absorb fewer.

Uses of the density log:

• Identify evaporite minerals.

• Detect gas-bearing zones.
• Determine hydrocarbon density.
• Evaluate shaly-sand reservoirs and complex lithologies.

Table1: The principle uses of the density log

62
Weak

 Determination of hydrocarbon density

 Determination of oil shale yield
 Identify overpressured zones

Vertical resolution

The vertical resolution at the typical logging speed (1300 ft/hr) is good
(about 26 cm, 10 inches),which is defined by the distance between the
two detectors.

Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation of a density tool decreases with increasing

density and never exceeds 6 inches. In the low density such as sandstone
with 35% porosity about13 cm (5 inches) from the borehole wall. In
higher density rocks the depth of investigation is even less, and a value of
about 10 cm (4 inches) can be taken as an average value for reservoir
rocks.

Factors affecting Density Logs

A. Borehole and mud filtrate: Density is a pad tool affected by

washouts.

B. Shale and Clays –Shale reduce the effective porosity. Shale

volume Vsh and shale density can be calculated from log.

C. Hydrocarbon: Light HC results in low density.

Hydrocarbon Effects

Oil does not significantly affect density porosity, but gas does (gas
effect). Hilchie suggests using a gas density of 0.7 g/cm3 for fluid density
(ρfl) in the density-porosity formula if gas density is unknown. Because
the presence of oil has little effect on the density log, this tool usually
provides the best indication of porosity in liquid-filled holes.

63
 The effect of gas on the
density log. In this example
the gas zone reads about 35%
porosity: it should read 27%
porosity.

Calculation of Porosity from Density Log

Formation bulk density (ρb) is a function of matrix density, porosity, and

density of the fluid in the pores (saltwater mud, freshwater mud, or
hydrocarbons). To determine density porosity, either by chart (Figure 4.4)
or by calculation, the matrix density (Table 2) and type of fluid in the
formation must be known. The formula for calculating density porosity
is:

where:
φD = density derived porosity
ρma = matrix density
ρb = formation bulk density (the log reading)
ρfl = fluid density

Table 2: Common densities are given below

64
THE LITHO-DENSITY LOG

This is an advanced version of the density log where the photoelectric

cross-section curve, Pe, is recorded along with bulk density
measurements. This is the measurement of effective atomic number of the
formation Z.

Pe Log Measurement

The use of photoelectric absorption in measuring formation average

atomic number, contributes to the identification of Lithology. This
measurement is made simultaneously with a density log, each utilizing a
different part of the spectrum of the gamma-ray current incident on the
far detector.

The density tool measures electron density, 𝜌𝑒 in terms of electrons per

cubic centimeter. The relation between bulk density and electron density
is:
𝜌𝑒=𝜌𝑏 (2𝑍/ 𝐴)

Where:
Z is the atomic number and
A is the atomic weight.

The photoelectric effect occurs when a gamma ray collides with an

electron and is absorbed in the process, so that all of its energy is
transferred to the electron. The probability of this reaction taking place
depends upon the energy of the incident gamma rays and the type of
atom. The photoelectric absorption index of an atom increases as its
atomic number, Z, increases.

Material Pe

Sand 1.81
Shale 3-4
Limestone 5.08
Dolomite 3.14
Salt 4.65
Anhydrite 5.05

65
Uses of the Litho-Density Log

1. Detection of Heavy Minerals and Inter-Well Correlation

2. Fractures
3. Determination of Lithology

Determination of Lithology
The litho-density log is one of the two most useful approaches to
lithological determination downhole. This is because the tool is simply
sensitive only to the mean atomic number of the formation, and at the
same time is insensitive to changes in porosity and fluid saturation in the
rock. Hence, the absolute Pe value may often be used to indicate directly
the presence of a given lithology. This lithology may then be checked
against the other tool readings for consistency.

Figure 14.5 Measurements of the photo-electric absorption (PEF) litho-density log

for common lithologies.

66
Matrix identification in a multi-mineral system using the PEF and density log data for
a formation saturated with a fluid of density equal to 1.0 g/cm3.

67
 THE NEUTRON LOG
1 Introduction

The neutron log is sensitive mainly to the amount of hydrogen atoms in a

formation. Its main use is in the determination of the porosity of a
formation (φN , PHIN, or NPHI).

The neutron log measures energy loss when neutrons emitted from the
tool collide with other particles in the formation. The maximum energy
loss during a neutron collision occurs when A neutron collides with a
particle of equal mass, that is a hydrogen atom.

 In formations with a large amount of hydrogen atoms, the neutrons

are slowed down and absorbed very quickly and in a short distance.
 In formations with a small amount of hydrogen atoms, the neutrons
are slowed down and absorbed more slowly and travel further
through the rock before being absorbed.

Figure 1: Shows a typical neutron tool.

