Introduction

Theatre/performance studies or practice does not allow concentration on any

one aspect of its vast range of components, such as only scenography or space at the

cost of others. Usually however, one of the aspects emerge as the most significant

characteristic to work with, subsequently to apply to my work to revaluate and then

move on to look at that component as where I you need to build up a deeper analytical

understanding. Hence to look at the concept of space, scenography and visual

language in modern and contemporary theater/performances may seem a partial view

but one can never stop at only looking at these aspects. The vital question in this

context is how or why one component is usually used in terms of analysis. What

determines this criterion as a priority over the others? Does it depend on the work, or

the director's preoccupation with that component. How do such interests develop in

terms of academic enquiry?

There are numerous problems in the aesthetic utilization of space in relation to

theatrical production. No generalized rules to utilize 'space' can be applied whether it

is for theatrical or other uses. There is an element of subjectivity in one's use of

space. It all depends upon one's conception, productive demands of the selected play

and the visual possibilities in the given circumstances and it could, some times,

possibly be turned into a sort of pedagogic arena. The pedagogic space can become

instructional in the Indian context. Some times any space can appear as absolute

abstraction and some other time, it is the' real space' bringing into forefront all the

material conditions which determine the space. Pedagogic factor is also essential for

theatre making process. It is, therefore, very important to understand (a) theatre space
as an abstract preposition, (b) to perceive as phenomenological study, (c) to find the

connections between the material conditions which construct the space and (c) as a

practical experiment in the study of theatre.

In recent times spatial discourses have replaced direct link to theatre buildings.

My objective in this sense is to explore the multiple functions of this spatial reality in

the construction and communication of theatrical meaning. My focus in that case is

the lived space of performance, space as is occupied and experienced by performers

and spectators, its historicization and theorization and not only a tool of analysis but

transforming into a method of analysis and understanding to explore the possibilities

of its emergence as a discipline to be taught. There are two aspects in this respect. (1)

Space as theatre discourse in today's perspective and its application to the

contemporary Indian performer and (2) Space within the Indian discourses of

modernity and history.

It is perhaps somewhat surprising to find that scholars/critics / practitioners /

theatergoers do not have a precise, widely shared vocabulary to enable them to name

and to talk about the multiple dimensions of the way space functions in performance.

It has remained confined to the domain of pedagogy. By contrast, a concept such as

characterization for the actor has been well theorized through all its complex and

problematic development. For example, acting methods like Stanislavski method has

created a method of reading into acting and also writing through specific vocabulary.

Yet the actor occupies a space and even looking at the actor on stage requ ires a wider

notion of understanding space.

2
 Hence mimesis or the actor on space is the logical corollary to the detailed

study I intend to do through the idea of space. The problems of mimesis/acting, much

theorized in such areas as semiotics and phenomenology have made reading of space

more a viable component. Therefore it is almost a supplemental act to include a

parallel narrative in terms of space in Indian theatre history. 1 have tried to layout the

relational character of space at the outset and proceed to construct the history, layout

theoretical discourses and tools of analysis and then convert it into a curricular form,

which is essential to pedagogy of design concepts. Once you apply the forces of

history and socio-economic force to the idea of spaces it is also impossible to see it

merely as design concepts and my work tends to try and balance these two ideas,

space as design, space as historiography of a modern contemporary Indian histories.

For example, the distinction between stage, set and the fictional place(s)

represented thereon, is, however less clearly established. There is no term for the

fictional place. There are also no terms that will enable us to distinguish the fictional

places represented onstage. They are evoked through the offstage connection to the

on stage and those that are referred to in the dialogue form part of the dramatic

geography as well as its history o. My interest here, however, is not only in the place

in itself but the ways in which the space and scenography functions in practice in the

performance experience, in the construction of meaning by spectators and the

transformation of space into a scientific, analytical, methodical and pedagogical

space. The very potentiality of a transformative space is however an idea borrowed

from political theatre and larger ideological notions.

3
 It is also significant to look at how in western study of theatre, space has

become an important theoretical a~d historical framework.

Given the centrality of space in the performance experience, it has been a

major concern and the entry point of exploration for many practitioner-scholars. At

the very outset of theatre studies, conceptualized in theatre history, space was

perceived as the most authentic source to reconstruct histories. Throughout the

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries books on theatre spaces were the most

dominant genre of writing on theatre and theatre history. No longer would the primary

evidence for the history of the theatre consist of dramatic texts, biographical data,

collected critical opinion and anecdote. Historians were prepared instead to concern

themselves with question of decor, theatre architecture, lighting and the logistical and

economic aspects of mounting a production and attracting an audience. These were

the only theatre study discourse accepted in the academic circles beyond the study of

drama and drama analysis in a more literary mode. In India the colonial system

created a further distance between drama as a literary mode and 'theatre' which came

out of practice or practitioners. The University departments were reluctant to even

include within their curriculum the popular plays or drama, let alone any concern on

theatre history as a discipline. Though some of the earliest books on theatre histories

in regional languages gave long and detailed description of theatre buildings and who

played where, these remained in the interim space between cultural history and a

popular culture literature which remained within the margins. Most of the early books

on theatre history comprises a detailed history of colonial theatre spaces and the

proscenium theatres which emerged in the period. Descriptions of theatre spaces were

a very important component of writing theatre history which allowed one to read
4
colonial spaces almost as a form of valorizing and acknowledging the cultural mission

of the colonial rulers. It is interesting to see how today to intervene within that

discourse of space, contemporary histories of the colonial period tend to use the

dialogues between space and the actress as an important historiographical

intervention. Bishnupriya Dutl's work on the colonial theatre and coming of the

English theatre in India uses this methodological approach. She looks at the larger

idea of the colonial city, the theatre area and its relation to the legitimate and

illegitimate spaces and ultimately the building and the scenography used in terms of

creating the setting for the actress. She interprets the plethora of scenic design as the

masculine presence which embodied colonialism itself. She then goes on to look at

the actress in these spaces and deconstruct a colonial history and its discourse of

spaces. I

Looking at space In a more complex and abstract way came from Western

directors and practitioners to whom space became important discourse for new

experiments. For example Peter Brookes's work looks at space as the primary

concern 2 , the condition which alone makes possible the simultaneous presence of

performer and spectator. Brooke's book almost a manual for practitioners is also

circulated within studies of theatre theories and looks at space to create a mapping of

the four types of theatrical activities which he discusses (deadly, holy, rough and

immediate). He covers a wide range of practices, which he summarizes as the entire

range of contemporary practices perceived through the lens of the space. Similarly

Antonin Artaud too a pioneer in this respect focuses on the idea of space. Brooke also

I Bishnupriya Dutt and Urmimala Sarkar, Engendering Performance, The Indian Woman Performers

Journey in Search of an Identity, Sage 2010.

2 Peter Brooke, Empty Space, Penguin. 1995

5
refers to Grotowski and his conceptualization of space. In the problem area of

audience and spectator presence, space has become the reference point for the

performer and spectator to come together. For both Artaud, Brooke and a number of

avant gaarde and iconic figures of western theatre practice space was never the

formalist aspect or just related to the form, it was a new manifesto style which

brought in the political and social through the spectator presence in terms of space.

Space has remained one of the key components of the discipline and through the idea

of space it is possible to trace its transition into a discipline which has moved into

realms of theoretical and philosophical discourses.

Contemporary theatre studies scholars who through their work made the

transition from theatre history to a more theoretical approach to theatre like Marvin

Carlson brought in more complex approaches to theatre spaces. In his two books

'Places of Performance, the semiotics of theatre architecture,3 and 'The Haunted

Stag~, Theatre as Memory Machine,4 Carlson reads the models from architectural and

urban semiotics to show how theatre building and its location within a city reflect a

society's attitude and concerns. He offers a history of the matrices of and audiences

for public performance. Though it he examines the margins and marginality of theatre

and theatre architecture and the articulation of space. Carlson brings in a unique

method of combining a historical objectivity with subjective conjectures based on

culture studies. Through this methodology he moves away from the actual space and

obvious assumptions of interpretation to a more theoretical and critical broadening of

the field which goes beyond mere descriptions of the actual space allowing only

3 Marvin Carlson,Places of Performance, The Semiotics of Theatre Architecture, Cornell University

Press, 1989
4 Marvin Carlson, The Haunted stage, The Theatre as Memory Machine, University of Michigan Press,

2005.
6
logical deductions. This model to read spaces is based on however western theories of

semiotics which significantly emerged out of reading the western spaces and feeds

back into its applicability of spaces. For us the constitutive semiotics of spaces has to

be worked out while also using it as a methodological approach. The fragmentary

evidence I have offered of spaces (chapter 1) in theatre is an attempt to first work out

the signs which were circulated in terms of a post independent Indian theatre, before it

could be applied to read spaces.

The emergence of performance studies as a discipline with its anthropological

thrust obviously bases a number of its theoretical and critical ideas around space. The

most important of it is of course Victor Turner's citation of space and creating the

subliminal spaces of transitions and transformation 5 . Richard Schechner the other

pioneer of Performance studies has worked on an elaborate theoretical discourse

around the idea of sacred spaces. 6 Performance studies has always worked on this idea

of theatre creating transformative space as well reflecting a more geographical and

historical representative spaces but looks at rituals as a modern reflection of theatre

and performative practice in India. Even at the juncture of independence and the

projects to map out a new Indian theatre scenario, rituals were never the focus ..

My entry point to map out the fragmented spaces which are key reference

point for theatre practices in a post independent India intends to find it through history

and historicization of spaces. It is ironical that we start with traditional spaces but

always leave it short of challenging the very idea of these eulogized spaces. They

5 Victor Turner, From Ritual to Theatre: The Human Seriousness of Play, Ithaca N.Y Performing in
Arts Journal Publications 1982, and Dramas. Fields and Metaphors; Symbolic Action in Human
Society. Ithaca, N.Y. Cornell University Press 1974
6 Richard Schechner. Introduction to Performance Studies, Rutledge, 2006

7
have been appropriated by the colonial discourse and subsequently performance

studies discourse who unconditionally apply problematic ethnographic and

anthropological methods, despite claiming a post colonial and post modern

perspective. My study of these spaces in terms of modern Indian theatre exposes the

anomaly of the performance study model. For example my reading of Ramnagar

Ramlila space contradicts a number of space concepts extolled by Schechner. 7 By

mapping these spaces through the lenses of Indian theatre history and practice I would

like to create alternate readings of these spaces and its applicability in terms of

symbolized spaces which to a conditioned local audience creates different political

and social meanings then what a anthropological study can ever intend to do.

For me and for the dissertation these spaces came to be reframed through very

key ideas of verticality and horizontality and its changing applications which runs

through a very fragmented picture of theatre practices in modern-conte~porary India.

I take the idea of a verticality in terms of space designing a reflection of a complex

class hierarchy. The very existence of a vertical design can create an alternative vision

of subversion which I read as horizontal when class and caste hierarchies get diluted.

Hence fragments are a starting point to (1) to identify the historical back

ground of scenography in relation with the space and its varied characteristics with a

view to analyzing the various aspects of director / theatre teacher and students, (2) to

identify and analyze various performing arts and their scenic aspects from a national

and regional angle and trace out the suitable ones for the specialization, planning,

utilization, adaptation and application in the construction and demonstration of scenic

decor· and architectural devices. (3) It may be interesting here to look at what the

7 Richard Schechner, Performative Circumstances from the Avant Garde to Ramlila, Seagull 1983
8
curriculum for scenography in NSD has been, how has history and theory been woven

in it, if it at all has and explore probable reasons if they have been erased.

Studied within this context, the idea of space is no longer abstract from its

history, which 1 read as new historiography, goes on to more theoretical paradigms

which does not ignore the material conditions of history and society. I push the

historical paradigms to move on to the more abstract l:\.reas of theoretical ideas while

establishing these connects and not universalizing the concept of space.

For me as a practitioner and teacher, space could never be left in either its

religious obscurantism such as what traditional theatre spaces would like to convey

that' sacred-spaces' does not require any definition. (Everybody knows what it is and

where it is. Is it the boundless region about the earth containing all bodies and

objects? Everything on the earth is part of this mysterious phenomenon. Is it only

earth? Is it not the universe, where all planets, satellites and stars are existing?)

As a theatre person, every time I refer to space I have to connect to historical

realities and theatrical histories or at least potentiality of it becoming part of historical

spaces. I need to translate them into 'real' and also reveal the process by which they

can be converted into the real, bringing in the material conditions and labor which

construct these spaces out of abstract imagination . The works I look were all

innovative work and conceived in the imaginary, but it was never beyond the power

of human efforts to convert and construct them into real spaces. The collective labour

is something we always ignore in giving the credits to the director who imagined and

imagine. There is nothing holy about a performance space, it is never sacred and the

hierarchies of G<)ds, class and caste are all constructed and reiterated again through

9
material conditions which allows it to be so created. Therein lies my connection to

history and historical forces. If we look at the processes we see why such imagination

is constructed and why they require to be communicated through various cultural

expressions of the times.

Scenography as a subject covers almost all the activities in the theatre

gamut.(space). Designing of set, lighting, costume, properties, make up, space

utilization etc. come under it in a very wider angle. Modern theatre artiste is not

satisfied with these activities only. He knows that the architectural ambience of the

acting space, permanent constructional features of the already built up play houses

like Koothambalams of Kerala temples, other period, theatres, tableaux created by

ensemble acting, chorographical compositions, visual imageries created by the

director, certain entries and exits, different poses, postures and positions of the actors

or actor, pageants and processions of groups of artistes etc. are all included in the

modern scenographic ambit(space). Even a single actor with a pair of Mizhavu

players and the wicked oil lamp placed on the Koodiyatam stage is itself a traditional

scenographic visual, which is marvelous, enchanting and divine in its effect but not in

the 'real' of the theatrical space. Floors, doors, windows, ceilings of the entire theatre

complex etc. too are effectively utilized by the modern theatre workers as a part of

their total scenographic planning.

It is only through a space analysis which plays between the real and imaginary

that such expose and process analysis are possible even more so than deconstructing

the process of the actor. Yet this is an area neglected or described only as a tribute to

the iconic figures of theatre history who created these spaces as if they are individual

10
work. My question comes from the very challenge to the way theatre histories are

written. Imperatively they become a his-story of one iconic figure to the other

constantly eulogize the end effect of the performance as 'nothing like it'. Post

independent Indian theatre histories are steeped in creating stars and iconic directors

as a linear narrative. Given the valorization of individuals within the new capitalist

economy it was expected to write histories glorifying the feats and achievements of

individuals. Therefore we read a history of star directors, one succeeding the other in

a long narrative. By bringing in the idea of space as the overall framework I intend to

displace the history of star-directors. A number of material which I used for primary

resources, official documents, seminar proceedings of the central government bodies,

important key policy documents are all geared ultimately to this personality oriented

history writing. The vocabulary to write theatre history has emerged from these

sources and we see a growing tendency amongst Indian scholars working at

International Universities writing histories of modern Indian thetre based on these

evidences. 8

We know that sometimes a production can be elevated to the supreme height

because of the effective and evocative application of the above factors. For me these

fragmentary sources were important as source of historical reconstruction but my

method is to deconstruct it through the challenge of its very process. For me it has

been a combination of practice. Teaching and collaborations with students and an in-

depth study of history and theory.

8Aparna Dharwadker, Theatres of Independence, Drama,theory and urban performances in India since
1947, OUP, 2005, Nandi Bhatia, Modern Indian Theatre, A Reader, OUP 2011.
II
 The dissertation seeks to explore some of the implications of the more

neglected aspects of the physical surroundings of performance by way of

demonstrating not only how surroundings reflect the social and cultural concerns and

suppositions of their creators and their audiences, but even more important how they

may serve or stimulate or to reinforce within audiences certain ideas of what theatre

represents within their society and how the performances it is offering are to be

interpreted and integrated into the rest of their social and cultural life. I intend in short

to consider how places of performance, generate social and cultural meanings of the

entire theatre experience. Although this inquiry will be oriented toward specific

historical illustrations rather than theoretical discussion, the method of analysis will

be based upon strategies derived from and suggested by modern semiotic theory and

culture studies.

Emergence of a New Nation and Conceptualizing space

In chapter one the intent is to layout the wide range of space concepts which

have come down to create new vocabularies for a study of stage and spatial designs.

