Air pollution dispersion modeling for implementation in Jakarta

Indonesia: A literature review

By

Sri Hapsari Budisulistiorini

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Melbourne

2007

Abstract
Air pollution in Jakarta is worsening and is attributed to vehicle emission which is the highest emitter
of NOx and particulate matter. Application of air dispersion model therefore is suggested as
supporting instrument for managing air quality by means of regulatory approach. This paper reviews
AUSPLUME and CALPUFF for application in Jakarta using prior researches and peer reviews. Each
model is evaluated against site’s characteristic, software quality standard, and cost of the license This
paper concludes that AUSPLUME would be more suitable for application in Jakarta despite the fact
that both models comply with site’s characteristics.

Keyword: dispersion model, vehicle emission, selection criteria, ISO 9126

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The government of Jakarta has introduced the new transport mode to reduce air pollution. Busway is
the transport mode chosen to attract car’s owner for using public transport instead of private vehicles.
The fumes or smogs exhausted from private vehicles is suggested to contribute the biggest part of air
pollutant sources in Jakarta, accounting for 70-80% (Bappenas 2007; Setiawan 2005). The improved
public transport system is then claimed can diminish air pollution significantly. However a
comprehensive research on the impact of new transport system to ambient air quality needs to be done.
An assessment of air pollution dispersion from main road in Jakarta will show the effect of the new
project to air quality.

Air pollution dispersion model can be approached by computer modelling to figure out the
concentration of pollutants at a certain point. The most common computer modelling of air pollution
dispersion is Gaussian model. The model is then adapted to computer software, namely CALPUFF
and AUSPLUME. An understanding of air pollution dispersion modelling working system would be
benefit for selecting the software to be used in the evaluation.

The paper aims to assess a suitable model of air pollution dispersion for regulatory purpose that can be
implemented in Jakarta Indonesia.

The objectives of the study are:

1. To learn the existing air pollution dispersion models

2. To compare the selected model by doing simulation

3. To assess suitable model for air pollution dispersion modeling assessment in Indonesia based on
criteria of adaptability with two season climate, high moisture level, and complex terrain.

The research based on questions:

1. What are the available air pollution dispersion models?

2. How they are used and for what purpose?

3. What is the input data required for the models?

4. What is the atmospheric dispersion model currently used in Jakarta?

5. What are the important criteria of air pollution dispersion modeling to be selected as a suitable
model for regulatory purpose in Jakarta?

CHAPTER 2: AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION MODELS

Air pollution dispersion model is a component of air quality control beside air pollution measurement,
control, and monitoring. In the next section a brief overview of air pollution, atmospheric dispersion
models, and implementation of the models are presented.

2.1 Air pollution

Identification of air pollution sources and characteristics of the pollutants are essential factors on air
quality control, particularly on determining mitigation or prevention actions. Moreover these factors
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are important on predicting effect and trajectory of the pollutants on the environment so that an
appropriate approach can be done.

Source of air pollution

Air pollutants are substances that existences in atmosphere cause a permanent change on natural
composition. Anthropogenic air pollutants are essentially residues of a combustion process thus based
on the source, pollutants’ emission sources can be classified into point, line, area, and volume sources
(NIWAR 2004)1. Other classification of air pollution sources are stationary and mobile sources, urban
and rural sources, surface and elevated sources, and continuous and intermittent sources.

Characteristics of air pollutants

Mainly air pollutants are particulate matter, sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and lead. More information of each pollutant is
presented in Table 2.1.

Developed countries contribute more on emission of CO2, SOx, and NOx compare to developing
countries, which emit more CO, hydrocarbon, and particulate matter. This is attributed to gap in
pollution reduction technology, wherein developing countries have not reached optimization in
combustion process.

