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Biology Form III

REPRODUCTION STUDY GUIDE – PART II
Sexual Reproduction Involves Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the joining together of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female gamete.

In sexual reproduction, the parent organism produces sex cells or gametes produced by meiosis. Eggs and sperm are
examples of gametes which a haploid cells (single set of chromosomes). Two of these gametes then join together in the
process of fertilization. Fertilisation can take place externally (outside the body), such as in fish and amphibians, or
internally (inside the body) such as in reptiles, birds and mammals. The new cell which is formed by fetilisation is a
diploid cell (chromosome pairs) called a zygote. The zygote divides by mitosis again and again, and eventually through
division and differentiation of cells grows into a new organism.

Most fish shed their gametes directly into the water where fertilization occurs. Amphibians have the tendency to return
to the water for fertilization (mating). Reptiles and birds lay eggs which hatch and develop into adult and such animals
are called oviparous. In most mammals, both fertilization and development occur internally and such animals are called
viviparous. All mammals are viviparous with the exception of the duck billed platypus which is oviparous.

Male Gametes Move – Female Gametes Stay Still!

Many organisms have two different types of gametes. The large ones that do not move are the egg in humans. The
smaller ones that move actively in search of the female gamete are the sperm in humans.

Often one organism can only produce one kind of gamete. This kind of organism is called unisexual. Its sex is either
female or male. The papaya plant is unisexual.

Sometimes, though, an organism can produce both sorts of gametes. Earthworms, for example, can produce both eggs
and sperm. This kind of organism is called a hermaphrodite or bisexual. Many flowering plants are also
hermaphrodites.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

Most mammals have a definite mating season. During this season, mammals such as cats, goats and cattle have special mating calls.
In rodents, the testes enlarge and descend in the scrotal sacs and become functional. MANY MAMMALS FAIL TO BREED IF THE
TESTES REMAIN IN THE ABDOMEN. THIS IS BECAUSE SPERM CAN ONLY BE VIABLE AT TEMPERATURES COOLER
THAN BODY TEMPERATURE.

Many females have an oestrous cycle where during this cycle there is a stage when the female can receive a male. The ovum is
released from the ovaries late in the oestrous cycle.

Mating takes place when the female is in “heat” stage. The duration of the heat stage can vary between species.
EX: A female rat is in heat for a few hours every four days; Cows have a recurrent heat lasting about 18-21 days; a female dog is in
heat 6-12 days every six months.

The relationship between sexes during breeding season varies in different mammals. In carnivores such as wild dogs, the males
remain with the females and help in gathering food until the young are weaned. In other mammals such as goats, cows, sheep and
dogs, mating is random. One or more males pursue and have intercourse with the female for a few days until she is pregnant. Once
she is pregnant, the relationship is over.
Examples of Gestation period: the time between fertilization and birth
Rabbit 32 days
Cat or dog 60 days
Guinea pig 68 days
Pig 114 days
Sheep and goat 149 days
Human 270 days
Cow 280 days
Elephant 600 days
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN MAMMALS
Ovaries:
 located near each kidney
 make ova or eggs (ovum is singular form of ova)
 secrete female sex hormones oestrogen for stimulating growth of the rich nutrient blood tissue lining
of the uterus and progesterone for maintaining pregnancy by preventing the production of another
ovum and contraction of the uterine muscles.
Fallopian Tube:
 Also called oviduct, it is a tube with a funnel-shaped opening near each ovary
 When an ovum is released from an ovary, the ova travels into the opening of a fallopian tube.
 Usually, fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube.
Uterus:
 the two fallopian tubes lead to the uterus, also called the womb
 thick walls made of muscle tissue
 the zygote or fertilized ovum attaches to the muscular wall lined with blood tissue during pregnancy
 an organ called the placenta forms from the zygote bringing the uterine tissue close to the developing
zygote’s tissue.
 the size of a fist, but can stretch during pregnancy as the baby develops
 at the base is an opening with a small muscular ring called the cervix which leads to the vagina.
Placenta:
 An organ coming from the zygote making close contact to the tissues of the uterus wall.
 for transporting nutrients and oxygen from the mothers blood to the baby’s blood
 for disposing waste products from the developing baby’s blood back into the mother’s blood.
 The placenta is also an endocrine gland secreting the hormone progesterone late in pregnancy to
prevent the production of another ovum and to prevent contractions of the uterine walls before the
baby is fully developed before birth.