What is looked on as an Indian history of space, i.e. traditional performances such as

Kutiyattam, Kothambalams, ideas from the Natya Shastra has the same historical

connotations as Victorian spe~tacles and the work of De Loutheborg. Yet these

examples and an inclusive idea of space has allowed contemporary stage designers

and scholars to extend the vocabulary of the stage language. Inclusion of these spatial

concepts were developed and once again made popular with the emergence of the new

Indian nation and ideas of a new Indian performance. Yet the colonial ideas could

also not be totally discarded. Taking this as the new vocabulary which were created at

the juncture of pre and post independence they allowed a visualization of a new
12
nation. In the subsequent part I try to create two crucial frames of reference in terms

of a nation where segmented spaces were being created and sanctioned by the State

based on class and caste differences and were bound to get reflected within the

established scenographic visuals. The subversive frames which I try to bring in

contrast to this hegemonic frame of the real are the theatrical visualization of space in

the works of Habib Tanvir and Rabindranath Tagore.

The 'Nation' In the Post Colonial Era & the 'National' School of
Drama

Chapter two takes on the history of the National School of Drama as the only

institution which emerged in post independent Indian with the nomenclature of the

nation and explores its history through the meanings which generated from its spatial

designs. The spectacles mounted during the time of Ebrahim Alkazi and his successor

B.V.Karanth are often remembered through its scenographic designs and spectacles.

If spectacle was the major characteristics ofNSD's work or at least what it remains in

the public memory is an important key point to retrieve the archive to study its spatial

content. I have tried to read meanings within such spectacles and spectacular

performances. Once Alkazi set the mnemonics of the NSD through spectacles even

Karanth's work more based on orality was also read through spatial design. The

meaning of what spatial mnemonics meant also changed with the evolving notion of

scenographic design. This also captured the politics of the new nation's projects in

trying to create an alternative genre of theatre which would not take on the agonistic

stance of the theatre practice prevalent in the rest of India. Scenography became a

preoccupation with form, yet at certain terms interpreted in terms of disillusionment

with the new nation and Nehruvian politics. This chapter has taken up a number of

13
important spectacles launched by Alkazi and Karanth to reconstruct the scenic design,

its meanings both in terms of its designing and also a reception.

Regional visions of a 'Nation': Kerala theatre and scenography

In chapter three I take off on the central versus regional tensions in terms of

cultural expression and as a representative case take on the Kerala theatre and what

regional meant in terms of scenographic design and space of the active theatre scene

in Kerala. I have tried to take a wide time frame of examples where I look at some of

the iconic figures of post independent modern theatre like KN Pannikar and his

scenographic vision Through his work I have tried to bring back the focus on the

debates I had raised in chapter one regarding a vertical and horizontal design concept.

If Habib Tanvir's work attempted to create a horizontality, Pannikar;s work tried to

reinforce a verticality where hierarchies are deliberately visually laid out. Through his

Sanskrit repertoire and his proximity to traditional Kerala art forms he creates a visual

segmentation of space which is very clearly marked out in terms of its visual design.

A large section of this chapter deals with my own Malaylee identity and the regional

and local factors which shaped my idea of scenographic space and design, including a

pedagogic process which emerged out of these different cultural forces. A part of it

has also tried to look at the historiography of western theatre's interest in Kerala arts

and preoccupation with looking at its specific spatial conception to crate an oriental

flavor to the works of western performers and directors. The last section of the

chapter has brought my dissertation within the realm of the contemporary by looking

at interesting work of young directors who are acclaimed for spectacular use of space

and extensive use of technology to create virtual spaces.

14
Revaluating Identities: National, Regional and the Global.

The last chapter is a self analysis and revaluation of my own work In

scenography and use of space. These productions happened in different spaces, In

Kerala, in Delhi, in international spaces where we represented Indian identity as well

as in festivals both national, local and international. I too have often been analyzed on

the basis of my work with design and scenographic text which I use extensively in my

work but in various form. Through my work and the critique I try to look at my work

not as also trying to use technology to create virtual spaces but to actually tell an

alternate story by distorting these spaces which are created through technological

devices. Given the privileged space I work in (NSD) where market forces of profit

and sponsors can be avoided I have not tried to create a visual delight and enhance

aesthetic sublimity through a confluence of the visual and virtual senses but actually

tried to create a narrative of dismemberment which is violent and tells its own story of

alienation and commodification.

In the conclusion I have tried to move from a more practice oriented writing, a

study of history to indicate theoretical issues which I have tried to address. A number

of larger critical frames which have come up in study of history and practice has been

brought together to bring up new ideas in theatre studies on performance as research

and larger questions of spectacle and spaces without which no dissertation on space

can be complete. The conclusion is not the end of the dissertation but new paths to be

explored for the future.

15
 CHAPTER-l

£MERGENCE OF A N£li NATION AND

CONCEPTUAUZIN6 SPACE
1.1 Stage Design & Space

I would like to start the first chapter by creating a mosaic of fragmentary

descriptions of scenographic design components which exist in our cultural scenario.

It is a way to reiterate the idea that there can be no one description or narrative or a

complete picture of Indian scenographic history or design but a fragmentary narrative

which creates a number of very varied and wide scenographic scenarios. Therefore

the picture is always incomplete and sUbjective.Yet the reason to create various visual

scenarios as the starting point is important as it provides a retrospective idea of the

alternatives which exist but for most practitioners and academics they come together

to create a narrative trajectory. Some of the genres which have influenced most

modern Indian experiments and work however have some common reference points

and representative case studies.! purposely start by looking at some traditional

scenarios not to attempt at any historical surveyor reconstruct a grand narrative

history of Indian scenographic design but like to create a more historiographical

intervention to analyze such instances and trace its contribution to a scenic narrative

of post independent India and its theatre scenographic histories. 9

In Indian context, the idea of scenic design is practically non-existent,

particularly as a concept in traditional theatre. On the other hand they are idealized as

having none or a minimum scenic design. Any theatre for that matter whether it is

folk performing form or temple theatre like 'Kudiyattam' used to be performed either

in open environment or in the architectural space specially earmarked for performing

9 For me the scenographic design as a form is important in their emphasis towards horizontality or a
verticality which they inherently promote. To read the horizontality or verticality is however an
extremely problematic area but the thread which runs through my chapter one connects the apparently
fragmented examples.
16
purposes like the 'Koothambalam' in Kerala's temples. In a sense the idealization

makes such space discussion exclusive and not allowed to be included in the larger

discourses of performance spaces. Even performance studies methodology while

eulogizing such spaces as transformative spaces create an exclusive aura to its

inclusive possibilities that these do come within larger Indian discourses of imagining

theatrical space as a symbolic space. In a sense it is history and historiography at the

same time when we include such examples within the larger discourse. The use of

space was important as visual elements were highly symbolic and the spatial elements

created the structural form of the performance. In the Indian context, it can be seen as

a spatially inter-active category creating a wide range of performance-audience

relationships based on certain rituals that mark both the performer and his audience.

The Ramlila of Ramnagar and Kudiyattam in the Koothambalam are two extreme

examples of this process.

The Ram Nagar Ramlila is held over 31 days instead of usual 10, and is

known for its lavish sets, dialogues and visual spectacle. Here permanent structures

have been built and several temporary structures are also added, which serve as sets,

to represent locations like Ashok Vatika, Janakpuri, Panchavati, Lanka etc., during the

performance. Hence, the entire city turns into a giant open-air set, and the audience

moves along with the performers with every episode, to the next locale. Preparations

begin, weeks before its commencement; even the audition process is traditionally

attended to by the Maharaja - divine embodiment. The various characters of the

Ramayana, are chosen from amongst local actors. Important roles are often inherited

by families, for example, the role of Ravana was held by same family from 1835 to

1990, and roles of Hanuman, Jatayu, and Janaka traditionally belong to one Vyasa
17
family. When the month long Dussehra festivities are inaugurated with a colourful

pageant Kashi Naresh (Kashi King) rides an elephant at the head of the procession.

Then, resplendent in silk and brocade, he inaugurates the performance of Ramlila at

Ramnagar. During the period, hundreds of sadhus called 'Ramayanis' descend into the

town to watch and recite the Ramcharitra manas text. Many in the audience carry

copies of the Ramcharitra manas, simply called Manas, and follow stanza after stanza,

after the characters delivering their dialogue.

During the course of the performance, there is a double transformation of the

space within the city. Firstly it transforms a city to a large theatre and secondly to a

mythic geography, as the scale of the performance is gradually increased to mythic

proportions, coming down only in the end, when Rama finally returns home. This

happens when the Raja himself becomes part of the theatre thereby incorporating

local elements into the story itself. In the end, as the swarups (Divine embodiments),

actors depart, they take off their garlands and offer to Royal family members and give

darshan to audience, after the performance. At the end of each episode, an aarti is

performed and chants of'Har Mahadev' or 'Bolo! Raja Ramchandra ki Jai!' resound in

the air. Here the audience also joins the religious ritual. Thereafter, a jhanki, literally a

peep or glimpse, tableaux of frozen iconic moments from the 'Manas', is presented,

which not only distill and crystallize the message of the story for the audience, but is

also appr~ciated for its spectacular effect.

18
1.1.1 The Space in Ramlila

'While there is no hard evidence that tells us why and when particular spots

were chosen to become landmarks in Rama's epic wanderings, a popular belief

regarding their origins still exists in Banaras. It is said that Devaswami, lshvari

Prasad Narayan Singh's guru, had a dream in which there unfolded Rama's entire

history against the landscape of Ramnagar. Immediately he set about translating his

dream into reality and chose what sites were to represent Ayodhya, Janakpur,

Panchavati, Lanka et cetera, in accordance with what he had seen. The locations

chosen meet the requirements prescribed for them by Tuldsidas.

As in the Ramacharitamanasa, the distinction between town and forest,

between ordered society and lawless wilderness has been maintained in the Ramnagar

lila. The town, capitals and centres of civilization- that the Ramnagar lila. The town,

capitals and centres of civilization- that is Ayodhya and Janakpur- are near the square,

the shops and the main residential areas of Ramnagar. In contrast, the wilderness and

those inhabiting it are away from the heart of the town. Ayodhya, Rama's capital, in

near the Maharaja's fort; it is on the main street of Ramnagar and at the very heart of

the shopping area. Janakpur, Janaka's city, is on the road that leads to Banaras; it lies

opposite the offices of the P.A.C and is near the Ramnagar police station. Since it is a

little less than half a kilometer from Ayodhya, it is still at the heart of the town.

The forest journey, away from the town, begins when Vishvamitra asks the

young princes to slay the demons who are disturbing his meditations. The wilderness

is the home of all those who have left the ordered life of town and village. Whether

they are anchorites or demons, they live away from the centres of civilization. To

19
find the demons we go through the Ramnagar market and into the fields that are at the

town's outskirts. We are no more on the main metallic roads, but on the dust tracks.

Though Tadaka is killed only about one and a half kilometers from Ayodhya, we have

left the main residential areas of the town behind. Another kilometer northwards on

the dust tracks, in the centre of a grassy field, Mareecha and Subahu are killed. This

journey, however, is only a brief foray into the jungle, for after the death of the

demons we return to civilization, first to Janakpur and then to Ayodhya. The long

sojourn during which Rama wanders through the wilderness for twenty days begins

when he is banished from Ayodhya on day ten. The first halt en route to the forest is

the river Tamasa, which is only one Kilometre north of Ayodhya and is still in the

heart of the town. But after the river Tamasa, Rama moves further and further away

from central Ramnagar. From the Prabhu Narayan Inter College, which represents

this first halt, he moves eastward through the P.A.C. barracks into the fields and dirt

tracks to arrive at Nishada ashrama. Nishada ashrama is situated in a large,

overgrown garden and is about one and a half kilometers from Ayodhya. The shops

and the bustle of Ramnagar have been left behind. The Swarupas will return to it

after an interval of nineteen days.

Moving further east, approximately half a kilometer from Nishada ashrama,

the svarupas come to a small lake which represents the river Ganga. All around the

lake there are trees and fields and the odd hut. In their journey northwards to

Chitrakuta, the trio pass through more fields and tree-lined roads. This area does not

have electricity. Little more than half a kilometer away from the Ganga we come to

another small lake that represents the river Jamuna. We are near Rambag, and here

Rama sets up camp. His home is at the edge of a water tank that represents the
20
 Mandakini River. All about us are fields; the main street of Ramnagar is two and half

kilometers away. From Chitrakuta, following the same route by which we came from

Nishada's ashram a, the svarupas head south for Panchavati. They depart from

Chitrakuta, following the same route by which we came from Nishada's ashram, the

Swarupas head south for Panchavati. They depart from Chitrakuta because Rama

believes they are still too near Ayodhya, as a result this part of their journey will take

them furthest away from Ayodhya. Having encountered both demons and ascetics en

route, the svarupas arrive in the forest. This is the Dandaka forest and they set up

home in Panchavati. Panchavati is approximately two kilometers southeast of

Ayodhya and is situated in a large field edged with trees and shrubs. Here the gods

are assailed by Shurpanakha and her fourteen thousands allies, all of whom Rama

-1
overcomes with the great ease. The news of the rout reaches Ravana, the ruler of

r-
-L Lanka, which is identified by tradition with present-day Sri Lanka. Ravana abducts

Janaki and carries her to his country. Rama and Lakshmana follow him but break

their journey in Kishkindha, the home of the monkeys who are to become their most

faithful friends. Topographically, Kishkindha and Pravarshana Mountain are similar

to Panchavati; they are both situated in large tracts of rolling grassy land dotted with

trees and shrubs. Rama and Lakshmana are now two and a half kilometers away from

the town centre, but their journey into the forest will continue, for they must go

further south in search of Sita. About a kilometer away from Panchavati we arrive at

a location which has a large water reservoir, a small dry one that represents the ocean,

and a temple of Shiva. This is Rameshvara temple, the temple by the side of the sea

that separates India from Sri Lanka. Close by is a large field that represents Lanka,

and at the edge of this field is a well that overlooks Ravana's country. South of this

21
well is the Ashoaka Vatika, full of Ashoka trees, where lanaki is kept imprisoned.

East of the vatica is the above-mentioned field. To the north of the field is Suvela

Mountain where Rama sets up camp; south of the mountain is the battleground, and

further south is the mound of which Ravan's palace is made. West of the palace is

Ravana's court. Lanka is three kilometers from Ayodhya and the farthest we get from

Rama's capital city, even metaphorically; for Lanka is Ravana's empire that must be

destroyed by Rama to establish peace and order on earth.

After Rama slays Ravan, the sojourn in the wilderness comes to an end. We

begin our return journey to the centre of civilization. We traverse the three kilometers

back to Ramnagar and the Lila closes amid the light and bustle of Main Street.

There is one location, however, that does not fall quite so easily into either of

the two contrasting categories of wilderness and civilization, because it serves first as

one and then as the other- this is Rambag, two and a half kilometers from Ayodhya.

On day one, Rambag serves as the home of Brahma and Shiva and Vishnu. It is here

that Vishnu, borne on his serpent, reclines on the water. On this day Rambag is the

divine abode of the gods and in the sense the ultimate in civilized existence. But later

Rambag becomes a symbol of wilderness from day eleven to day fifteen, representing

Chitrakuta, one of Rama's forest homes. Perhaps Rambag has characteristics of both

town and forest and can serve a dual purpose. It has a water reservoir, a garden and

marble gazebo. But it is far away from the town centre. Therefore, despite the walls

and pavilions, it can successfully evoke the feeling of being removed from town just

as Panchavati and Pravarshana do. The contemporary crowd by their large movement

22
creates a mapping of mythical geographical space. The waik through establishes the

idea of its transformed reality.