2.2 Air pollution dispersion models

Air pollution dispersion models are computer program for simulating air pollution dispersion in the
atmosphere. The models can be used to measure the pollutants reaction in the atmosphere as well as
estimate its concentration at certain point or receptor. An algorithm or equation is used to calculate the
concentration of pollutant emitted from a single source at a single receptor.

Table 0.1 Air pollutants characteristics

Pollutants Definition Sources Effects
Particulate matter Fine solid or liquid substances Manufacturing process, forest Decrease visibility and affect
which are visible or invisible, fire, and incomplete human respiratory system.
such as dust, smoke, and combustion.
fumes.
Sulfur oxides (SOx) Acrid, corrosive, poisonous Coal power plant, petroleum Acid rain destroys plant life,
gases produced when fuel refineries, vehicular emission, fish, and building structure.
containing sulfur is burned. residential and commercial
heating.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Colourless gases where Motor-vehicle traffic, coal- Reduce visibility and cause
excessive concentration in air fired electric utilities, and harm to human health.
cause a brownish colour. industrial boilers.
Carbon monoxide Colorless, odourless, and Incomplete internal combustion Reacts with hemoglobin in
(CO) poisonous gases which density engine and industrial fuel blood to prevent oxygen
is lighter than air. burning process. transfer and causes
asphyxiation.
Volatile organic Any carbon compound that Evaporative surface (surface Forming ozon and
compounds (VOCs) precipitates in atmospheric coating) and solvent cleaning photochemical smog.
photochemical reactions. (petroleum refineries and tanks,
dry cleaning)

Lead A heavy metal with high Combustion of lead in fuels, Attacks nervous system.
molecular weight. lead-based paint, and batteries.

1 A point source is a site or location which emits highly concentration of pollutants regardless at ground-level
or elevated, for example industrial stacks. A line source, for instance, is vehicular emissions from street
congestion. An area source is pollutant source that has width and length, such as landfill. At last volume
source is not only has width and length but also height or three-dimensional, for example gas leak at chemical
factory.
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Adapted from Baumbach (1996) and E. Roberts Alley & Associates (1998)

A single model cannot be applied in all areas with different characteristics hence application field is
classified based on specific time frame and space scale for model basic concept (Table 2.2).

Table 0.2 Classification of application fields for dispersion models

related to space and time scales

Field of application Space scale Time scale

Regional to supraregional 50 km to 2,000 km ½ day to 1 week
(mesoscale)
Urban to regional 1 km to 100 km 1 hour to 1 day
Point source 500 m to several km ½ hour to several hours
Line source (motor vehicle 100 m to several km ½ hour to several hours
expressway without
building nearby)
Street canyon (motor Several meters (1 m to 100 m) Several minutes to 1 hour
vehicle traffic)
Source:
Baumbach et al (1996)

Pollutant dispersion model concept

Air pollutants are carried by the wind flow (flow and turbulence models) or transported and mixed by
the atmospheric turbulence (pollution dispersion models). Flow and turbulence models, based on the
requirement, are developed into two models: diagnostic and prognostic (Table 2.3).

Table 0.3 Features of diagnostic and prognostic models

Diagnostic Prognostic
Method of simulation Simulating actual condition of a wind field Predict flow field development in a spatial
based on a statistically proven series of scale of 2.5 to 2,500 km and from time
measurements and experimentally frame of a few hours to several days.
investigated condition frameworks.

Time and spatial scales Long-term investigations. A 3D grid is superimposed on the model
area to have a flexibility of adjusting to the
Basic calculation Calculation of un-diverging, mass- Based on a set of partial non-linear
consistent flow fields. differential equations

Adapted from Baumbach et al (1996)

A relation between emission and air quality is projected by pollutant dispersion models. The models
are developed based on Taylor’s statistical theory approximating pollutants dispersion as a function of
a finite random variable. The main parameters are meteorological conditions and pollutant
concentration, whereas topographical and building effects are seldom incorporated in the models,
unless in specific studies. There are four models developed based on this concept: Lagrange models,
K-models, Box models, and Gaussian models (Table 2.4)
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Table 0.4 Summary of Model concepts