Vagina:
 This tubular opening connects the uterus to the outside of the body.
 The penis enters the vagina during intercourse and is where the sperm are deposited.

Vulva and Clitoris:

 These are the external genitals of the female reproductive system.
 Two openings to the outside from the body are located in the vulva including the urethra and vagina.
 The clitoris is located just above the urethra. The clitoris becomes erect when sexually stimulated
much like the penis in the male, providing feeling of pleasure.

Drawing Diagrams:
1. Draw and label the front and side view of the female reproductive system found on page 106, Biology Book II.
Label the following:
a. ovaries
b. fallopian tubes (oviducts)
c. uterus
d. vagina
e. cervix
f. bladder and urethra
g. anus.
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN MAMMALS
Testes:
 Located in a pouch of skin called the scrotum hanging outside the body.
 Contains thousands of very narrow coiled tubes that make sperm (also called spermatozoa) from the
cells in the walls of the tubules which divide by meiosis. Therefore, sperm are haploid cells (only one
set of 23 chromosomes).
 Sperm are very sensitive to heat so the testes hang outside the body where the temperatures are cooler
than body temperature.
 Testes are also endocrine glands secreting the hormone testosterone.
 Epididymis are attached to testes where sperm are temporarily stored.
 Vas deferens or also called sperm ducts lead from the epididymis towards the penis. The vas deferens
join up with the urethra just below the bladder.

Seminal Vesicles and Prostrate Gland:

 Seminal vesicles are two structures located just below the bladder and each has a tube leading to the
vas deferens (sperm ducts).
 The prostate gland is located around the urinary bladder and the urethra. The prostate gland, together
with the seminal vesicles secrete a fluid containing nutrients, provides protection for the sperm, and
stimulates swimming action of sperm tail.
 Semen is the fluid coming from the prostate gland and seminal vesicles mixed with the sperm coming
from the vas deferens.

Penis:
 The penis is a copulatory organ. Copulation is the act of the male sex organ entering the female body.
 The penis becomes erect during sexual stimulation by its tissues filling with blood. At the tip of the
penis are sensory nerves providing feelings of pleasure when stimulated similar to the female clitoris.
 The penis is used to deliver the sperm (carried in semen) into the vagina of the female. This is called
ejaculation.
 Note: The urethra continues downwards from below the bladder where it joins with the vas deferens,
and finally ends at the tip of the penis. The urethra can carry both urine and semen, but at different
times.
FACT!

The most children one woman has ever had are 69. A Russian woman who
lived between 1707 and 1782 had 16 pairs of twins, seven sets of triplets and
four sets of quadruplets, all born between 1725 and 1765.
Drawing Diagrams:
1. Draw and label the front and side view of the male reproductive system found on page 106, Biology Book II.
Label the following:
Scrotum seminal vesicles
Testes prostate gland
Epididymis bladder and urethra.
vas deferens

2. Draw a picture of the sperm cell. Label with functions: head with vesicle and nucleus, middle piece with
mitochondria, and tail.
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Reproduction in Humans
 Similar to all mammals
 Always sexual reproduction with gametes being produced by meiosis
 Fertilization is internal – the zygote develops inside the body of the female
 The two sexes have different reproductive systems, i.e. males have testes and penis, and females have
ovaries and uterus.
Adolescence and Puberty
Adolescence is the time between childhood and adulthood. Puberty is the age at which secondary sex
characteristics appear and gametes begin to be produced.

Sexual Maturation: Puberty

Females attain puberty at age 12-14 years
Males attain puberty 14-16 years.

Secondary sexual characteristics at puberty are stimulated by hormones.