1.2 Kudiyattam

Kudiyattam:
lo perhaps is India's most ancient and continuously performed

classical theatre form and one of the oldest surviving art forms of the ancient world,

Kudiyattam is unique to the State of Kerela, a lush green tropical region located on

the south western coast of the Indian sub continent. King Kulasekhara Varman II has

10 Kudiyattam: It originated in the ancient past, the earliest reference of which appears in the Tamil
classic silappatikaram which proves that it dates back to two thousand years. The ancient performer of
Kutiyattam is referred in this text as "Parayur Kutta Chakkyyan". He is believed to be the ancestor of
the present Chakyar who represents the actors community of Kerala. It is believed that Sanskrit dramas
were staged in various parts of India in ancient times. But none of these styles exists today except the
Kutiyattam of Kerala which was kept alive by the actors of the Chakyar community who handed down
the extremely detailed performance system from master to pupil and preserved the same in the theatre
manuals prepared from time to time on the know-how of this art known as Attaprakarams (acting
manual) and Krama Deepikas (stage manual). This art represents a unique synthesis of Sanskrit and
local traditions of Kerala. While the performing traditions of Sanskrit plays have ceased to exist in
other parts oflndia, the continuation of an unbroken theatre tradition can be found in Kerala which was
kept alive in the temple theatre known as kuttampalam, attached to certain temples in Kerala. We find a
rich corpus of plays in Sanskrit written by dramatists like Bhasa, Harsha, Saktibhadra, Kalasekhara,
Bodhayana Mahendra Vikrama Pallava in the repertoire of Kutiyattam.
A typical Kudiyattam performance is generally quite long that extends over a period of several days.
During the first few days of performance sequence, the characters are introduced to the audience and
historical incidence about them is explored in considerable detail. On the final day of performance the
entire act of the play is performed in chronological order, from the beginning to the end, just as it was
written. Although this may seem to violate the intension of the playwright to present all the events of a
play in one performance but it is characteristic of the Kudiyattam to explore selected events of the
character and the dramatic action in considerable detail. Performances begin around 9 pm, after the
final rituals have been performed before the deity in the sanctum-sanctorum of the temple. Segments of
the performance usually finish around mid night and generally not later than 3 am just before the
morning rituals are performed in the sanctum. On the last day, the show lasts until 5 to 6 am.
II King Kulasekhara Varman- It is believed that Kulasekhara Varman Cheraman Perumal, an ancient

king ofKerala, who ruled from Mahodayapuram reformed Koodiyattam, introducing the local language
for Vidusaka and structuring presentation ofthe play to well defined units. He himself wrote two plays,
Subhadraharana and Tapatisamvarana and made arrangements for their presentation on stage with the
help of a Brahmin friend of him called Tolan. These plays are still presented on stage. Nangiar Koothu
also known as Nangiaramma Koothu, is one of the classical theatre forms of Kerala, while being
essentially an integral part of the Kutiyattam. [t acquired an identifY of its own from the days of
Kulasekhara Varman who is considered as the great reformer of Kutiyattam. According to the legend,
King Kulasekhara Varman married a talented Nangiar actress and to provide widespread performance
opportunities to her, and in the process of popularizing the art form, the Kind decreed that Nangiar
Koothu be performed in all the temples of his kingdom. He scripted a performance manual featuring
stories from the life and deeds of Lord Krishna.
23
proved historical evidence to the existence of Kudiyattam as early as the 10th century.

The high stage of its development, at this early point in its history suggests that it may

well have originated at a some what earlier date thus linking it directly with the

traditions of the ancient Sanskrit theatre.

The unique contribution of Kudiyattam to world theatre architecture has been

the development of permanent theatres (Koothambalams). About nine theatres have

been built in various temples in Kerala since 16 th century, the largest and most

impressive of which is located in the Vatakum-nathan Temple of Thrissur. The

interior of this structure is about 72-55 feet and like all of the remaining structures, it

is rectangular in shape. According to traditional practice, the theatre building is a

. separate structure located in the walled compound of the temple and situated in front

and to the right of the main shrine housing the deity. From the solid base of the

building, pillars support a high central roof. The stage ofVatakum-nathan Temple is a

large, square, raised, stone platform, the front edge of which divides the whole

structure in half.

Elaborately dressed actors with fantastical make-up and headdresses perform

the various roles of mythological characters, gods and demons using an elaborate

code of gesture language and chanted speech with exaggerated facial and eye

expressions. Although there is little dance in Kudiyattam, the Mizhavu drums and

small bell-metal cymbals, accompany much of the action, a small hourglass shaped

drum (Idakka), a wind instrument resembling an oboe (Kuzhal) and conch shell

(Sankhu). Ritual actions occur through out the performances and even in the dressing

room owing to the sacred character of the performance and due to the great respect for

24
religion shown by the actors. All these established differences in the character

costuming and make-up, the acting space, the total tableau like picture of wicked

lamp, the hand curtain, the large pot shaped Mizhavu-drums suspended in the heavy

wooden stands and other musical instruments in the back ground of the architectural

Koothambalam structure are definitely the alternative to the present day stage set and

decor. Even the body language of the performers and their transformative acting sty Ie

(Pakarnattam) along with the bodies of the actors heavily dressed in such a

scenographic integration provide a sort of stage settings and scenic beauty in a very

intelligent and imaginative manner. After watching the performer for a length of time

in front of the burning wick, the muscles of the body creates the visual imageries for

the narrative. The shine of the costumes, the reflection of the burning wick to the

whole of the space through the costumes that have a lot of glittering metals and the

makeup that have lot of oil based natural colours applied on the face again work as a

reflective base, which not only reflect lights but also captures the continues movement

of the burning wick in the earthen lamp and the micro movement of the muscles of the

performer he creates in a performance. This doubles the impact of the space due to

movement of all the reflections into it which creates not only a great spiritual

experience but also a kind of hallucination after a length of time in the spectators'

mind.

25
Photo.} .}: Sakuntala and Dushyanta in Kalidasa 's Abhijnan Shakuntala presented by Natana
Kairali

Kudiyattam represents a culture of elaboration and therefore it can be called a

'Theatre of Elaboration'. In explaining the situation, or the character, the use of

metaphor can be used to the maximum extent possible. In the 15 th century,

Kudiyattam had a real physical, cultural and social space. It has a distinct triangular

relationship between the performer, the spectator, and the space. In Kudiyattam,

theatre space is an important factor because it is an implied idea and an active agent.

There were absolute balances between these triangular relationships. And these

balances are guided by proximity, angles and possibility of vision. The way of

perpetual seeing in Kudiyattam is predetermined and predicated. In these dynamics

modes of seeing also depends on the theatre space.

26
 What do the spectators see? In the open space of 40' -50', most minute acting

details are the visuals. These visuals slightly change when it is seen from far whil e

more details are seen from the closer audience space. In the performance, there is

wholeness of picture constituted by the architectural style of the playhouse

(Koothambalam), orchestral party headed by the twin Mizhavu percussionists and

differently costumed and made up performers. If the texture of the spectators is not

closed by, he looses this wholeness. More over, one's nature of seeing is al so

determined by Kanunna Vazhi (Path of Seeing), Kanunnathe Enthu (What is see n) .

Kazhcha- Reethi Bhavam (The Method of Seeing). In fact the entire physical

structure, size and layout affect the seeing. In short Kudiyattam has a physical way of

seeing - cultural , social and other modes of seeing. Owing to all these great qualit ies

and multi-levelled aural and visual excellence of Kudiyattam, UNSECO has rightl y

declared this performing art form, "Master-piece of oral and intangible heritage o f

humanity" .

In Kudiyattam the spectators also do not expect the unfolding of a story line

through the visualization process done through the different layers of acting. They are

thoroughly involved in the process and aesthetically identify with the emotions of

performers. Owing to all these, the acting requires more minuteness, sharpness, and

fineness with utmost sensitivity, sensibility and subtlety. It never meant to be a large

theatre but it is essentially a small theatre projected through the differences of

movements performed through the body language of the actor. This is also to

understand that Kudiyattam does not show the textual portion in its entirety but to

explain a visual emotion or feeling through the subtle nuances of the body language,

because of this, to present one scene in Kudiyattam it took days together. Therefore,
27
the soul of Kudiyattam theatre lies in its explanatory approach and improvisational

quality.

It is important in Kudiyattam where there is hardly any body (leg movement),

mostly sitting or standing in one place. Therefore, it is the actor's face and hands,

which literally becomes the stage and scene of action. Even the actor's body and face

will be visible to the spectators. The effect and impact of Kudiyattam performance in

Koothambalam can be summed up as under: Even though it has a pin hole vision, the

actor assumes larger than life size and therefore proximity between spectators and

actor becomes very essential despite the different performance mode. Therefore, the

acting is very intense, focused and every minute aspect is shown with all physical

dimensions. The actors physical presence departs radically from the text of a play.

The performance structure also lays stress on an actor's physical performance rather

than on ensemble playing. It is not until the sixth night in our hypothetical model that

the act is performed in its entirety with several characters appearing on the stage at

once. Another unique structural feature of Kutiyattam is that it permits several actors

to perform the same role on different occasions with their physical presence in space

with different dimensions. Since settings and adjustable stage lighting are not used in

the physical presence of the performer, the visual spectacle depends on the costumes

and makeup also. Designs and colours of costumes, ornaments, and headdresses have

symbolic meaning and significance, meant to reveal the identity of the characters to

the spectators. Kutiyattam costumes are larger and exaggerated than the performers'

body. With meticulous makeup these costumes give a strong presensce of body to

them and to the spectators. However, this presence does not appear complete without

rhythmic sound. It only begins to be seen with the sound of Mizhavu, the pot-shaped
28
drum and ends with it. This unusual instrument, two in numbers used in a

performance, measuring approximately three feet in diameter at their midsection

provide the basic sound energy to the whole visual by enhancing the micro physical

gestures of the performers.

Photo.I.2: Vidushaka in Kalidasa's Abhijnan Shakuntala with drumers presented by

Natanakairali

Essentially Kudiyattam performance is an actor's theatre with immense

possibilities for Angika and Vachika. Here the actor's role is clearly laid down as to

what and how he has to do. For example if the actor has to explicit the powers of

Ravana, it becomes a metaphor with movement play narrative etc. Quite often,

Ravana or the actor improvises for elaborating the emotions; there is perfect

digression of time and space here. The entire text of the play transformed into a
29
performance text in fragments and breaks. No attempt is made towards creating linear

narrative; however, it never deviate the conventional methods of performance. Whi Ie

the contemporary theatre is suffering from narrative hangover, Kudiattam

performances do it through theatre of elaboration for a very close and intense way of

viewing. There is a basic way of seeing to the satisfaction of Nirvahanam (final

accomplishment) which is feasible because of the pinhole vision of actor' s body and

craft.

Natyashastra provides all details regarding costumes, make-up and decoration

(aaharia) to be used on and off stage. The costumes and stage decor of Kudiyattam

was reformed and deve loped from the traditional costumes and decorations of Kerala.

Easily available materials like rice flour, charcoal, turmeric powder, red-arsenic

vermilion, blue, mica-film, chrysanthemum flower, selected grass, plantain fibre,

chilly seeds and spate of areca palm (pala) etc. were used . These are adequatel y

available all over Kerala and have unique features and characteristics. While

preparing for decorating and costuming purpose, these give a lot of flexibility and

dimensionality. All these elements have a kind of natural and raw feel. With th e

Koothambalam , which is completely made of wood, all these natural elements on the

performers ' body make the visuals connected to other human bodies, the spectators.

The inevitability of Vidushaka (Buffoon) in Kudiyattam transforms its

theatrical character more significantly and clearly where as in other Sanskrit pl ays

Buffoons have absolutely no importance. The concept of Hero in Sanskrit plays is

totally rejected here and the situation becomes irrelevant because, Buffoo nary

interpretations take 2-3 days together. It is to be noted here that the pos ition of

30
Buffoons in Kudiyattam is supreme and superior and they formed an inner theatre

circled in the entire chain of performances. Apart from this, the inner theatre

completely deviates from the story line and contains in separate and important

characters to the level of a counter theatre of social criticism and humorous

characterization. In Kudiyattam, Vidushaka has a vital role to play. He digresses -

Kandathum Kettathum Parayam (He can say whatever he sees or hears) . While the

hero delivers a line of text, Vidushaka gives a long peroration . He can still hold pace,

time, and control the progression of the performance. Vidushaka applies rice paste on

the face, the chest and the hands, chrysanthemum flowers on the ears, symbol of

serpent's hood on the crown (Naga-mudra), betel leaf etc. for his make-up. All these

have special visual appeal and unique cultural impression of Kerala. The presence of

the body of Vidushaka is different than the physical presence of other regular

characters of the narrative. The physical presence of the body of Vidushaka is

informal and free from the baggage of the classical movements of the Kudiyattam. He

moves freely on the stage due to which the visual impact of his body creates an

informal day-to-day movement on the stage which apparently becomes opposite to the

whole formal visual imagery of the performance. In context of space, the idea of

performer and scenography is not divorced from each other; the comic body remain s a

part of scenography as the backdrop.

31
 Photo.i.3: Vidushaks injisherman scene ofKalidasa 's Abhijnan Shalamtala presented by
Natanakairali

To understand the history or genealogy of Kudiyattam it is important to

understand Natyashastra from which the Kudiyattam had taken birth. It is also

important to note here how other folk fonus had also influenced towards the maturity

of the theatrical form in Kudiyattam ..

1.2.1 Koothambalam

When we look at the historicity of Koothambalam, it is understood that it is

one of the most important and ancient theatre space of the world. Some are of the

view that up to 14 century it was part of a secular history and not a part of temple

structure. The process of shifting it in the adjoining premises can mean a process of

secularization. Therefore in tenus of its design it supplements the temple structure but

also creates a competition to the devotees and seduces the visitors to change path. In

32
the 15 th century, the Koothambalam, became significant in perception and modalities.

When Kudiyattam entered the temple precincts, it lost its secular character. It entered

from an open space to a closed space or from a public space to intimate and private

space. It entered into wider space to limit space. Thus, this closed space is turned into

a more abstract and elitist performance. In short, Koothambalams are neither very

small nor very big because it is very essential the audience should see the eye and lip

movements, hand gestures and expressive facial muscles of the actor.

Most of the temples in Kerala are not only places of worship; they also serve

as mini Universities. Before the advent of the formal schools, temples were the

educational institutions in an informal way where Upnishads, Vedas and Shastras

were taught by the pundits/priests apart from staging various performing art forms

during temple festivals. These temples were also seats of ayurvedic and indigenous

medicines that not only supply medicines but also taught the science behind it. The

imposing Koothambalams (Playhouses) structures are the best examples.

Koothambalams are also equally important like Kudiyattam because they too are

originated from our rich traditional art forms and their elements. Even before the

construction of Koothambalams, there existed a sort of solo dance and narration art

form known as Koothu enacted by Chakyars - the performing cast of Kerala. As per

the information available from the Thiruvalla inscriptions, that the very rich Sanskrit

theatre presentations were all in full swing through out India and even before that,

Koothu and Kudiyattam were presented in Kerala.

These Koothambalams of Kerala temples are more or less equivalent to the

Natya Grihas referred in the Natyashastra. Here performances of Koothu, Nangiar

33
Koothu and Kudiyattam etc. are held. Even though meager number of performances

was arranged on these stages, these perennial constructions stood the test of time and

are definitely the symbols of lost splendours and pride. All these Koothambalams are

built as per the specifications of the Natya Grihas of Natyashastra but they differ in

size and measurement and were built in accordance with the original and exclusive

Kerala's own architectural style known as 'Thachu Shastra'.

There are about 15 Koothambalams fully and partly built in different temples

of Kerala. All these Koothambalams come under the category of middle level ones.

Most important of them are located at Vadakum Nathan Temple in Thrissur, Koodal

Manikyam Temple in Irinjalakuda and at Sree Krishna Temple in Guruvayoor. Two

modern Koothambalams were constructed; one at Kerala Kalamandalam (two decades

old) and a recent one in the Violoppalli Samskriti Bhavan in Thiruvananthapuram

(one decade old) and biggest one in Kerala and considered as the model in-house as

per the Natya Griha construction specifications and Kerala's original construction and

architectural rules like 'Thachu Shastra and Vasthu Shilpa,12.

For me to start with looking at these examples and taking the spaces as starting

points of looking at a modern to contemporary history of space in Indian theatre and

performance is not following the binaries of a proscenium and locale specific divide.