Lagrange models K-models Box models Gaussian models

Statistical Monte-Carlo Gradient models or Ignore statistical Normal distribution
method simulation models. Euler model (as the diffusion effects as it model or Gaussian
main equation is basis on ideal mixing diffusion model.
solved using Euler’s of air pollutants.
concept).
Simulation Polluted air parcel is Air pollution The pollutants Air pollutants
method simulated in a flow dispersion is treated as dispersion is simulated dispersion is simulated
field for a longer time analogous to as an airshed within a in form of normal
period with traced molecular (Brownian) box with spatial scales probability distribution
temporal and spatial diffusion. of the investigated area which result is used for
movement of air. are ground (lower approval procedures of
limit), an inversion stack height, air
layer (upper limit), and quality projection.
the horizontal
expansion of an
observation (lateral
limit).

Precondition Air parcel is in a Fixed geometric space Air within the “box” is Constant emission,
moving frame wherein (3D Cartesian grid) ideally mixed despite constant time and
the observer is wherein the observer air movement and location wind field,
following the investigates as the wind flows, constant constant spatial and
trajectory. parcel goes by. flow of air pollution temporal diffusion
removal caused by parameters, a flat area,
advection. and a complete
reflection of pollutants
when impacting the
ground.

Limitation Influences from Require large memory This model is not This model is infinitely
thermal layers and capacities of computer suitable for simulating the
ambient air. and highly time heterogenic sources or dispersion of air
intensive. sinks observation at pollutants, which in
different location. reality it is finite.

Adapted from Baumbach (1996) and Turner (1994)

Gaussian model is useful for predicting non-deposit substances dispersion from point sources
regardless the physical and chemical conversion during transport (Baumbach et al. 1996),
notwithstanding Turner (1994) has also summarized its application for other sources, such as line,
area, rural and urban, and instantaneous sources. Therefore the Gaussian model is chosen as basic
concept for dispersion models for regulatory application in Jakarta.

2.3 Gaussian dispersion model

The Gaussian dispersion model is based on Gaussian or normal distribution for describing the mixture
of air pollutants in the atmosphere at the vertical and crosswind direction of the source as a result of
turbulence. The Gaussian dispersion models the concentration χ at any receptor (Turner 1994):

Q ⎡ y2 ⎤ ⎧⎪ ⎡ (H − z )2 ⎤ ⎡ (H + z )2 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ ( x, y, z; H ) = exp ⎢− 2⎥ ⎨exp ⎢− 2 ⎥
+ exp ⎢− 2 ⎥⎬
2 π u σy σz ⎢⎣ 2 σ y ⎥⎦ ⎪⎩ ⎣ 2 σz ⎦ ⎣ 2 σ z ⎦ ⎪⎭

Where:
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Symbol Description Unit

χ Air pollutant concentration in mass per volume g/m3
Q Pollutant emission rate in mass per time g/s
u Wind speed at the point of release m/s
σy The standard deviation of the concentration distribution in the crosswind direction, m,
at the downwind x
σz The standard deviation of the concentration distribution in the vertical direction, m, at
the downwind x
π The mathematical constant pi equal to 3.1415926…
H The effective height of the centerline of the pollutant plume m

Figure 0.1 Gaussian plume model depiction

Source: Ministry for the Environment of NZ (2004)

Gaussian dispersion model has different emission characteristics and is affected by turbulence, as
described in Appendix A and B respectively. Example of the broadly known model is AUSPLUME
and CALPUFF.

AUSPLUME

AUSPLUME is a dispersion model presuming a normal distribution of material in both crosswind and
vertical directions. The model is based on steady and spatially uniform condition thus neglects
atmospheric condition variety to height, horizontal location or time. Australia has developed an
upgraded version, AUSPUFF, which is not as fast and easy as the earliest (Hamilton 1998). EPA has
used AUSPLUME for regulatory air quality impact assessment for years and for compliance
evaluation of the pollutants with the present and foreseeable future ambient air quality policy.