Female hormones which are most important in these changes are oestrogen and progesterone.
The Male hormone most important is testosterone.
Puberty includes both behavioral changes and body structure changes called secondary sexual characteristics
which include:

 Males: hair develops on chin, chest and pubic area; shoulders widen; voice becomes lower pitch; body
odor increases; experiences wet dreams and erection of the penis when stimulated by sexual feelings;
feel sexual attraction to females (usually).
 Females: hair develops under arms and pubic area; enlargement of mammary glands and hips; body
odor increases; monthly menstruation cycle begins; experience wetness in vagina when stimulated by
sexual feelings; feel sexual attraction to males (usually).

Menstrual Cycle in Females

Menstruation and ovulation are part of the menstrual cycle in females.

Ovulation: the releasing an egg from the ovary. (Fertilisation could take place after ovulation.)
Menstruation: the breakdown and loss of the soft lining of the uterus which happens about once a month or
every 28 days and lasts for 3-5 days. This occurs if the egg comes to the uterus without being fertilized.

OVARIES MAKE EGGS

Ova (eggs) begin to develop in a female before she is born. The eggs are made from cells in the epithelium of
the ovary. A small space, filled with liquid, forms around each one. The space and the cell inside it is called a
follicle. At birth a girl has many thousands of follicles inside her ovaries. When she reaches puberty, some of
these follicles will begin to develop. Usually only one develops at a time. The cell inside the follicle grows
bigger and so does the space around it. This follicle moves to the edge of the ovary and is now called a
Graafian follicle about 1 cm diameter.

Throughout this process, the developing egg has been undergoing meiosis.
ONLY ONE OF THE CELLS WHICH ARE MADE BECOMES AN EGG.

The follicle bursts, and the egg is pushed out of the ovary. This is called ovulation and happens about once a
month or every 28 days in humans. The development and release of the egg (ova) alternates between her two
ovaries.
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THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE IS CONTROLLED BY HORMONES: OESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE
First a follicle develops inside the ovary. The developing follicle secretes a hormone called oestrogen. The
oestrogen makes the lining of the uterus grow thick and spongy. When the follicle is fully developed, ovulation
takes place. The follicle stops secreting oestrogen. It becomes a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum starts to
secrete another hormone, called progesterone,

Progesterone keeps the uterus lining thick, spongy, and well supplied with blood to supply food and oxygen to
the embryo, in case the egg is fertilized. If it is not fertilized, then the corpus luteum gradually disappears.
Progesterone is not secreted anymore, so the lining of the uterus breaks down. Menstruation happens. A new
follicle starts to develop in the ovary, and the cycle begins again.

But if the egg is fertilized, the corpus luteum does not degenerate so quickly. It carries on secreting progesterone
until the embryo sinks into the wall, and a placenta develops. The placenta secretes progesterone, and carries on
secreting it through the pregnancy. The progesterone maintains the uterus lining, so that menstruation does not
happen during the pregnancy.

INSERT PICTURE OF HORMONES AND MENSTRUAL CYCLE FROM PAGE 166 BIOLOGY OF EAST AFRICA
FACT!

An average female human may ovulate as many as 400 times during her life.
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FROM FERTILISATION TO EMBRYO IN HUMANS
When the man is sexually excited, blood is pumped into spaces inside the penis, so that it becomes erect. To
bring the sperm as close as possible to the egg, the man’s penis is placed inside the vagina of the woman.
Sperm are pushed out of the penis into the vagina. This happens when muscles in the walls of the tubes
containing the sperm contract rhythmically. The wave of contraction begins in the testes, travels along the vas
deferens and into the penis. The sperm are squeezed along and out of the man’s urethra and into the woman’s
vagina. This is called ejaculation. The fluid containing sperm is called semen. Ejaculation deposits the semen
at the top of the vagina, near the cervix.

FERTILISATION HAPPENS IN THE OVIDUCT (FALLOPIAN TUBES)