68
2 Theory
In neutron logging there are three processes of interest: neutron emission,
neutron scattering and neutron absorption.

2.1 Neutron Emission

The neutron tool emits high energy neutrons from a radioactive source.
The neutron sources used in logging are a mixture of two elements (i) a
source of alpha radiation such as radium, plutonium or americium, and
(ii) beryllium-9.

2.2 Neutron Scattering

The fast neutrons interact with the nuclei of atoms within the formation.
At each interaction (collision) the neutron looses some energy and slows
down, and the nucleus of the atom in the formation material gains energy.

2.3 Neutron Absorption

The efficiency of neutron absorption varies from element to element. The
only elements which exhibit significant neutron absorbing behavior and
exist is reasonable quantities in rocks are hydrogen and chlorine.

3 Hydrogen Index

The Hydrogen Index of a material is defined as the partial concentration

of hydrogens per unit volume relative to water.

Table 1 Hydrogen index calculations for some reservoir minerals and fluids.

Note the following:

 If the tool is in 100% water (a large tank of the stuff, say), the HI =
1.000. This is equivalent to a rock of 100% porosity saturated with
water. So we have a fixed point that HI = 1 represents ɸ = 1.

69
  If the tool is in a pure limestone rock with zero porosity, the HI = 0,
because there are no hydrogen atoms in the solid matrix of calcite.
So we have a second fixed point where HI = 0 represents ɸ = 0.
 If the tool is in a pure limestone with a given porosity f, the
hydrogen index will be directly proportional to the amount of water
in the formation. Hence HI = f for completely water saturated
limestones.

Thus the hydrogen index is a proxy measure of porosity if the solid

minerals of the formation contain no hydrogen and if the pores are
completely saturated with water. But, it is the hydrogen index that
controls the count rate observed by the neutron tool. Hence we have a
tool that can measure porosity in water saturated formations where the
matrix minerals contain no hydrogen.

4 Tool Operation

There are three main types of neutron tool, which are:

1. The Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT)
2. The Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP)
3. The Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)

4.1 Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool (GNT)

This tool has a neutron source and a single detector. The tool can be run
in either open or cased holes. Because the tool is centered, the detected
neutrons and gamma rays have to travel through both mudcake and
drilling mud. Hence, this tool is highly sensitive to changes in borehole
quality, temperature, type of drilling mud, and mudcake thickness.

4.2 Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP)

This tool is designed for use in open holes only. The tool has a source and
a single detector with a 16 inch spacing. Because the tool is pressed
against the borehole wall, the drilling mud does not affect the
measurement, and the attenuation due to the mudcake is reduced.
However rough holes can cause misalignment of the either the source of
the detector with the borehole wall, and hence give erroneous readings.

4.3 Compensated Neutron Log (CNL)

This tool is designed to be sensitive to thermal neutrons, and is therefore
affected by the chlorine effect. It has two detectors situated 15 in and 25
in from the source. The CNL tool has a very strong source of neutrons.
The stronger source permits a deeper depth of investigation as well as
allowing the tool to operate in cased holes.

70
Units: porosity units(p.u.), v/v decimal, fraction or %.

5 Uses of the Neutron Log

Determination of Porosity
The main use of the neutron log is to provide porosity information. In
clean formations that have pores filled with water or oil, the neutron
measurement can be used to derive liquid-filled porosity. This is done
using the hydrogen index (HI) concept.

Determination of Lithology
The direct use of the neutron log to identify lithologies depends upon the
recognition of which lithologies may contain hydrogen atoms (Table 2).
By combining the density/neutron tool information, it is possible to get a
good estimate of likely formation lithololgy.

Table 2 Lithological and fluid indicators for the neutron tool.

71
 Figure 2 Typical neutron log responses in common lithologies.

Gas detection
Gas zones (not liquid-filled) can often be identified by comparing the
neutron porosity log with another porosity log, such as a density log.
(Neutron porosity reads much lower than Density porosity in gas zones.)

 GAS ---- Bulk density too low, density porosity too high
 GAS ---- Neutron --- More hydrogen – lower neutron count -
- porosity too low

72
73
 BOREHOLE IMAGING

Definition
High resolution graphical image of borehole wall. The walls are scanned
with optical, acoustic, and resistivity instruments.

Applications

Structural Applications
- Dip determination
- Fracture Identification
- Fault Identification

Stratigraphic Applications
- Net pay count
- Deposit identification
- Transport direction
Borehole condition
Stress (rock mechanics) analysis around borehole

Borehole breakout
- Drilling parameter

74
Principles of measurement and calculation

For resistivity images, electrodes on arms pushed lightly against borehole

wall are continuously brushed against the borehole wall. For ultra-sonic
images, the ultra-sonic transmitter and receiver are scanned around the
wall of boreholes.

High resolution resistivity imaging tool (FMI of Schlumberger)

75