AUSPLUME benefits from other models are:

• fast simulation and quick result for compliance to regulation

• versatile to be used in any condition
• user-friendly with easy data input and parameters selection
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CALPUFF

CALPUFF is a non-steady-state air pollution dispersion model developed by Sigma Research

Corporation. A non-steady-state is defined as one in which the diffusion of each puff is dependent on
local meteorological conditions (US EPA 1998). CALPUFF bases the model on Lagrangian concept or
moving frame cell to simulate continuous puff of pollutants. CALPUFF was designed for mesoscale
application and computes emission as slugs for “slug” mode while calculates emission as integrated
puffs for puff mode.

CALPUFF comprises three main models CALMET, CALPUFF, and CALPOST and the link between
models is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Figure 0.2 Flow diagram of CALPUFF Modeling

Source: Ritsmitchai (2001)

CHAPTER 3: APPLICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC

DISPERSION MODEL IN JAKARTA
This chapter discuss the implementation of air pollution dispersion models in Jakarta. Firstly it briefly
presents the salient features of Jakarta as a case study. Furthermore ambient air quality and pollutants
source are discussed. Finally some models that have been used in Jakarta are described.

3.1 Features of Jakarta

Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, is a 661.52 km2 of land area and 6,977.5 km2 of sea water area. It
comprises of coastal-low land area stretch 35 km from East to West with average height around 7
meter above sea level and slightly rising around 50 meter to the South. Daily temperature is about 31.4
°C and 25.4 °C at night time. The climate is wet tropical with average daily rainfall of 1,931.8 mm,
77% humidity, and average wind speed reach 1.5 m/s.
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Figure 0.1 Map of Jakarta

Source: Syahril, Resosudarmo & Tomo (2002)

By 2000 the average population of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area was about 8.4 million, but it peak to
11 million to 13 million people during day time (SI 2000c; Syafruddin et al. 2002; Wirahadikusumah
2002). Population density is 12,635 per km2 and expected to grow 1% per year until 2015 (SI 2000a,
2000b, 2000c; Syahril, Resosudarmo & Tomo 2002; Wirahadikusumah 2002). Administratively
Jakarta comprises of six municipalities namely North Jakarta, South Jakarta, Central Jakarta, Eastern
Jakarta, Western Jakarta, and Thousand Island regional government.

3.2 Air quality of Jakarta

Jakarta experienced less than 50 bad air quality days during 2004 and 2005 yet increased to 51 days in
2006 whereby Jakarta was ranked as the third most polluted city in the world after Mexico and
Panama (Setiawan 2005; Triana 2007). The World Bank reported bad air quality in Jakarta has lead to
financial loss about US$ 62 million and US$ 190 million in 1990 and 2005 respectively and predicted
to reach US$ 455 million by 2015 (Bappenas 2007; Wiguna 2005). The loss was attributed to waste of
fuel due to long traffic jam and health impacts of bad air for people who suffer from poor health,
respiratory illness, and especially CO2 can cause brain function disorder2 by hampering oxygen
transport in blood.

2 The severity result of it will vary from dizziness into nauseous or even loss in nerves coordination SH 2003,
Pencemaran Udara Ancam IQ Anak, Sinar Harapan, viewed 22 August 2007,
<http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/iptek/kesehatan/2003/041/kes1.html>..
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Air pollution in Jakarta is mainly from motor vehicle emission which is the highest emitter of NOx and
PM10 (Figure 3.2). It was reported that there are approximately 3000 motor vehicles per kilometer on
road contributing 70-80% of air pollution in Jakarta (Bappenas 2007; Setiawan 2005). A progressive
growth of motor vehicles population, as illustrated in Figure 3.3, is worsening air quality. Motor cycle,
as reported by Bappenas (2007), should be regarded as future threat to increase pollutants since it has
increased dramatically to over than four million in 2005, which ratio was one to fifth motor cycle per
resident.