12 Thachu Shastra and Vasthu Shilpa - Kerala architecture is a kind of architectural style that is mostly
found in Indian state of Kerala. Kerala style of architecture is one of the most unique in India,
especially in its striking contrast to Dravidian architecture, other Tamil architecture popularly seen in
South India and its close resemblance to Oriental architecture like Japanese, Tibetan and Nepalese. The
architecture of Kerala has however been influenced by Dravidian and Indian Vedic architectural
science Vastu Shastra over two millennium. The Tantrasamuchaya, Thachu-Shastra, Vasthu Shilpa,
Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are important architectural sciences, which have had a strong
impact in Kerala Architecture style. The Manushyalaya Chandrika, a work devoted to domestic
architecture is one such science which has its strong roots in Kerala. The architectural style has evolved
from the state's peculiar climate and long history of influences of its major maritime trading partners
like Chinese, Japanese, Arabs and Europeans.
34
For me it is neither history nor the valorized alternative but an entry point to look at

two examples which allow me to create a framework of a horizontal and vertical

conceptualization of space. The historical connection can only happen through its

reference point in the Natyashastra but its very contemporary existence creates a

historiography. In this context it is important to position the tenets of the

Natryashastra as evoked through its spatial concept not to draw any direct historical

connection but understand the complexities of a practice which existed in pre

colonial, through a colonial time to a post colonial times and like many other aspects

evoking a connection to Natyashastra at certain moments of writing its own history.

1.3 The Space in Natyashastra

Until now, we have seen two kinds of spaces- one horizontal and other

vertical. In Ramalila, especiaIly in the Ramlila of Ram Nagar, the space is horizontal,

where the whole town/village transforms into a theatrical space, however, on the other

hand, in Kudiyattam, the Koothambalam is vertical with a specified (constructed)

space for the performance. Here, Natyashastra comes to explore older links of vertical

spaces before Kudiyattam. Bharata Muni, the ancient dramatist of India wanted to see

theatre as a visual-poetic-performance (Drisya Kavya Kala) rather than a metaphorical

text. The Natya Shastra ranges widely in scope, from issues of literary construction, to

the structure of the stage or mandapa, to a detailed analysis of musical scales and

movements (murchhanas), to an analysis of dance forms that considers several

categories of body movements, and their impacts on the viewer. Bharata describes 15

types of dramas ranging from one to ten acts. The principles for stage design are laid

down in some detail. Individual chapters deal with aspects such as makeup, costume,

35
acting, directing, etc. A large section deals with meanings conveyed by the

performance (bhavas) get particular emphasis, leading to a broad theory of aesthetics

(rasas). The Natyashastra delineates a detailed theory of drama comparable to the

poetics of Aristotle. Bharata refers to bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the

actors perform, and the rasas (emotional responses) that they inspire in the audience.

The use of facial muscles and their relation to the structuring and conveying of micro-

emotions is described in detailed in Natyashastra and practiced till today in

construction of a Koothambalam.

Bharata argues that there are eight principal rasas: love, pity, anger, disgust,

heroism, awe, terror and comedy, and that plays should mix different rasas but be

dominated by one. Each rasa experienced by the audience is associated with a specific

bhava portrayed on stage. For example, in order for the audience to experience

sringara (the 'erotic' rasa), the playwright, actors and musicians work together to

portray the bhava called rati (love). Four kinds of abhinaya (acting, or histrionics) are

described - that by body part motions (angika), that by speech (vachika) that by

costumes and makeup (aaharya), and· the highest mode, by means of internal

emotions, expressed through minute movements of the lips eyebrows, ear, etc.

(satvika). And it speaks of the structures that are described as though they were ideal

models rather than actual edifices. Because the medium sized rectangular building

(Vikrista Madhyam) is spoken of in great detail, it may have been the favoured model.

Bharata regards it as the most suitable space to see and hear a performance. The

bhavas and the four kind of acting methodologies are all applied to the body of the

performer. Without any scenic element to supplement, the portrayal of the character,

36
which is the only medium remains with him, the actors' body becomes a space itself

to explore different emotions and four kinds of acting.

In the light of the spaces we have seen in Ramnagar Ramlila and Kudiyattam

of Kerala; let us now examine the space in relation with the Natyashastra. Bharata in

his Natyashastra gives a detailed account regarding the various aspects of the theatre.

The main features as described by Bharata were adhered to in later times. The most

important topics dealt with in the Natyashastra are the measurements of the stage,

interior decorations, green room, mattavaranis, Rangasirsa, Rangapitha and the

seating arrangements.

1.3.1 Measurements of Stage

According to the Natyashastra, the play-house as made ready for performance

may be of three types, namely vikrista (rectangular), caturasra (square) and tryasra

(triangular). The vikrista is jyestha, caturasra is madhya and tryasra is avara. The

measurement is done in hastas. The Natyashastra states that the vikrista is one

hundred and eight hastas, the caturasra is sixty four hastas and tryasra is of thirty two

hastas. From the Natyashastra, it is found that the jyestha type is specially meant for

gods, madhya for kings and avara for ordinary people. The measurement of the

building of theatre was dependent upon the conception of hasta and danda. The

smallest measure according to the Natyashastra is anu (atom). Eight anus make one

raja, eight rajas one bala, eight balas one liksa, eight liksas one yuka, eight yukas one

yava, eight yavas one angula, twenty four angulas one hasta and four hastas one

danda. The measuring tape should be made of karpasa, vadara, val kala or munja and

must have no joints. According to Bharata, while constructing a play-house, it is

37
necessary that the soil should be first examined. It must be even, steady, hard and

black or white. The whole field must be ploughed and bones, nails, skulls and such

other things taken out.

The standard theatre is a rectangular building, sixty four cubits in length and

thirty two cubits in breadth, marked out into two equal divisions, the auditorium and

the stage. The stage is divided into two equal parts, the front and the rear, the latter

being the green room. The front part is again divided into two equal parts. Of these

two parts the one behind is the head of the stage (Rangasirsa) and the front part is the

stage proper where the play is acted. On either sides of the stage proper, two

mattavaranis, equal in measure to the stage, are constructed. The auditorium is 32 x 32

cubits, the front stage is 8x 16 cubits, the back stage is 8 x 32 cubits and the green room

is 16*32 cubits. The caturasra type of theatre is thirty two cubits in length and thirty

two cubits in breadth. The whole field 32x32 cubits should be divided length wise and

breadth wise into eight equal parts, thus making sixty four squares. The Rangapitha

should be in the four inner squares. In this type the mattavaranis will be 8x8 cubits

each and the Rangasirsa 8x8 cubits. The size of the green room is 4x32 cubits and

that of the auditorium is 12x32 cubits. The tryasra theatre is in the form of an

equilateral triangle. It is divided into eight parts on each side and from each dividing

point lines are drawn parallel to those on the side of the equilateral triangle. Thus

sixty four triangles are formed. The Rangapitha is built in the middle. Behind the

Rangapitha is placed the Rangasirsa in five triangles and the green room in fifteen

triangles. Each of the mattavaranis is constructed in eight triangles. The remaining

triangles are reserved for the audience. The Natyashastra prescribes no exact

measurement of the tryasra type of theatre.

38
1.3.2 Rangapitha

The height of the theatres was dependent on the type of play that was to be

performed. The theatre usually had the shape of a mountain cave and was constructed

in two storey with a few windows. The avibhumi was the higher and lower portions of

the Rangapitha. From the Rangapitha, from where the seats for the audience

commence to the exit, bhumis should be made, each one higher than the preceding

one, the last having a height equal to the height of the Rangapitha, so that the rows of

the spectators may not get in the way of one other's view. The stage was often a

double storeyed building. The upper storey of the theatre was used for the

presentation of the dramatic actions of celestial regions and the lower one for that of

the terrestrial ones. The terrace in the play Ratnavali suggests that the stage had an

upper storey. According to the Natyashastra, the divisions of the stage should be made

in the regular order and the divisions were known as kaksyas. 13

1.3.3 Rangasirsa

The Rangasirsa is the back stage of the theatre. The Rangasirsa is built of six

pieces of wood and furnished with two doors leading into the green room. It is smooth

and even like a mirror and decorated with jewels. The in-between space is filled with

very fine black earth, having the shine of a pure mirror and studded with emeralds,

sapphires, corals and other valuable stones, arranged in a variety of designs on the

four sides. The Rangasirsa is constructed with six planks. Portion of the back stage or

the Rangasirsa, is reserved as a place of rest for actors, for maintaining the privacy of

the entrance and exit and for purposes such as prompting, securing some stage effect

13 When a change of scene was to be effected, it could be done through kaksyas. Those who come in to
the stage first are said to be inside the place of representation. Those who enter afterwards are said to
be on the outer side of the place of representation.
39
and storing stage equipments. The Rangasirsa was of a level higher than the

Rangapitha in the vikrista type of theatre and of the same level in the caturasra. The

Rangapitha and the Rangasirsa were positioned in two different parts of the theatre as

they were used for diverse purposes.

The Natyashastra prescribes that the musicians should sit in the Rangasirsa.

1.3.4 Nepathyagriha

The green room (nepathyagriha) is a part of the main building. Behind the

curtain are the quarters of the actors {nepathyagriha). In the vikrista type of theatre

the green room is 16x32 cubits and in the caturasra type it is 4x32 cubits. The green

room is a moderately airy place to enable the several characters to attend to their

costume and make up. The nepathyagriha is a place from where sounds are raised to

indicate uproar and confusion; here also are uttered the voices of gods and other

persons whose presence on the stage is oot desirable. For example, in the play

Ratnavali, the magician's art which could not be shown on the stage and was

described through uproar behind the scenes

1.3.5 Mattavaranis

The Natyashastra prescribes that on both the sides of the Rangapitha, two

mattavaranis are to be constructed. A mattavaranis has four columns. The

mattavaranis are one and a half cubit higher than the Rangapitha and were some

special portions of the Rangapitha because action was performed on these

mattavaranis. The mattavaranis could also be used as kaksyas.

40
1.3.6 Seating Arrangements

The Natyashastra states that, on the Rangapitha there must be ten columns

strong enough to bear the burden of the mandapa. People of different castes were to

sit at places indicated by columns of various colours. Brahmanas had the front seats

indicated by a white column. Kshatriyas occupied seats indicated by a red column.

Behind them sat Vaisyas and Sudras, the former to the north-east and the latter to the

north-west, their seats being indicated by yellow and blue columns respectively.

There were other columns too, perhaps, to provide accommodation those who were

not incorporated in the four castes. Galleries were to be erected one beh ind the other.

Seats in the auditorium were to be arranged in the form of a staircase to guarantee

visibility. They were to be made of wood and bricks and were to be one and a half

feet above the ground. The Natyashastra prescribes different places for the castes and

for various strata of society, it is clear that the theatres, in ancient India though

constructed as a temporary structure, were planned for the general public.

1.3.7 Doors and Roofs in Theatre

According to the Natyashastra, the vikrista theatre has two doors leading to the

green room from the Rangasirsa. The players of musical instruments sat in between

these doors. In the caturasra type a door leads to the Rangapitha. The first door is for

people to enter the theatre and the second door is in front of the auditorium. In the

tryasra type there is one door at the back of the Rangapitha and another in one corner

for the entry of the audience. In the Natyashastra there is only one reference to

theatres without roofs. But the theatres in which plays were performed must have had

roofs. There are indications in the Natyashastra which prove the existence of roofs. In

41
the section on arrangement of columns the Natyashastra says that the columns should

be capable of supporting the roof.

Bharata's description of theatres, their construction, size and shape, the

position of the stage, orchestra and auditorium, indicates that theatres were of a

permanent nature. Thus the Natyashastra gives an elaborated account of different

aspects of Indian theatre that is also to understand different kinds of spaces which

may have created visuals similar to what we see in Koothambalam during a

Kudiyattam performance.

In Natyashastra it is specified that not only the actor but every thing in the

acting area, even a burning wick in a lamp becomes a part of the whole scenic design

for a visual language in the space. It is relevant here not to analyze or use the

Natyashastra to eulogize a revivalist ideas of theatre but to understand how it has been

adopted by practitioners to be modified within their own contemporary discourses.

Their understanding and application of the Natyashastra specifics are important to get

an insight into spatial narratives which work beyond mere visualities. To understand

better let us now take the work of a modern director Kavalam Narayana Panikkar's

work as an example in contemporary sensibility and visual language of the space. The

fact that the Natyashastra evokes a visual content of space divisions according to class

and caste hierarchy, I would lIke to argue, was not unknown to the practioners who

adopted its structural visual ideas. For them it was a parallel narrative to their drama

based new innovative practices which marks a post colonial modernity.

Kerala supposedly has the distinction of retaining the theatre practice of

Sanskrit Drama as proposed by Bharata In Natyashastra through Kudiyattam.

42
However, Malayalam drama as well as the modern theatre in Kerala has evolved a

break from the rich tradition of performing art forms. The most remarkable

contribution of Thanathu Natakvedi (Theatre of Roots) is that it opened up a

discourse, which problematised the relationship between text, production and space as

well as character and actor.

The premIer production of Kavalam Narayana Panicker's play Avanavan

Kadamba (Oneself is his own obstruction) was instrumental in initializing a

discussion with regard to their training of actors in the theatre of roots. (Thanathu

Natakavedi). In classical theatre, an actor is trained to perform any character from any

text. In the western model prevalent in Kerala, an actor is rehearsed to present a

particular character from a particular play. It necessitates constant rehearsal and

practice for an actor. As the pattern of stylization proposed by Thanathu Natakavedi

matures into a full-fledged system of articulation, the actor is liberated from the

confines of a single text into the ever-widening expanses of artistic expression. In the

western model, a proscenium theatre is a performance space where body of an actor

eschews into a character psychologically and to establish the character, an actor is

depended only on the scenic elements and other designs, however, in the traditional

Indian theatre, the body of the performer itself becomes a space to prepare a long
o

stable and sustained practice for any kind of improvisation at a given space provided

to him for the portrayal of the character.

The work of Kavalam Narayana Panikkar provides an opportunity to examine

these questions in detail. Panikkar redefined modern Indian theatre by creating

Thanathu natakavedi literally (our own theatre). He combined the dramaturgical

43
structure of Kudiyattam, the actor training methods of Kathakali, the physical training

of Kalarippayattu (the martial art form of Kerala) and aesthetic theory from the

Natyashastra and Abhinava Bharati. In his 1985 production of his own play Ottayan

(Lone Tusker) and his 1987 production of the Sanskrit dramatist Bhasa' s

Urubhangam (The Shattered Thigh) here serve as quintessential examples of his

larger body of work. Panikkar redirects the aesthetic goal of performance, the

director's relationship to text, the actor's relationship to character, methods of actor

training and the spectator's mode of engagement with a view to creating a theatre that

has the capacity to present many perspectives. It defines the self in terms of behaviour

rather than essence and as trans formative rather than fixed, trains an active and

imaginative participant rather than a passive observer, and expresses modes of

experience that are beyond language.

Photo.2.4: Sita and Ram in Bhavbhuti's Uttararamacharitam directed by K N Pannikar presented by

Sopanam actors.

44
 The aesthetic and structural choices Panikkar has made are political and

constitute meaning and experience in culturally specific ways and the meaning and

experiences reflected and constituted are themselves in the culturally specific manner.

Thus, Panikkar's directorial practice and productions offer a model for modern Indian

theatre that does not reflect or impose colonial constructs of the self in society.

Although Panikkar's productions are specifically in and of Kerala, they nonetheless

exemplify the ways in which roots directors throughout the country have used the

dramaturgical structures, actor training methods and aesthetic goals of their own

regional theatres to redirect the modern Indian theatre.

The roots movement comprises a set of regionally specific practices, such as

those seen in the work of Panikkar, that together constitute a pan- Indian phenomenon

-a new modern theatre on Indian terms. One of the several features important for an

understanding of the aesthetics of the 'theatre of roots,14 is the rejection of the

proscenium theatre by most of the directors, and their use of a variety of performance

spaces to bring about a closer relationship between the actor and spectator and afford

a new perception of the performance by spectators. The first feeble efforts to liberate

the actor from the inhibiting influence of proscenium theatre were made by violating

its conventions even while performing in accordance with them. These efforts

manifested themselves in a variety of ways: in actors' entrances and exits through the

auditorium- some of them sitting in the auditorium and speaking their lines from

there- and enactment of some scenes, such as processional and crowd scenes, in the

auditorium.