The sperm are still quite a long way from the egg. They swim, using their tails, up through the cervix, through
the uterus, and into the oviduct.
Sperm can only swim at a rate of about 4 mm per minute, so it takes a while for them to get to the oviducts.
Many fail. But, one ejaculation deposits about one million sperm in the vagina, so there is a good chance that
some sperm will reach the egg.
One sperm enters the egg. Only the head of the sperm goes in; the tail is left outside. The nucleus of the sperm
fuses with the nucleus of the egg. This is fertilization.
As soon as the successful sperm enters the egg, the egg membrane becomes impenetrable, so that no other
sperm can get in. The unsuccessful sperm die.
THE ZYGOTE IMPLANTS IN THE UTERUS WALL
When the sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus fuse together, they form the zygote. The zygote continues to
move slowly down the oviduct. As it goes, it divides by mitosis. After several hours, it has formed a ball of
cells. This is called the embryo. The embryo obtains food from the yolk of the egg.
It takes several hours for the embryo to reach the uterus and by this time it is a ball of 16-32 cells. The uterus
now has a thick and spongy lining and the embryo sinks into it. This is called implantation.
THE EMBRYO’S LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEM IS ITS PLACENTA
The cells in the embryo, now located in the soft wall of the uterus, continue to divide through mitosis. As the
embryo grows, a placenta grows, which connects it to the wall of the uterus. The placenta is soft and dark
red, has finger-like projections called villi. The villi fit closely into the uterus wall.
The placenta is joined to the embryo by the umbilical cord. Inside the umbilical cord is an artery and a vein.
The artery takes blood from the embryo into the placenta, and the vein returns the blood to the embryo.
In the placenta are capillaries filled with the embryo’s blood. In the wall of the uterus are large spaces filled
with the mother’s blood. THE EMBRYO’S AND THE MOTHER’S BLOOD DO NOT MIX! They are
separated by the wall of epithelial cells of the placenta. BUT, they are brought very close together, because
the wall of the placenta is very thin.
Oxygen and food nutrient materials in the mother’s blood move across the wall of the placenta into the
embryo’s blood by diffusion. Then the food and oxygen are carried along the umbilical cord to the embryo.
Carbon dioxide and other waste materials diffuse the other way, and are carried away in the mother’s blood.
As the embryo grows, the placenta grows, too. By the time the embryo is born, the placenta will be a flat disc,
about 12 cm in diameter and 3cm thick.
AN AMNION PROTECTS THE EMBRYO
The embryo is surrounded by a strong sac or membrane called the amnion. The amnion makes a liquid called
amniotic fluid. This fluid helps to support and protect the embryo in the uterus.
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE FETUS, BIRTH OF A BABY AND CARE OF THE YOUNG
A FETUS DEVELOPS DURING GESTATION
No one fully understands how the cells in the ball which embedded itself in the wall of the uterus become arranged to
form a baby. The cells gradually divide and grow and differentiate into different kinds of body cells such as nerve
cells, epithelial cells and muscle cells.
By eleven weeks after fertilization the cells have become organized into all the different tissues and organs. By this
stage the embryo is called a fetus.
MUSCULAR CONTRACTIONS CAUSE BIRTH
A few weeks before birth, the fetus usually turns over in the uterus, so that it is lying head downwards just over the
opening of the cervix.
Birth begins when the strong muscles in the wall of the uterus contract. This is called labour.
To begin, the contractions are gentle and happen once as hour. Gradually, they become stronger and more frequent.
The contractions of the muscles slowly stretch the opening of the cervix.
After several hours the cervix is wide enough for the head of the baby to pass. Now the muscles start to push the baby
down through the cervix and vagina. This happens quickly.
The baby is still attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord. Now that the baby is in open air, it can breathe for
itself, so the placenta is no longer needed. The placenta falls away from the wall of the uterus, and passes out through
the vagina. The discarded placenta is now called the afterbirth.
The umbilical cord is cut, and clamped or tied just above the point where it joining the baby. There is no pain because
there are no nerves in the cord. The stump of the cord forms the baby’s navel.
The contractions of the uterus muscles are painful. They feel like a cramp. However, the mother can help to reduce the
pain by preparing her body with exercises before labour begins and by breathing in a special way during labour. She
can also be given pain-killing drugs if she needs them.
MAMMALS CARE FOR THEIR YOUNG
A human baby is very helpless when it is born. Both parents are needed to help care for it.
During pregnancy, the glands in the mother’s breasts will become larger. Soon after birth of the baby, they begin to
make milk. This is called lactation. Lactation happens in all mammals but NOT in other animals.
Mother’s milk contains all the nutrients that the baby needs. It also contains antibodies which help the baby resist
disease and infections.
As well as being fed, the baby needs to be kept warm. Because the baby is so small, a baby has a large surface area in
relation to volume, so it loses heat very quickly.
It is extremely important that a young baby is cared for emotionally, as well as physically. Babies need to be held and
in close contact with their parents.
Most mammals care for their young by feeding them and keeping them warm. In humans and many other mammals,
parental care also includes teaching the baby and young child how to look after itself, and how to live in society. This
continues into its teenage years for humans – much longer than any other animal.
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INSERT PICTURES PAGES 128 – 129 BIOLOGY OF EAST AFRICA
 TWINS CAN BE IDENTICAL OR NON-IDENTICAL 9
Most mammals have several young at a time. Humans and a few other mammals are unusual in only having single births. But
some have twins, triplets or even more babies at one time. Having twins tends to run in families.
IDENTICAL TWINS
When the ball of cells formed from the zygote divides completely into two separate balls, soon after fertilization, each ball of
cells grows into a separate embryo. This two share the same placenta. The two embryos have developed from the same egg and
same sperm so they have exactly the same genes in their chromosomes. They are the same sex and look very much the same.
NON-IDENTICAL TWINS
Non –identical twins happens when two separate eggs are fertilized by two separate sperm. This can only happen when more
than one egg is released from the ovaries at the same time. Each embryo has its own placenta. The two embryos have different
combinations of genes in their chromosomes because they developed from different eggs and sperm. Non-identical twins can be
both girls, both boys or a boy and a girl.
MULTIPLE BIRTHS
Very rarely, several eggs are released from the ovaries at the same time resulting in a multiple birth. Most multiple births have
occurred when a woman has been given hormone treatment to help her to produce and release eggs.
FACT!