14 Theatre of Roots- An unconventional theatre which evolved in India as a result of modern theatre's

encounter with tradition. It is deeply rooted in regional theatrical culture, but cuts across linguistic
barriers, and has an all-India character in design. It has compelling power; it thrills audiences, and
received institutional recognition in India and abroad.
45
 It is paradoxical that in a theatrical tradition, which provides a great variety of

spaces with most exciting environmental and spatial configurations, the modern

theatre that arose during the mid-nineteenth century as a product of colonial theatrical

culture choose for itself proscenium theatre. The first proscenium theatres were built

in Bombay and Calcutta in i.e. l860s. In England, the first proscenium theatre was

built in 1576. So it took three centuries and colonial rule for the proscenium theatre

to find a place in India. But when it came, it totally changed the traditional concept

and character of theatrical space, both from the point of view of the actor and the

spectator. It brought about separation between the two, vitally affecting their

traditional intimate relationship. It also fixed on the spectators a frontal view of the

performance, from a fixed seat and a fixed angle. Traditionally Indian audiences had

watched a performance from different angles and levels, having a constantly changing

perception of the performance. Even temple sculpture is designed to be seen while

moving, a practice conventionalized by the rite of pradakshina, circumambulation of

the temple.

Theatre does not simply occur in available space. It creates its own space, and

alters avai lable space. The character of the performance and most of the elements of a

theatrical event- the physical setting and placing of the spectators in relation to the

performance and most of the elements of a theatrical event- the physical setting and

placing of the spectators in relation to the performance space- have a role to play in

shaping and determinging theatrical space. But the main source is the presence of the

possessed body of the actor. A given space acquires new forms, and its dimensions

change according to where the actors take up their positions. Performance space is

the spatialization of the actor's 'othernesses'. In the traditional environment theatre

46
of the Lila plays, the entire space, both the performance space and the audience space,

is animated and transformed in endless ways by the actor's moving through both the

spaces, and the spectators occupying and reading on both the spaces. In such a

performance situation, the border between the two spaces is constantly blurred.

The designation, the visuals of modern Indian theatre in space, refers to a new

genre that developed between the late-eighteenth and the mid-nineteenth centuries.

During the period, while the Europeans were discovering ancient Indian culture,

Indian elites were discovering modern European culture. Out of this encounter arose

the new theatrical genre called the visuals of modern Indian theatre. Shaped by the

imperatives of empire, nationalism and nativism, this was a metropolitan genre,

created by a bilingual hi,gh-caste bourgeoisie who strategically adapted elements from

a gallery of models that included the Sanskrit theatre, traditional theatre and European

playwriting and staging practices; they also sporadically and very selectively adapted

a few features from their region's traditional theatre; and the copied, although

sometimes only nominally some elements from the Sanskrit theatre. Ironically, it was

only after the Orientalists has first championed Sanskrit literature and translated it into

European languages that these Westernized Indian elites had turned to Sanskrit drama

and revalued it as 'classical', as a part of their nationalist aspirations. The visuals of

modern Indian theatre began as refined cultural consumption for the upper crust but

developed into broad-based entertainment for large audiences in cities across the

country and thus manifested itself in several different languages. Irrespective of its

language, however, this theatre sought to project both modernity and Indian-ness in it

style and subject matter and thus constituted a fundamental component of the Indian

intelligentsia~s grand nationalist enterprise to invent, on the one hand, an identity that
47
was modern but with roots in an ancient past and, on the other hand, a pan-Indian

nation state that was modern but which incorporated the numerous old royal

kingdoms. In short, like the authors of the ancient Hindu epics noted earlier, they too

were trying to 'imagine', 'narrate', and 'perform' a nation into existence.

1.4 Victorian Space, Sceneography & Spectacle

Many a mechanical devices were used to create visuals or rather we can say,

the birth of spectacle started in Indian theatre with the colonial effect through Parsi

theatre in the northern belt and through Sangeeth Natakum in sourthern part of India.

Therefore, it is a need of the time to understand the birth of mechanical devices in

English theatre to understand parallel developments in India.

Philippe Jacques De Loutherbourg - one of the most innovative scenographers

of the English stage has ever known - created a miniature mechanical theatre in one

of his living rooms. It was difficult to classify this theatre - Eidophusikon - in London

as a kind of mechanical toy; while others regarded Magic Lantern as a part of pre-

history of cinema. To understand this device one should carefully study its

relationships with the other scenographic endeavours and the theatre going culture.

Under his influence, the English stage achieved a level of spectacle, which was a

move towards greater spectacle and passionate desire to tame the increasingly

elaborate images seen on the stage. This had tremendous attraction in an era when the

London stage shows were growing ever larger and the theatre going public had a

chance to feel the control of the work force in theatre. He gave deeper meaning to a

theatric culture in the background of redefining scenographic structure.

48
 In Eidophusikon, in 1763, David Garrick removed the audience-seats that

were there at Drury Lane since its original construction that had been considered as

'greatest nuisance' and 'disgrace' that was prevalent during such shows and an

'obstacle' for proper enjoyment of a play. Those 'privileged few' not only distracted

other spectators but they were seen as a glaring offence. However, by the middle of

18 th century, the stage was presented as a consistent and unified visual projection,

pictorial realism and a clean and clear acting space. Two years later Garrick's second

decision was the removal of chandeliers that hung over the stage. These chandeliers,

about a dozen candles in one piece were the only source of illumination for the stage

and auditorium. He replaced them with concealed wing lights through iron frame with

either candles or oil lights that stood one above the other, that too, mounted with tin

reflectors to cast powerful illumination. Thus for the first time in the history of

English Theatre, light differentiated the stage from the auditorium and thereby the

stage space was used exclusively for performance. It took another 100 years to make

the auditorium completely dark.

Garrick hired De Loutherbourg not simply as a set-designer but under the

agreement he took care of all decorations, the machines depended to manipulate them,

the lighting, costume, repairing all novelties and would devise scenes. For the first

time, the English stage represented the unified visual creation of a single imagination,

which was distinct from the rest of the auditorium. In fact, Garrick inherited a framed

stage with proscenium arch. In approaching this new 'canvas', De Loutherbourg

attempted to depict on the stage "miles and miles distance ... by the loss of

49
perspective" 15 . De Loutherbourg created a sense of distance by breaking the scene

into several pieces by using over-lapping of flats of varying dimensions placed on

various levels of the stage to create an effect of depth and distance. De Loutherbourg

brought vistas of two-dimensional landscape painting to the theatre by emphasizing

its three- dimensionality. Thus, he created a world that enveloped the actors, and

placed them in the very middle of a landscape.

De Loutherbourg's painting could never achieve a sense of time and motion. 1t

presents its subjects in a state of absolute rest in frozen time. John Constable says,

"Light and shadow never stand still,,16. Thus, in turning to the stage De

Loutherbourg's emphasis on lighting and scene changes which testifies the

importance he placed on motion as an element of design. For example, he painted

eight backdrops, including four highly detailed rural scenes akin to those that had won

him accolades in Paris for The Christmas Tale. To achieve theatrical effects, he

employed a combination of Drury Lane's newly introduced mechanical scene drops, a

new technique of scenery painting on gauze so that it would seem to disappear when

lit from behind. Through these techniques, he imparted to static paintings - a sense of

life and motion.

In The Christmas Tale, he created "a fine prospect of the sea ... with the sun

rising" and at another point "Camilla's magnificent garden with a variety of brilliant

15 Philip James de Loutherbourg- also seen as Philippe-Jacques and Philipp Jakob and with the
appellation the Younger (31 October 1740 - 11 March 1812) was an English artist of German origin
who became known for his elaborate set designs for London theatres.
16 John Constable- (11 June 1776 - 31 March 1837) was an English Romantic painter. Born in Suffolk,
he is known principally for his landscape paintings of Dedham Vale, the area surrounding his home-
now known as "Constable Country"-which he invested with an intensity of affection. "I should paint
my own places best", he wrote to his friend John Fisher in 1821, "painting is but another word for
feeling".
50
colours". Both effects were made possible by Garrick's wing lighting that astonished

the audience, not merely by the riot of colours but by a sudden transition in a forest

scene, where the foliage varies from green to blood colour. This was achieved through

the installation of coloured silk screens in the flies when the wing lights were cast on
~

them. Martin Meizel commented that De Loutherbourg's inHuence lay behind most of

those persistent attempts of the English 19th century pictorial stage to endow itself

with motion and light. When Garrick retired from the theatre, De Loutherbourg was

spending nearly six-times as much money on scenery and scenography at Drury Lane.

O'Keeffe recalls, designers have achieved such a mark of prominence - due to his

influence, that for the first time new dramas were given to "the artistes to plan the

scenes". 17

Because of its popularity even in the late 18 th century, London Chronicle

wrote that the' serious' drama has no place and' show and decoration' are forced upon

drama during I 785s. From 1770s, the situation was worsened. For critics, an

opposition arose between spectacle minded 'pantomimes' and 'entertainments' like

The Christmas Tale and what was considered legitimate drama. Critic Horace

Walpole berated Garrick for the lack of seriousness in The Christmas Tale and said

that save for the scenery the piece should be 'sent to the devil'. Reverend John

Genest, one of London's first theatre historian observed, "ifit had been brought out as

an after piece and a spectacle, it might have passed with out censure. But such barren

things when produced as first pieces must excite the indignation of all but barren

spectators". The London Magazine added that Garrick pantomime offered little 'to a

17 John Q'Keeffe, Recolle~tions of the Life of John Q'Keeffe, (London, 1806), in A Source Book in

Theatrical History, ed. A.M. Nagler (New York: Dover Publications, 1952),399.
51
man of taste'. In 1773, The London Magazine instead remarked that 'pantomimes are

designed for the eye, not for the ear' .

After the commercial success of The Christmas Tale, more and more pieces at

Drury Lane and elsewhere were written specifically to show off stage effects. The

London Magazine observed that plays were judiciously chosen for the display of Mr.

De Loutherbourg's abilities. He lacked seriousness and imitated nature. By the late

J 8th century, serious drama was simply a money-losing preposition, and the kinds of

spectacles that had once served as after pieces would become dramatic presentations.

The situation reached such a pass that the play like The Coronation in Harry the viii

brought full houses quite often where as Hamlet or Othello were loosing plays. As the

interest in spectator for pantomimes and entertainments increased, the demands for

pictorial realism were also increased. It was once advertised that even the fantastical

set of The Christmas Tale, set in mythical and magical realm, were based on

topographical drawings from Wales. The Wonders of Derbyshire was designed

entirely around De Loutherbourg's trip to that region. De Loutherbourg even refused

to use painted flats to represent ships and instead called the marine artiste Domenic

Serres to supply models of the actual vessels for a naval review. Largely aided by De

Loutherbourg himself, the productions of the 18 th century aspired towards an ever-

more exacting realism.

In short, the spectators of De Loutherbourg and his followers offered a level of

over-whelming visuality that had never before been seen. In its retreat into the

proscenium arch with its spectacular moving and 'disappearing' set pieces, varied

lighting effects, pictorial realism etc., the theatre of the 1770s surpassed even the

52
Baroque spectacles and court masques of earlier generations. These spectacles, more

over, proved enormously popular, and increased the expenditure many fold on

scenery and lighting at Drury Lane. By the end of his career, Garrick was spending

more money on scenes, costumes and lights than on real actors.

Less than a decade after coming to England to work with Garrick, De

Loutherbourg removed himself completely from the theatre, leaving Drury Lane and

devoted himself entirely to the construction of his Eidophusikon. Son of a miniature

painter De Loutherbourg seems to have had an interest in miniatures. He was the first

to build miniature stage sets before constructing an actual stage design, and he even

occasionally employed miniatures in the finished designs themselves. In the camp, De

Loutherbourg created a veritable army of small figures that would march across the

stage in battalions to create the appearance of a distant military force.

Of course De Loutherbourg's decision to build the Eidophusikon was, in some

ways in keeping with the entertainment trends of his period, and have simply seen an

opportunity for profit in the admission based spectacles. By 1780, a year before the

opening of the Eidophusikon, theatrical and scenographic entertainments had become

so popular that parliament felt compelled to pass the Sunday Observances Act,

prohibiting all public spectacles for which admission was charged for Sunday

Entertainments. Most of the stage designers, however, revolved around to find out

new ways to artificially imitate natural landscapes or provide access to new vantage

points on actual scenes. Ascending tower and taking hot air balloon rides were the

new fads of this trend. Besides, there were displays, which re-Iaid on the manipulation

of light over and enormously painted canvass to produce the illusion of a changing

53
three-dimensional natural scene that opened in Paris in 1822 by stage designer Louis

Jacques Mande Daguerre who is also known for his diorama.

Perhaps the most successful and long lasting of these spectacles was the

panorama, and enormous painting, usually of a landscape, cityscape, or famous battle

housed in a purpose-built room and mounted on a circular structure that it extended

360 degrees around the viewer. The Irish painter Robert Barker is credited with

popularizing, if not inventing, the form his famous panoramic view of Edinburgh

opened in that city in 1787 and moved to London two years later that triggered a long-

lasting craze and inspired such practitioners like Carl Friedrick Schinkel, the Prussian

architect and Wilhelm Gropius who were famous for their panorama creations. This

attracted the attention of the bourgeoisie and royalty alike.

The experience of viewing a panorama for the 18th and early 19th century was

one of wonderment and awe. The panorama's attraction laid not so much in the actual

quality of the panoramas realistic representation of a particular play, but in its

technological illusionism. This elaborate stage machinery of receding backdrops gave

a sense of true perspective from foreground point of disappearance. Thus, panorama

became a mass medium. In fact, in his account of the history of the panorama,

Oetterman 18 lists the Eidophusikon as one of the major forerunners of the panorama

movement, as does Rand Carter l9 • However, the miniature theatre presented

unadulterated spectacle, freed of even the minimal narratives of the actors. Here

however, the actors are mechanical objects, moved by pulleys and levers and were

never parts of a narrative. Thus, their appearance is not in counter balance to the

18 Stephan Oetterman's- The Panorama: History ofa Mass Medium

19 Rand Carter- In his introduction to Schinkel's Collection of Architectural Designs
54
scenography but in support of it. An environment does not surround them but they are

parts of it. For De Loutherbourg the appearance of figures on the stage was part of his

creation, some thing he could never achieve with real actors at Drury Lane.

The Eidophusikon offered a fiery lake in the midst of a full-fledged Miltonic

hell with Satan, Beelzebub, Moloch and other demons, two serpents twining their way

around the giant (by comparison to the figures) Doric pillars, and a lighting change

from intense red to bright white to indicate the effect of fire on metal. It also

advertised a "Storm & Shipwreck" and naval battles. In addition, while The Wonders

of Derbyshire might feature the rivers and hills of that region of England, the

Eidophusikon could boast a recreation of the great Niagara Falls halfway across the

world. His technical effects could create a scene entitled "Moonlight a View in the

Mediterranean", which was achieved with backlighting in a way that resembled the

sun rise / sun set effect with the wing lights. An Argand lamp is put in a tin box with a

one-inch hole so that when placed at various distances behind the backcloth it can

seem to give off varying levels of light as clouds pass before the moon. Backdrops

were painted on transparent cloths so that they could see to disappear. Reflecting

mirrors were added to some lights to increase the illumination. Compared to others all

these tricks were inexpensive and outdid the spectacular effects of the show.

However, the size of De Loutherbourg's creations was small and could only

offer spectacles to fill a space 8' long by 6' high. The stage at the renovated Covent

Garden in 1784, by comparison was 38' long and 31' high. The rebuilt Drury Lane of

1794 would offer space for scenery 43' wide and 38' high. In short, Eidophusikon

could offer little against the enormousness of Drury Lane and Covent Gardens

55
particularly in creating effective imageries and large sized spectacular visuals. The

Eidophusikon was not simply a means of presenting miniature spectacles but it was a

means of presenting miniature theatrical spectacles. In the case of Drury Lane, the

chandeliers were removed from the stage probably for making more space. But even

with the space limitations, the Eidophusikon seems to be presenting a portal to

Niagara Falls as it might appear on a stage. The room in which the Eidophusikon was

housed was made-up to look like the interior of a theatre; the borders of the aperture

through which each scene was observed were made to look like a proscenium arch;

the space in which the spectacle occurred was even referred to as a 'stage'.