The most children surviving at a single birth is six! This has happened three times – once in South
Africa in 1974, once in 1980 in Italy and once in England in 1983.

CONTRACEPTION PREVENTS FERTILISATION AND THEREFORE PREVENTS PREGNANCY

 Contraception is the prevention of fertilization when sexual intercourse takes place.
 Contraception is important in keeping family sizes small, and in limiting the increase of the human population.
 Careful and responsible use of contraceptive methods means no unwanted children need ever be born.
 Contraceptive methods all work by preventing the sperm from coming into contact with an egg.

Method How it works Advantages and Disadvantages

Male The condom is placed over the erect penis. It traps semen
Condom containing sperm as it is released, stopping it from
entering the vagina.
Cap or The cap is a circular sheet of rubber which is placed over
diaphragm the cervix, at the top of the vagina. Spermicidal (sperm-
killing) cream is first applied round its edges. Sperm
deposited in the vagina cannot get past the cap into the
uterus.
The pill or The pill contains female sex hormones. One pill is taken
oral every day. The hormones act like those that are made
contracept when a woman is pregnant, and stop eggs from being
ive produced and released.
Sterilizati In a man, the vas deferens are cut or tied, stopping the
on sperm from traveling from the testes to the penis. In a
woman, the oviducts are cut or tied, stopping eggs from
traveling down the oviducts to the uterus.
This is a very safe, inexpensive and effective method if
used correctly. Care must be taken that no semen is
allowed to escape before it is put on or after it is
removed. It can also help prevent the transfer of infection
such as gonorrhea and HIV from one partner to the other.
This is a safe and effective method if used and fitted
correctly. Fitting must be done by a doctor, but after that a
woman can put her own cap in place and take it out and
wash it after each session of intercourse.
This is a very effective method, so long as the pills are
taken at the right time every day. However, some women
do experience unpleasant side effects, and increases her
risk for some cancers. It is important that women on the
pill have regular check-ups with their doctor.
An extremely effective and sure method of contraception,
with no side effects. However, the tubes often cannot be
re-opened if the person later decides they want to have
children.

Rhythm The woman keeps a careful record of her menstrual cycle
over several months, including taking her temperature
and watching for mucus discharge, so that she can predict
in a very rough guess when an egg is about to be released
from an ovary and present in her oviducts. She then must
abstain completely from sexual intercourse for several
days to a week around this time.
This is very unsafe and ineffective method, because it is
never possible to be 100% certain when ovulation is
going to happen nor how long the egg remains in the
oviduct. All other methods have a much higher percent of
success rates in preventing pregnancy.
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COMPARISON OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FISH, AMPHIBIAN, BIRDS, MAMMALS AND FLOWERING PLANTS

Fish (herring) Amphibian (frog) Bird (robin) Mammal (human) Flowering plant (wall flower)

Number of eggs Large amount Medium amount Small amount Small amount Small amount

Size of eggs Medium Medium Large Small Very small

fertilisation External External Internal Internal Internal

How embryo Yolk in egg Yolk in egg Yolk in egg Yolk in egg, then by From parent plant, then from
feeds diffusion from the cotyledons of the seed.
mother’s blood
through placenta.
How embryo By osmosis from By osmosis from From albumen By osmosis from the By osmosis from the parent until the
gets water sea water or lake pond water mother’s blood seed is fully developed, but then it
water through the placenta dries. At germination, water is
absorbed from the soil by osmosis.
How embryo By diffusion from By diffusion from By diffusion from By diffusion from the By diffusion from air
gets oxygen sea water or lake pond water air mother’s blood
water through the placenta
Protection of By albumen, a jelly- By albumen, a jelly- By albumen, By amniotic fluid and By testa of seed and pericarp of
embryo like fluid protein like fluid protein shell, nest and mother’s body wall fruit.
parents
Protection of None None By nest and By parents None
young parents

Vocabulary
Write the definition for the following terms.
 1 fallopian tube 12 puberty 23 gestation
2 uterus 13 ovulation 24 fetus
3 vagina 14 menstruation 25 pregnancy
4 testes 15 oestrogen 26 sterilisation
5 sperm 16 progesterone 27 oral contraceptives
6 scrotum 17 sexual intercourse 28 intra-uterine devices
7 epidydymis 18 zygote 29 diaphragm
8 vas deferens (sperm duct) 19 embryo 30 condom
9 prostate gland 20 placenta 31 coitus interuptus
10 penis 21 umbilical cord 32 rhythm method
11 semen 22 amniotic fluid

Matching Review of Plant Reproduction

a. zygote i. A sex cell containing only half the normal number of chromosomes
b. mitosis ii. An ovary after fertilisation
c. meiosis iii. A diploid cell, formed by the fusion of two gametes
d. gamete iv. A type of cell division which produces two daughter cells just like the parent cell
e. pollination v. A type of cell division which produces daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
f. fertilization vi. The transfer of pollen from the anther to a stigma
g. fruit vii. A ovule after fertilisation
h. seed viii. The fusion of two gametes
Post Test: Human Reproduction
1. Which type of cell division is involved in:
a) the production of a new organism by asexual reproduction
b) the production of gametes
c) the growth of a zygote and embryo?
2. What is the name of the narrow opening between the uterus and the vagina?
3. Where is the prostate gland and what is is its function?

4. What is a Graafian follicle?

5. Explain how ovulation happens.

6. Where are sperm made?

7. How does an egg travel along the oviduct (fallopian tubes)?
8. What is semen?
9. Where does fertilization usually occur?
10. What is a fetus?
11. How is the fetus connected to the placenta?
12. Describe two ways in which the structure of the placenta helps diffusion between the mother’s blood into the fetus’s
blood. Include the name of two substances which pass from the mother to the fetus and two which pass from the
fetus to the mother.
13. What is the function of the amnion?
14. Describe what happens to each of the following during the birth of a baby:
a) Muscles in the uterus wall
b) The cervix
c) The placenta
15. Why must a new born baby be kept warm?

16. Why does the uterus wall become thick and spongy?

17. What is the corpus luteum and which hormone is released by the corpus luteum?
18. Describe the process of the menstrual cycle including a diagram showing when different hormones are released and
when they stop being released.

19. Which hormone keeps the lining of the uterus thick and well supplied with blood as well as prevents the
development of an egg and ovulation while a woman is pregnant?
20. How is it possible for a mother with blood type “A” to be pregnant with a baby with blood type “B” without injuring
herself or the baby with antibodies when transferring food and waste back and forth between their blood vessels?