In an age when theatres were growing increasingly large, both in terms of

stage size and audience capacity, De Loutherbourg seems to offer his spectators a

chance to go to the theatre in a more intimate environment. He was not simply

offering the theatre going experience in miniature as well, complete with a smaller

audience and smaller auditorium. Compared to Drury Lane and Covent Gardens there

are smaller affairs - 'enchanting', in words of musician William Parke as opposed to

over bearing. The Eidophusikon seems to have created an experience opposite to that

of the larger theatres. It presented a similar form of entertainment, only it created

wonder through shrunken imagery as opposed to an enlarged visuality and were

episodic in presentational style. Even if a theatrical spectacle featured mUltiple scenes,

as almost all of them did, there was usually some sense of a narrative through line.

Here, however, each vista is offered as a discrete, unrelated episode; the

Eidophusikon's presentations were never allowed to achieve the totalizing impact of

their stage counter parts.

56
 De Loutherbuourg presented his shows every day of the month except Sunday,

where as the spectacles at London's other theatres would usually run for a week at the

most. Thus, one went to the Eidophusikon whenever it was convenient and not simply

when it made itself available, as with larger theatrical shows. One of the

advertisements of Eidophusikon explains the course of the show in which they will be

introducing the celebrated Scene of The Storm and Shipwreck including the Grand

Scene from Milton with the usual accompaniments. The general feeling of the

theatregoers of London was that the success of a stage spectacle was premised on its

ability to present wonders never before imagined. The Eidophusikon promised a

mixture of the old and the new, the familiar and the novel. Indeed the London public

seems to have made itself quite familiar with De Loutherbourg's invention. Spectators

were known to return multiple times in a week. The artist Thomas Gainsborough is

said to have gone every day.

In his miniature theatre, De Loutherbourg's miniature presentations continued

to attract audiences six days a week for nearly ten years, ending only when he decided

to leave the world of theatre altogether to become a faith healer. Even then, other

artistes in England and America revived the device in the ensuing decades. To see a

spectacle at Drury Lane one has to be overwhelmed by the crowd of other spectators,

size of the show, its novelty, presentation of a total and complete unified universe

with in the proscenium arch. To see a show at the Eidophusikon one has to seek out

the opposite experience - a small crowd, a diminutive scene, familiar presentations,

and a series of discrete episodes that never achieved the kind of sustained, totalizing

effect of a full blown spectacle. If the theatre was to give some thing larger than life,

then one should see the Eidophusikon.

57
 It is no wonder, that De Loutherbourg created his miniature theatre for the late

18th century England that witnessed sea changes in theatrical culture. Spectacle had

long been a part of the European theatrical repertoire, and extravagances of Baroque

design were surely impressive. But advancements in theatrical technology, especially

in lighting, combined with the 'retreat' of the spectacle into the proscenium arch

created an altogether different theatre going experience. And what began in the 1717s

would only grow larger and more elaborate in the 19th century. Indeed, in the journey

from Stage to Screen, A. Nicholas Vardac culminated in the creation of the movies

directly to Garrick and De Loutherbourg. Through the Eidophusikon, what seemed on

the stage overwhelming, uncontrollable, wondrously new, enchanting, contained,

reassuring and familiar. De Loutherbourg's invention was not a toy or novelty. It was

London's desire for spectacles.

In the background of the above, we can conclude that the Industrial

Revolution and other socio-economic changes through the colonial encounters

brought about a complete transformation in the thinking process of the human beings

in the West, which gradually started reflecting in our creative lifethrough the imported

colonial institutional model of theatre. All these factors have totally shifted the theatre

space into a more colourful orientation with painting like spectacular effects, lighting

devices and other technological tricks. All these have reduced the importance of

humans, (actors) to sheer insignificant ones. When we come to post independent

India, the space has different connotation and express through both the older

influences and newer trends emerging out of conscious need to break away from a

colonial past.

58
 The formalism of the scenography in the examples I have already cited can be

made to signify new meanings and connotations and we see a number of these ideas

of space from histories being evoked to create a new mise-en-scene of scenographic

ideas. The key question I would like to ask at this stage and proceed to is do the new

mise-en-scene still look at its scenographic narratives as a mere exercise of forms or

does it intermix with the new ideas of a nation and its constitutive formation. In this

context then we can assume that the mise-en-scene selected with care and abundance

were not haphazard selections but followed a distinct pattern to be able to perform its

role in the construction of a new national visual. It is irrelevant whether the

spectacular visuality of the new theatre borrowed from the new nation's visions or the

construction of the nations were visualized by the thea1re, the circulation of certain

visual menemonics show a common underlying idea.

In the following chapter I would like to venture into an unchartered idea of

trying to read meanings into scenography through its contemporary histories and look

at the spectacles and scenography reflecting notions of the social and political

scenario in a post independent India. The later mosaic of fragmentary scenography

consciously or uncounsciouly reflected the new trends of an ambitious nation who

tried to find all cultural expressions to launch its new visions. In a medium like the

theatre which negotiated throughout for a more autonomous space would certainly

have dialogues with the new nation but also critiqued its partisan spaces. As a

controversial but significant example I would like to look at the mise-en-scene of

Indian scenographic design as a parallel mapping of a nation whose very edifice was

being laid out through a caste and class division and segmentation.

59
 In this context I would like to push the paradigm further to look at the post

independent scenario as a nation which is emerging out of the rise and success of the

upper middle class Hindu elite and in the process having to create a very strong and

modified new caste hierarchies corresponding to class lines. The caste system which

was so ingrained with the aesthetic and intellectual sensibilities that an area like the

scenography of the theatre, a middle class domain both in the colonial and post

colonial modernity were bound to absorb and represent it. Such subjective evaluation

of the scenography needs to be introduced at this crucial stage. Hence all the formal

descriptions, which we went through in the initial space now cease to be neutral

performance spaces and assumes different meanings. The ideas of horizontality and

verticality would now be adopted and reinterpreted according to the agent's interest.

The agents would indeed represent a vast range of engagement and involvement in

their works.

1.5 Different Spaces of Castes in India

The caste system of India could be seen as a present day remnant of 'tribal

apartheid'. This form of discrimination based on identity is akin to racism. The

enduring silence of caste and colour consciousness among Indians forms one of the

greatest modern paradoxes. Hence as a dominant theme of post independent Indian

nation its impact on the scenographic spaces would be apparent and visible. Yet the

connection is never simple or uncomplicated and reading spaces directly is anomalous

and full of contradictions. The complex segmentation makes the reading possible. If

the scenographic narrative has to stand on its own as my dissertation attempts the

complicated caste and class divisions in its very adoption maybe an entry point. The

60
argument which is being made pertains to the idea that if the scenographic narrative is

important in terms of studying the Indian theatre then it will inevitably reflect a

society where the caste and class divisions and its complications are intertwined in the

very perception of its visualization, capturing all its contradictions. The idea that

because it is dominated by middle class authors theatre could only capture the status

quo of the caste system proved a fallacy. Many a time it would also break the mould

to reveal a utopia, through its critique.

If the caste system formed the foundational base for post independent India

then all spaces in whatever way represented it and in turn asked for a response from

the viewer. In this sense a large part of my argument goes back to a creative agency

which goes back to visualize space in whatever context as horizontal or vertical. It

does not matter whether it represents the Ramnanagar, Natyashastra, the proscenium

or the Koothambalam but creates a complex dialogue through its revisualization and I

would continue to use them in terms of the vertical and the horizontal.

The narrative goes into difficult and problematic terrain, as people who suffer

from caste hierarchy and bias are rarely ever the audience and an academic analysis of

such ideas require an understanding of reception. It is however imperative to take into

account these various lenses juxtaposed within any study of scenographic design. This

leads me to the idea of not restricting scenographic spaces into either a study of a

horizontality and verticality but a third space which can emerge from these spaces to

enhance its formalism to reflect and critique the caste segmented spaces or even push

the formalism to create utopic spaces where these segments tend to break down.

61
 Theatre qt the very crux of its transition from a colonial to a post colonial
I
i
spatial design had to take into account the new forces and the debates which were

going to reconst~uct its very existence. As the institutional model of the new nation

assuming statehdod though not maybe literally, at least ideologically had to take on

board the Gandhi Ambedkar debates20 which was theatrical in its own right.

Ambedkar's ultiimate conciliation with Gandhi ensured a united Indian polity,

something which the theatre set up in Delhi (chapter2) would be mapping as

contemporaneou~ history. The contradiction of this reconciliation would create the

I
anomalies of the 'new nation which would always remain within all visualization of a

theatrical space which is now in alliance with the nation's project either to eulogize or

to critique. I w04ld like to argue that the theatrical space in post independent India

would simultaneously capture this mapping more than any other and make these ideas

of horizontal ity ard verticality very pertinent.

Here, I am trying to make a vital connection between the imaginary trajectory

,
of the Indian nati6n and its own idea of spatiality which is going to be worked out as
I
one aspect of the new national identity that is a key component of scenic design in

theatrical terms. further, I am trying to problematize the idea of a new national

I
identity of class and caste integration for the sake of a hegemonic colonial and

Sanskrit tradition :which is already cited. What is crucial to look at is how the new
i
generation of the:#re personalities who would emerge out of the new national project

would adopt these factors in their expression of spatial visuals. Given the strong

20There'were vigoroJs debates over Ambedkar and Gandhi through the '30s and '40s. Most Dalits see
Ambedkar as their true leader-someone who challenged the very basis of the caste system unlike
other national leaders-notably Gandhi-who they claim followed a middle path. At the end of the
day, the Gandhian idea of 'a human society' seems to have lost out to the Ambedkar's more
revolutionary idea of 1social justice at all costs'.
I
I
62
 i
adherence to conventions inI theatre and the concrete sources of scenographic drops,

the first step was to re-adopt: traditional scenographic ideas within the new ideological
I
vision. The fact that older hegemonic symbols in theatre can never be allowed to
I
disappear, the new visions: had to be readopted, also absorbing all the previous

contradictions. A very apt ~ay to look at a post independent India which refuses to
I

discard its colonial caste alnd class hierarchy totally and builds a compromised
I
strategy in terms of its new P9lity.

The contradiction becomes more profound when we see within ideas of the

Kudiyattam, Natyashastra or even colonial spectacles, the attempt to construct a new

I

Indian vision. By no means

I
could they through their strict specifications

accommodate the Dalit commbnities and the absence of spaces allotted to them. If the
I

space is vertical then even marginal spaces are difficult to physically mark out.

Therefore performances whic~ work with vertical ideas of space has by the physical

difficulty no space to give to Its dalit characters. Only directors hoping to work with
I

horizontal spaces can hope to I carve out physical spaces within the stage to position

the dalit characters. This itself qetermines the plays they chose and the characters they
I
try to include as the actor's rep(;!rtoire.
I

If space segmentation i~ an important feature of theatrical scenography then it

I
I

is not a space which can captwe the caste divisions as also class oppression. The

alliances which we see through the caste politics often defy the class lines and if
I

theatrical spaces even within its I limits reflect the caste segmentation, it rarely captures
I
the class divisions. While of: course the political theatre very vibrant in post

63
independent India tried t9 reflect the class contradictions it often neglected a

visualization of the caste spaces.

Far more complex in today's context are the ideas of reservations and ideas of

accommodation of certain ~ections probably based on their rise to a middle class

status within a ruthless capi1talist system. It becomes important then to tout them on

the nation's as well as the :theatrical space as a success story of Indian modernity
I
based on capitalism. It never reflects the material reality of the system except

inevitably through performance and theatrical expressions which needs to be looked

as reflecting status quos, critiques and even utopic alternatives.

I

All these combines together to become new urban spectacles of India. The
I
hardcore real visuals of the oppressed class with many different kinds of visuals of the
\

villages and the slums of the1cities with their robust materials lying all over the places

is a form of life that is consigered an inferior, tasteless copy of an extant style of ali or
.
a worthless imitation of art of recognized value. This also gives birth to the arguments
I
related to the art that are aesthetically deficient (whether or not being sentimental,
,
I
glamorous, theatrical, or creative) and that make creative gestures which merely

imitate the superficial appearances of art through repeated conventions and formulae.
!
Excessive sentimentality often is associated with this kind of visual language In

spectacle. And all these suppressed visuals of the oppressed class are needed In

theatrical culture to be transfo,rmed into visually symbolic spaces.

Looking at such aspe~ts dialectically has also created alternate spaces which

tried visually to intervene il1 the hegemonic space divisions on stage in order to
I

critique the real world. Stalwarts like Habib Tanvir tried to break the mould and

64
 I

create spaces for all to

I
be accommodated. It is significant to analyze his work in this

context and observe some of the strategies he used to shift and displace all such social
I
and class boundaries ithrough the scenic designs in his work ..
I

1.6 Habib Tanvirl and Space in Indian Theatre

1

Habib TanvirQI successfully merged spaces of performance with fictitious

spaces which belonged to a folk consciousness and a utopia of popular performances

1

with the reality of here and now. His popularity also ensured a considerable size of
l
audience for his work which is always a vital factor of such spaces. His approach to
I

folk culture distinguishes itself sharply from that of many others in contemporary
'I

theatre., His approach tlo the folk in particular and his cultural consciousness in general

were shaped in the crJcible period of the left-wing cultural movement -- particularly
I
Indian People's Theatre Association (lPTA) and Progressive Writers' Association

(PWA) -- in which Tanlvir actively participated during his early, post-university years.

Habib Tanvir's \vork very clearly was not his vision of a people's space which
I

he constructed out of his own imagination and inserted his nacha actors from the

Chattisgarh set up. In aln early writing he describes in detail his problematic contact

with the local artistes ~f Chattisgarh and the long and painful process to build a
I

substantial dialogue which could be converted into creative work process and

performance.(Tanvir 19;74).To study his process is to realize the complex process

I
which can bring about a definite shift in the conventional method of dividing spaces
I

21 Habib Tanvir- When he arrived in Delhi, and began his career in the theatre, the Capital's stage scene
was dominated by amateur and collegiate drama groups which offered English plays in English, or in
vernacular translations, to a spcially restricted section of the city's Anglophone elite. These groups, as
also the NSD a decade later'l derived their concept of theatre, their standards of acting, staging, and
direction, from the European models of the later 19th and early 20th centuries. There was little effort to
link theatre work to the indigenous traditions of performance, or even to say anything of immediate
value and interest to an Indian,audience.
I

65
 I
either to create ~ horizontal or a vertical choreographic design which unconsciously
I

reflects a set paradigm. Space division- conventions perhaps are the most difficult

aspect to break 6ut of in the theatre. By adopting the basic premises of the local form
I
of actors in mov,ement celebrating performances was not an easy task for a director
I

who had imbibep. his directorial techniques from the Royal Academy of Dramatic

Arts, London and the Berliner Ensemble. First and foremost Tanvir's work adopted a
,
I
flexible horizontality
I
which could expand around its perimeters to accommodate
I

various segment~d spaces. His productions are conspicuous by the absence of any

vertical space design. Tanvir's refusal to use any scenic perspective allows him to

start off by posi~ioning his actors without any background visuals which tends to
I

create a perspectiye between the actor and a scenic design. We have seen in colonial

and even nationalbt theatre how the plethora of scenic design was a dominant factor.

The enormous sc~nic drops of palaces, sceneries, forts and houses always created
I

dwarf actors within the audience perspective. Moreover the style of the conventional

theatre is also deSigned to create a vertical perspective between the star actors who

always take the central space viz-a-viz the others. The integrated vertical perspective
I

in such theatres is always acclaimed as a great artistic expression.

Tanvir's anecdotal style of writing often quoted draws a very clear picture of
,

how all the expect~d ideas of design had to be discarded before he could create a new
I

concept of scenography. In an often self derisive tone Tanvir has talked about a time
I

when he tried to Imanipulate the performers and the overall performance design
,
I
according to his visjon, only to find energy-less automats following his instructions. I
I

read this period as: a dialectical phase and the constant tension between the local
,
actors and Tanvir dreated a break, not only in the generical sense but mostly in the
1 66
 ,

idea of the design. From his work we see again and again his authorship is very clear.

The performance by no mean,s reflect a folk performance in its cultural local, which
,
like its social and economic ~tructure also reflects its caste and class segmentation.
I
There is no need to idealize traditional or popular performances. For Tanvir it was a
,

deliberate visualization which comes from the core of folk consciousness to create a
!

utopic space which with his! left liberal past maybe he could envisage and give a
I

concrete picture to.

J see Tanvir using his theatrical components, actors in action, actors In

gymnastic formations, actor's body depicting labour, very minimalist lighting and
I

stage formations and audien'ce sitting to construct a feeling of an alternate space. It

was a director at work who was very adept at the latest theatrical devices and changes.

This was no innocent spontaneous design concept which was shaping out of some
I
vague idealism. This is wh~ the 'folk' in Tanvir's context could not reconcile with

any of the existing scenographic spectacles and requires a complete revamping of

visuals. An imagery of rur~1 life was difficult to integrate with just painted symbolic

designs. It required a rural impression of its people for forming a visual spectacle;

otherwise, it could easily, been limited to a colonial mnemonics of unchartered

rural/pastoral visuality or t~e romantic rural nostalgia.

I .
Tanvir traces the genesis of his interest in the folk to his childhood. He was
I
born and brought up in Rflipur, which was at that time a small town surrounded by
I
villages on all sides. Then; was daily and constant interaction between the residents of

the town and the village ~olk; Although his immediate family was town-based, some
,
of his uncles were landowners
, and visited the countryside often. As a child, he too

67
had several opporunities to visit villages where he listened to the music and songs of

the local people.', He was so fascinated by these melodies that he even memorized

some of them. Af,ter finishing school, he was sent to Aligarh Muslim University for

his Bachelor's degree. Having completed his studies there, he moved to Bombay in

1945 and immedi~tely joined IPTA and PW A there. Only a very deep understanding

of the cultural loc~s could create a core dialogue with a local culture and a modern
,
theatrical space. The songs and singing imbibed in Tanvir's psyche also contributed to

his visua, imagerie~ and language he resorted to.

If we see some of Tanvir's contemporaries in the] 970s we would also see a

new generation of tbeatre directors who were attempting to look at folk idioms in a

similar way to creat~ a new visual menmonical design concept which experimented

with new ideas of horizontality and accommodating the 'others' within its exhibitory

spaces. The exhibit~ry space of theatre would be questioning through its own work
,
I

the idea of only plac:ing the middle class hero in a centre stage. In fact, very often
,

such scenic design broke all the ideas of central optical vision and a centre stage

activity-

,
Girish Karnad's interesting Kannada play 'Haya Vadana' (Half Horse), based
I

on an ancient Indian I:egend which also inspired Thomas Mann to write his novel

'Transposed Heads', draws richly from a Mysore folk theatre form known as the
I

Yakshagana and opens lip literally potential space innovations. Similarly, the Bengali
I

playwright-producer Utpal Dutt's engagement with the jatra allowed him to

I

experiment with the jat~a arena after his stint with the Minerva theatre which in all

effects represented the: colonial and national theatre menemonics in terms of

68
scenographic design. After his stint with the jatra Dutt would discard all his notions of

large spectacular sets and its effect. Often these were not only dictated by economic

considerations. Tanvir in fact quotes Karnad and Dutl's work with such scenographic

strategies along with PL Deshpande's work which engaged with the Tamasha.

Here, one would like to compare the differences of interests of Habib Tanvir

and B.V. Karanth into the folk forms. Tanvir went to Chhattisgarh and worked with

the local artists, created theatre in Chhattisgarhi dialect and then travelled to different

towns and cities in India and abroad with his productions. In Karanth's case, he

created much of his theatre by placing himself in any town and city; however, his

productions had different experiments with Yakshagana and other folk forms ofIndia,

as he used to bring in the exponents of the form in the rehearsal process and did

experimentation with the exponent by training his actors in the form. In addition to it,

his productions had scenic elements designed by established designers like Robin Das

or Bansi Kaul, even though the designs were deeply inspired by the folk forms in its

experimental nature. His work did not break the last barrier of alternative.

I find Tanvir very conscious of not using the popular form to create another

process of refining the form to appeal to the taste of his middle class connoisseur

audience but a political theatre of his own. Hence it is important to read his quote in

this context, 'It is no use turning the dead book of the classical theatre in India and

trying to revive the archaic theatre forms of yesterday without relating them to the

living traditions of today. There are some people who tend to do this. They are

revivalists, in the worst sense of chauvinism, who have failed to perceive the complex

but obvious inter-relationship between the classical and the folk performing arts. They

69
 I
do not realize that the folk,traditions in art are not only the progenitors of the ultimate
I

classical structure but also Ithe carriers of classical traditions when the latter come to a
I
dead end in their own habitat. The fact that the people change and transform the
I

classical elements of art to their own purpose and advantage and keep modifying them
I
to suit their changing needsI and conditions strengthens the case in their favour rather

using it as it is. So far any conscious effort to link cultural development with

traditions is concerned, thisl inter-relationship between the classical and the folk is no

less evident in the sphere 'of drama, except to the blind or the most bigoted. The

unimaginative pedants, whq refuse to see the mutual inter-flow of influences between

the two categories of arts, a\low themselves to be misled by the fact that the classical
I

Sanskrit drama of India has ceased to exist as a living force for a thousand years.
I
They forget that the different musical theatre forms, practiced through the ages by
I

rural artists all over India and enjoyed so enormously today by millions of people
1

everywhere, must carry a str<;mg dose of the aesthetic values contained in the Sanskrit
I

22
drama, which in a sense represents the quintessence of Indian culture. , Tanvir never

had any intention to create apother aesthetic theatre devoid of the politics and agony

which is captured with the popular forms and its people. The metanarrative of his

performances are very clear i~ its expressions.

In this context it is important to look at some of Tanvir's productions at this

,

I
period where cannons around his performative characteristics are not fixed. His
I

earliest production in this senSe was Agra Bazar, which tries for all purpose to capture
I
the marketplace scenario in a 1(3akhtinian fashion. Based on Nazir Akbarabadi's poetry

22Theatre Is in the Villages Autho~(s): Habib Tanvir Source: Social Scientist, Vol. 2, No. 10 (May,
1974), pp. 32-41 Published by: Socil;\1 Scientist Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3516486. Page
35-36 I

70
he creates a bazaar scJnario which is almost reminiscent of fairground and its utopia
,
space mnemonics rather than a bazaar which during the colonial times was also the

space to expose the iBritish merchant interests and the growing poverty of the

common people. Nazir Akbaradi's poetry itself as a quality of heterogeneity which

allows one to break o~t of a mould of creating the aesthetic delight which is only

recognized by its hom~genous upper middle class group conditioned by its tenets.

Akbarbadi's poetry wa$ as popular to the suffering aristocrats under the colonial rule

as to the common peopl,e who picked up his poetry to create songs around them. He is

sung by beggars, vendqrs, pavement dwellers all over the country. Tanvir picked up

the popular tunes that he

I
knew and heard from childhood to achieve the sort of folk

tonality that he was w~nting. The Bazaar was completely musical and even in the

open air; singers were l;llways on the stage. There were, however, entries from the
I

auditorium area and p~articipation of some villagers from Okhla who acted as

themselves, as vendors, [etc in the performance. He instantly creates an arena type of

space which can only be an expanding horizontal space, not even restricted by its
I

arena borders beyond which actors can also fall off and out of the audience visions.
:
He also deliberately replaces an expected visuality with an oral visuality. The fact
I

remains that the play is ~bout different kinds of speeches, different kinds of poetries,
I

and different kinds of people with in the ambit of the same milieu. In the regular sense
I

of drama, there is very little fodder for the audience. But, in the visual sense, Agra
i
Bazar was a celebration t.hat
,
one has to participate in, in order to live life its fullest. In
I

complete contrast to this, Agra Bazar offered an experience radically different for the
I
city audience, both in forVl and content, from anything that the city had ever seen.

71
 The play, as we kno~, is based on the works and times of a very unusual 18th-

century Urdu poet, Nazir Akbarabadi, who not only wrote about ordinary people and

their everyday concerns but wrote in a style and idiom which disregarded the
,
orthodox, elitist norms of d~corum in poetic idiom and subject matter. Using a mix of

educated, middle-class urban actions and more or less illiterate folk and street artists
!

from the village of Okhla,' what Tanvir, in a highly interesting (and, for its time,

revolutionary) artistic str~tegy, put on the stage was not the socially and

architecturally walled - in ,space of a private dwelling. It was a bazaar -- a market

place with all its noise a~'d bustle, its instances of solidarity and antagonism, and

above all, with all its sharp social, economic and cultural polarities. The play also

foregrounds a poetry that takes the ordinary people (their lives, and their everyday

struggles)' as both its inspiration and its addressee. It uses the example of Nazir's

poetry and his plebeian appeal to challenge orthodox, elitist literary canons. What the

play thus offers is a joyful celebration of what Mikhail Bakhtin called 'the culture of
I

the marketplace.'

In terms of the vi~ual effect of Agra Bazar, Tanvir hardly ever use the centre
I

stage with probably the assumption that the central stage space always foregrounds
• I

his characters. The few times he does use this space is when he brings the old man
I

and the child who is almost like the performing monkey in the marketplace though

through a very simpl~ narrative he mimes a number of great historical

phenomenological truths ;with an innocence and simplicity which creates a confluence

I

in expressing the misery ,bfthe common people without making them seem naYve. The

richer businessman and the aristocrats are always huddled in the small alcove on the

right of the stage, automatically taking away the focus from them with their stylized
72
 ,
acting and sophisticated body moments. The robust bodies of the people he took from
I
the Okhla marketplaces is his scenographic material and scene after scene he creates a

fluid movement to break all ideas of segmented spaces and advantageous positions of

actors and characters like ~II traditional theatre. It is a space where all can be
I
accommodated. The only eldyation he allows is the open balcony at the left-up of his

stage space and the only characters that come up there are the women. It is a brilliant

devise to use the height of the stage without creating any hierarchy in the audience

visual space breakup. Howehr high you place the working women and the working
~,

women body you will never give her an elevation position in the audience mind. The

audience will never expect to see his expected individual hero in the working class

women Tanvir places there., In scenes where two groups, one Sikhs and the other
!

Hindus come singing and almost ready to break into a fight is Tanvir's signature

chorographical mastery. They come as if through narrow alleys and never straight,

never diagonal, both from th~ audience perspective hinting at a leader and followers

but here it is always a crowd lin a group who is breaking all symmetrical line designs.

Tanvir consciously breaks all line concepts. There is never a straight line on the stage,

not in any set design, not in the way his actors stand straight lines mean a regimented

set up and in this utopic space there is no place for regimentation but free movements
,I
around each other, encompassing the audience within its gamut.

The result of this enhanced awareness was, that disregarding the colonial

mind-set that dominated the theatre scene at the time, Tanvir began his long quest for
I

an indigenous performance idiom. This quest went through at least two distinct stages

before the director arrived at the form and style which is now the hallmark of his work

in theatre. His first move was: to work with some folk artists of Chhattisgarh and their
I, 73
traditional fonns and techniques. His first production, mounted soon after returning

from Europe, Mitti ki Gadi.

Photo.l.S: Mitti Ki Gadi directied by Habib Tanvir and presented by Naya Theatre

(a translation of Shudraka's Mrichchakatikam),included SIX folk actors from

Chhattisgarh in the cast. Besides, he used the conventions and techniques of the folk

stage, thus giving the production a distinctly Indian fonn and style. The play, which is

still revived from time to time (although it is now perfonned entirely by village

actors), is considered by many as one of the best modem renderings of the ancient

classic. I see it as a political strategy on Tanvir's part and his idea of iconoclastic

denigration of cannons and classics which place the Sanskrit texts in a pedestal. If

worked out within the horizontal non linear design, the text of a Sanskrit classic can

actually be converted into a popular space.

74
 Mitti ki Gadi convinced Tanvir that the style and techniques of the folk theatre

are akin to the ones implied in the dramaturgy of the Sanskrit playwrights. He

believes that the theatrical style of the latter can be accessed through folk traditions.

The imaginative flexibility and simplicity with which the classical playwrights

establish and shift the time and place of action in a play, Tanvir argues, is found in

abundance in our folk performances. Mitti ki Gadi, as well as his later production of

Visakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa, are practical demonstrations of this fact. For example,

changes in time and locale in both productions are suggested through dialogues and

movements without formally interrupting the performance. To quote just one instance

from Mitti ki Gadi, when a character orders his subordinate to go to the garden and

see if there is the body of a woman there, the subordinate simply runs around the

stage once and returns with the answer, 'I went to the garden and found that there is a

woman's body there.

Tanvir and his wife Moneeka Misra (herself a theatre person) founded a

company of their own in 1959 and called it Naya Theatre. The group produced a

number of plays including modern and ancient classics of India and Europe. Although

most of these plays were produced with urban actors, Tanvir's interest in the folk

traditions and performers had come to stay and continued to grow. However, it was

not until the early 1970s that this involvement reached a new and more sustained

phase. A lot has been written about Tanvir's careergraph and his contribution to the

new theatre movement in India, but my interest is in analyzing his scenographic

design as an entry to understand his interventions in terms of creating new spatial

ideas both physically and ideologically within a new nation and its visions.

75
 Having his actors as his scenographic design components he wanted to use

their body design to create another scenographic language. In Tanvir's work we see a

new method when he tries to capture these bodies not as beautiful bodies which would

aesthetically delight his audience through a process of classicization which is the

motive behind all drama training processes: - Instead we see a process which

declassifies the body to create a laboring body. In the process of classicization, there

is a process of alienation involved while in Tanvir's work we see a process of de-

alienation of the body of the actor. In this context one must refer to his masterpiece

Charandas Chor. The body of the actor who plays Charandas Chor and his escapades

from the police reveals an extraordinary range of distortions which act as a disguise

for the thief. A body which has gone through a long training process of classical

theatre training can never distort itself to create the visual mnemonics which Tanvir

attempts. Only a body trained through an actual live in process of everyday labour can

create such a visual impact. In this context Tanvir creates a new body politics which

can only remind one of the commedia actors which Tanvir talks about in the context

of Goldoni and even Brecht. 23 In this context it is also important to see what impact

such actors and their labouring bodies would have on a Sanskrit drama where the

classical bodies are its most in1portant characteristics. I read it as an iconoclastic

denigration through visual means of the Sanksrit text which in post independent

Indian was made to be eulogized and worshipped.

23Theatre is in the Villages Author(s): Habib Tanvir Source: Social Scientist, Vol. 2, NO. 10 (May,
1974), pp. 32-41 Published by: Social Scientist Stable URL; http://www.jstor.org/stable/3516486. Page
37
76
 'The typical Nacha actor is usually a peasant, an agricultural labourer, a

village artisan or a shop-keeper. He is also a semi-professional actor in the sense that

in his spare time he travels about with his band of actors and musicians unfolding his

repertoire of small musical comedies in all-night performances for the benefit of a

most receptive rural audience all over the region, usually on commissioned basis,

which proves quite lucrative. The more successful parties give an average of 200

performances in a year. These are spread out in a concentrated form between harvest

times, during which the actors tend to their vocations on land and in shops. The

typical actor is a versatile artist, with a natural gift for singing, dancing, acting and

playing instruments, which he polishes to perfection in the course of his experience.

He does not have to be taught movement, voice projection, singing or acting. Being

illiterate, he is of necessity an improviser of his dramatic story and characters. 24 ,

It is significant then to see the nacha workshop and its training process which

Tanvir conducted in Raipur in 1972. In addition to several observers from the urban

centers of Raipur, Delhi and Calcutta, more than a hundred folk artists of the region

participated in the month-long exercise. During the workshop, three different

traditional comedies from the stock nacha repertoire were selected and more or less

dove-tailed into one another to make one compact, full length play. A few short

scenes were improvised and inserted to link them up into One story. A number of

songs, which had never before been brought on the stage, were also included after

appropriate editing. The production which was thus created was called Gaon ka Naam

Sasural, Mor Naam Damaad, an almost wholly improvised and delightful stage play.

24Theatre is in the Villages Author (s): Habib Tanvir Source: Social Scientist, Vol. 2, No. 10 (May,
1974), pp. 32-41 Published by: Social Scientist Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3516486. Page
40
77
 'The difference actually lies in the improvised dialogue of the folk theatre and

its stock situations and plots, which remain nonetheless flexible, incorporating the

latest local events and the changing social temper of the people, and satirizing topical

happening as they go along. This quality of the folk theatre is what makes for its

perfect rapport with its audience. What is significant is that Tanvir had no intention

of trying to imbibe the local culture in his own individual growth only or creating an

Indian identity for himself. He continued to take the local spaces as the entry point

and if the end needed point.

Tanvir is quite careful not to create a hierarchy by privileging, in any absolute

and extrinsic way, his own educated consciousness as poet-cum-playwright-cum-.

director over the unschooled creativity of his actors. In his work, the two usually meet

and interpenetrate, as it were, as equal partners in a collective, collaborative endeavor

in which each gives and takes from, and thus enriches, the other. An excellent

example of this non-exploitative approach is the way Tanvir fits and blends his poetry

with the traditional folk and tribal music, allowing the former to retain its own

imaginative and rhetorical power and socio-political import, but without in any way

devaluing or destroying the latter. Yet another example can be seen in the way he

allows his actors and their skills to be fore grounded by eschewing all temptations to

use elaborate stage design and complicated lighting. Today, this kind of use of space

and its conceptual idea, according to me, could be seen in horizontality, particularly in

terms of Agra Bazaar and Charandas Chor. However, it has now become a kind of

utopic space because it is seen as a convention and becoming unexciting because of

penetration of globalization and technology into human lives.

78
 This is a very important cultural dialogue which allowed him to embody the

struggle of its own time in a complex manner which the folk lore traditions have

already captured. He accepted their naivete as the artistic device which conceals an

intense moment of suffering in the life of the masses. Like a lot of others he never

knocked out the content and used only its score to replace a vision with a slogan, to

misuse folklore, to descend to formalism. Form and content are thoroughly integrated

to folklore to separate them is to kill it. Therefore I think Tanvir makes it a point to

maintain the cultural locale at all cost. Even at times when his plays traveled to the

cities he actually more forcibly constructed the rural locale as a reality, never as a

scenic design. The content coming out of their own text is prioritized and highlighted.

Charandas Chor, which came in 1975, took into account all these factors and

its confluences, creating what became his masterpiece work. By the time he produced,

Charandas Chor (1975), the form and style of his theatre had reached its perfection. It

was the play with the most minimalist sets, with general lights and a wonderful

singing along with a perfect improvisatory performance by every individual actor

which developed with the complete audience participation. It was a kind of a

grassroots connection with culture and region. The setting of Charandas Chor was

very simple with just a tree with a raised platform and only the general lights used to

illuminate the actors. However, actors are completely free to move in and out of the

stage as per improvisations happening on the stage. The ambience of the participatory

audience and the performance makes the scenography meaningful and minimalist.

The tree and the raised platform as set elements of the production achieve

multidimensional meanings at the end.

79
 Photo.l.6: Charandas Char directed by Habib Tanvir and presented by Naya Theatre

Charandas Chor almost follows a fluid non linear movement where the police,

the petty thief and other symbolic power imbibed characters run around in non circles

or non linear patterns. There is an entire non geometrical movements which seem to

flow and flow without any end or beginning. It breaks all ideas of geometrical

patterns and that is offset even more with the gymnastic patterns which are brought in

almost as an interlude but also to show non linear individual bodies, numerous bodies

merged into one.

80
 A question which rises here is Tanvir's relation to rituals which he erases from

his entire visual space but how does he prevent it from coming back within the

collective memory. His socialist utopia very deliberately negates all mnemonics of a

ritual space which we see returning again and again in the work of a number of his

contemporaries. I read it within his socialist ideas and the concept of a transformative

space which Tanvir seemingly creates so effortlessly. Unlike most Indian practitioners

of the time he is not interested in creating fixed identities for himself and a middle

class homogenous groups comprising his actors, troupes, audience etc, but always

breaking all notions of us , we them etc.

]n other words, Tanvir does not romanticize the 'folk' uncritically and

historically. He is aware of their historical and cognitive limitations and does not

hesitate to intervene in them and allow his own modern consciousness and political

understanding to interact with the traditional energies and skills of his performers. His

project, from the beginning of his career, has been to harness elements of folk

traditions as a vehicle and make them yield new, contemporary meanings, and to

produce a theatre which breaks all barriers.

Though the later Tanvir is often accused of repetition, I think it was important

for him to hold on to the basic philosophy of his work as symbolized so aptly through

his scenic designs and use it to bring back the memory of the radical space which he

himself has so carefully created. Hence we see Tanvir's excellent adaptations of A

Midsummer's Night Dream (Kamdeo Ka Apna, Basant Ritu Ka Sapna) and The Good

Woman of Szechwan (Shaajapur ki Shantibai. In these plays, he has worked close to

the original text and written songs, which reproduce the rich imagery and humor of

81
Shakespeare's poetry and the complex ideas of Brecht. Despite this fidelity to the

original texts, not only has Tanvir given his poetic compositions the authenticity and

freshness of the original but has also fitted his words to native folk tunes with

remarkable ease and skill.

One of the most outstanding examples of this kind of interaction is Tanvir's

Dekh Rahe Hain Nain, based on a story by Stephen Zweig, in which he has

successfully represented a complex theme without compromising the vitality and

creativity of his folk actors. It was the moral dilemma embodied in the protagonist, a

courageous warrior, who is tormented by the guilt of having to kill his own brother,

which had attracted Tanvir to Zweig's story. However, in writing the play, he went

beyond the story and invented new events, situations, characters and added

dimensions and nuances, which significantly enriched the story and made it more

poignantly relevant for us today. The result is a play that traverses a complex gamut

of motifs from the abstract, almost metaphysical, quest for inner peace to the concrete,

material problems of the ordinary people in the wake of a war, economic inflation and

political corruption. This is from an idealist impulse towards renunciation of political

power and towards an absolute solitude to an urgent sense of the necessity to get

involved with others for a shared endeavor to change the world.

Thus in contrast to the fashionable, folksy kind of drama on the one hand and

the revivalist and archaic kind of 'traditional' theatre on the other, Tanvir's theatre

offers an incisive blend of tradition and modernity, folk creativity and skills on the

one hand and modern critical consciousness on the other. It is this rich as well as

enriching blend which makes his work so unique and memorable.

82
 From the proscenium stage a shift to the space of folk and traditional theatre

was evidenced from the time of Habib Tanvir particularly with the production of his

famous play Agra Bazaar in the mid 50s. It is also noted that his productions were

replete with lot of folksy elements or classical components or ritual flavors and superb

blending of urban and rural artistry. We also understand that stage design or

scenography is now established and treated, as an integral part of modem theatrical

productions so that the contemporary stage designer / director is free to extend the

vocabulary of stage other than the proscenium stage. All these ensured the more vital

and meaningful interpretation of the dramatic work of the past and present. Any

dramatic form for that matter uses subtle mutations of acting, dancing, singing and

miming which is a visual equivalent, and the achievement of this is a constant

challenge to the designer.

Photo.l. 7: Agra Bazaar directed by Habib Tanvir and presented by Naya Theatre

83
1. 7 Space in Modern Indian Theatre

"If some body rejects modernity in theatre as an unacceptable legacy, he

would logically also have to reject modernity in other forms of social and cultural

organization. Any critique of modernity as being un-Indian is 'riddled with

inconsistency, misrepresentation, and contradiction'. What these inconsistencies

expose is that modernity in theatre spread unevenly across different regions of the

nation. In some places, it reached only in the mid-twentieth century thereby allowing

the pre-modern and the post-modern to co-exist. When we discuss modern theatre,

the question of language also emerges. Any language drama (original or translation)

as a process of 'trans-creation' that constitutes a dramaturgical method which can

bridle cultural dichotomies and can look on either tradition, free of aesthetic

hierarchies and normative construction, as the raw material from which to fashion

works utilizing forms, codes and conventions from both traditions". Nandi Bhatia?5

In this context it is important to see how a new modernity was being

constructed in post independent Indian theatre which I see as a very significant post

colonial modernity viz-a-viz colonial modernity which through Loutheborg and the

Victorian spectacle I have described as using scenic design as the most dominant text

which set the narrative of the melodrama as well as the actor, who all tried to compete

with the scenographic design. In terms of a nationalist theatre during the nationalist

movement we saw a derivative idea coming from a derivative nationalism, where the

25Nandi Bhatia is Associate Professor at the Department of English, University of Western Ontario.
She has authored Acts of Authority/Acts of Resistance: Theater and Politics in Colonial and
Postcolonial India (2004); edited a special issue of Feminist Review on 'Postcolonial Theatres', and co-
edited (with Nirmal Puwar) a special issue of Fashion Theory on 'Fashion and Orientalism'. She is
currently editing a book titled Modern Indian Theatre: Colonial Encounters and Contested Formations.
Additionally, she has published essays on South Asian literatures and diasporic culture, the 1947
Partition, and British imperial literatures and drama in anthologies and journals such as Modern Drama,
Theatre Journal, Centennial Review, and Feminist Review, Sagar and Fashion Theory.
84
colonial scenographic discourse of open landscapes and harems are now replicated by

rural landscapes and the harem like structure of the Rajput-Mughal interior spaces.

The idea of the post colonial modernity we have seen experimented with the

obvious ideas of the folk and here the folk scenario and its scenic speicifications

became the accepted model. Acknowledging the work of lPT A in paving the way for

women such as Shanta Gandhi, Dina Gandhi Pathak, Zohra Sehgal and Sheila Bhatia,

played a crucial. role in the arena of performance by making culture a nationalist

concern along with certain folk mnemonics or symbolism .. Through many of their

strands they evolved patterns of folk, classical, though never being able to free

themselves from a derivative idea of scenic designs. There was never any real break

in the scenographic designs in terms of their work or could capture the Tanvir sort of

radicalism in the entire performance or generical break from the past.

As I started with the idea of the caste system and its obvious reflection through

a class and caste segmentation in the works of post independent Indian directors it

would be interesting to see what the scenographic designs meant in terms of some of

the Dalit writers. One particular name to be mentioned in this connection is Manoj

Kana, a theatre activist, who does some theatre in the tribal areas of Malapuram

District casting Dalits and presents the performance before them only. Though his

background allows him to look at the caste system in a different light and the content

often deals with the oppressive systems and interrogating the elitism prevalent in

certain kinds of theatre practices in terms of a more fundamental break in terms of

forms, in this respect the scenographic mnemonics does not create any significant

radical break. The space in these productions were more in the forests of Wynad with

a raised mud platform along with some shrubs and trees on the stage as usually the
85
stage is on the hill slope-side and audience sits around the stage. The music, sound

and design elements are all inspired, based and influenced by the tribal materials. The

process of evolving the play is through group improvisations in a very basic level. Yet

the signature of a Dalit director or a new subversive form in terms of scenographic

design seems not to be the priority.

The appearance of film in the 1930s was blamed for the decline of theatrical

activities. But the popularity of television by the mid 1970s caused new anxieties

regarding its implications for theatre. The technological growth in the sound

engineering and the controlled and amplified speech and dialogue of film etc. had

resulted in the downfall of 'the spectacular drama of the Parsi theatre,' this does not

mean that cinema and television programmes were the only media for the downfall of

theatre. Of course there were positive effects of cinema in terms of 'techniques of

stage-production based on electrical and mechanical devices,' speech, and 'the

discarding of coherence, symmetry, episodic build up ,and other common practices in

~
;'A\'
.r/

dramatic art' such as putting up short scenes and ma~1 stage operations etc.

The differences between cinema and theatre in terms of communicative and

inter-personal sharing, the communicative environment of the theatre hall and its live

aspects, direct community involvement and theatre's localized specificity can call for

TV to be an ally of theatre. Kirti Jain, 26 provides new insight on the relationship

26 Ms. Kirti Jain, Professor, Modern Indian Drama- M.A. in English literature and Diploma in

Dramatics with specialization in Direction from NSD. Has acted in and directed several plays.
Conducted theatre workshops in many places. Produced plays and documentaries for Doordarshan.
Contributes articles in Hindi and English to theatre related books and journals. Has traveled to many
countries under the Cultural Exchange Program. Joined the NSD faculty as a teacher of Modern Indian
Drama in 1977. Has been Director of NSD from 1988 to 1995. Started the TIE Company, the
Documentation and Publication Programme and the Regional Research Centre of the School. Also
manages 'Natarang Pratishthan' , a Theatre Resource Centre.
86
between TV and drama and the possibilities that TV can provide in terms of stage

techniques, acting, camera, the emotions achieved through close-ups, as well as in

accessing a viewer-ship that is otherwise limited to drama. Though this does not

directly deal with theatre scenography it brought in a competition in use of technology

in scenographic design but what I would look at alter through a more post modern

perspective.

1. 7.1 Regional Vision In Terms of Scenography

Regional scenography encompasses a broad and divergent sphere of activity.

Performances were being made in theatre spaces, found space, site-specific space and

virtual space. Opportunities for the theatre artist had never been so varied or the

territory so uncharted. There has been particularly acute stage of transition or collision

in an indeterminate and shifting field. A discursive space had opened up that asks us

to engage both within and beyond its boundaries wherever these may be set. In

regional theatre the visual composition of performance within the broad field of the

performing arts are theatre, opera, dance and performance. Sometimes in some works

in the regions, scenography with actors makes a dialogue by making imaginative

theoretical and temporal links across a range of cultural discourses.

For me a classic and unique case study which looks at modernist projects

which challenges the older notions of the professional theatre and brings theatrical

concepts right to the post independent period while capturing the philosophy of the

local within a regional context would be Tagore and the potential of his scenographic

design. We know that Tagore though living in the very proximity to the Calcutta

87
professional theatre, which he visited occasionally believed in staging his productions

within the courtyard of the ancestral house in Chitpur. The setting against the palatial

colonial structure created a new scenographic visuality and a connection to the reality

of a colonial culture. This was not an illusionary space of 'unrealistic' Mughal and

Rajput palaces whose power struggles became a popular narrative to reveal an anti

British nationalist fervor as well as hide it to avoid censorship. Within the illusionary

realism it was easy for the audience to get taken in by an anachronistic space which

bore no resemblance to the real spaces of colonial rule and oppression. The Tagore

house in that sense was the towering backdrop of colonial and its Indian comprador

bourgeoisie's economic oppression.

Tagore's relocation to Sahntiniketan would be a radical break in terms of the

scenography he envisaged for his performances which were staged on a regular basis

in Shantiniketan. Local handicrafts always constituted the scenic backdrop with some

of the great artistes like Ramkinkar Baij, Benodbehari and designing the sceneries for

his performances. Handcrafted gates or symbolic minimal sets created an alternate

decor. It is important to point out that Tagore's idea of rural never went with the rural

romanticism and the escape from the city syndrome which a number of his

contemporary nationalists believed in. If we understand his philosophies we see a

deep understanding of the rural hardship and the labor of the rural population. If his

plays are henceforth created in the open setting then the backdrop would be the

towering figures of his Santhal prodigy Ramkinkar Baij depicting peasants at work,

rural women at work, the Santal in intense laborious work, revealing a narrative of

people struggling to survive. All these factors come together in Tagore to create a new

idea of modernity also rooted in a non urban space inhabited by people, the masses

88
and tribal populations which brings back memories of a folk consciousness which is

so related to new modern sensibilities. In my analytical model, Tagore very aptly

creates a never ending horizontal space to accommodate all class, caste, tribal, artistic

and local and non local groups within a mixed heterogeneous space.

Added to this background if we look at Tagore's texts like Rakta Karabi,

Muktadhara, Raja or Dakghar we see the new scenographic vision of modernity

emerge which breaks all ideas of a derivative discourse. Underlying this scenario is of

course Tagore's new alternate nationalistic visions which too were extremely radical

and intent to critique the dominant discourses of the Gandhian nationalist vision. I in

this respect would refer to the Tagore-Gandhi debates as an alternative to the Gandhi-

Ambedkar debates.

For me this regional new subversive nationalist politics is important in terms

of a regional pluralistic vision of a nation where the nation refuses to stage the new

class-caste hierarchy which the state and the new theatre as its cultural institutional

model was intending to. In a sense it breaks such barriers and divisions, reverses it

and subverts it.

It is not possible to make a complete survey of the scenographic design

categories existing in the country in the first few decades of independence but

significant to understand alternatives which existed and together created a new vision

and spatial visuality.

We can study these perspectives in Marathi and Gujrati theatre as well as in

the South. Each case and trajectory differed and found its own reasons for the new

alternatives they sought.

89