Figure 0.2 Emission shares by source type in Jakarta in 1998

Source: (Syafruddin et al. 2002)

Figure 0.3 Trend of vehicle population in Metro Jaya

Source: (Syafruddin et al. 2002)

In contrast with bad air quality in Jakarta, currently the Governor of Jakarta is awarded as one of the
2006 Asian Air Quality Management winner. The governor has been regarded for his success on
cutting the private vehicles user into 14% by introducing the new transport mode, Trans Jakarta
(Bappenas 2007). The introduction of mass transport mode is not sufficient to cut pollution level due
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to lack of enforcement to limit private vehicle permits and emission check licenses. The emission
check license was released to public in 2005 but since 2006 it was missing from the vehicles tax form.
Thus the reduction in private vehicles on road was incomparable with the emission from old vehicles,
especially the future threat of motor vehicle booming.

3.2 Air pollution dispersion modeling in Jakarta

In 2002, a study had been done in assessing air pollution condition in Jakarta. The studies were laid on
previous study by World Bank, the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) and JICA and
Bapedal, the Integrated Air Quality Management (IAQM). Each study used different atmospheric
dispersion model based on Gaussian plume concept. The URBAIR use KILDER and the IAQM use a
modification of KILDER, named SURASH (Table 3.1).

Those models were not readily implemented in Jakarta since the sources are not available in Indonesia
and hold by the counterparts of the studies, JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) and NILU
(Norsk Institutt for Luftfirsking). This has hindered application of air pollution dispersion models in
Jakarta and further development of air quality management strategy (AQMS), which is asserted by
Syafruddin et al (2002) requires dispersion model to predict spatial distribution of pollutants and the
contribution of each source type. Difficulties on finding complete data about KILDER and SURASH
dispersion models are another obstacle. KILDER was built in Norway thus references available mainly
in Norwegian. Moreover no database is available from Indonesian agencies.

Table 0.1 Features of KILDER and SURASH

Items KILDER SURASH

Provider NILU JICA
Number of grids 290 (1.5 x 1.5 km2) 660 (1.0 x 1.0 km2)
Parameters NOx and TSP SO2, NO2, NOx, and CO
Name of study URBAIR IAQM
Time of study 1992 1995
Study area Jakarta Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang, and
Data sources Secondary Primary and secondary
AAQM Data Year 1982 to 1992 Year 2996
Pollutant source Industrial, domestic, vehicle Industrial, domestic, mobile
(cars, motorcycles, ships, and
aircraft)

Adapted from Syahril, Resosudarmo & Tomo (2002)

Another model, Multi Box Model (Appendix C), was used in Jakarta to simulate pollutant
concentration. The result was NOx and PM10 were the highest pollutants amongst others (2007; SH
2003; Simamora 2006; Syafruddin et al. 2002; Syahril, Resosudarmo & Tomo 2002; Triana 2007;
Wiguna 2005). A slightly different result was found in report from World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) in 1999, which is the NOx concentration was below ambient standard
(Carmichael 1999). The difference is negligible since the research was done several years ago and not
including the current development of transportation. Thus the parameter of NOx and PM10 are
considered along with vehicle emission as the criteria to select a model for Jakarta.
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CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY
The approach or methodology of the research is basis on reviewing prior research from various
literatures, namely textbooks, journal articles, reports, and news. Moreover to achieve the specific
objective of learning the modelling of air dispersion, a simulation with the selected program will be
done. From this research, it is expected to have a recommendation of a suitable air dispersion
modelling that can be applied in Jakarta Indonesia for regulatory purpose.

4.1 Criteria for selecting literatures

Literatures were selected based on criteria as followed:

1. Model concept

For general overview literatures containing all model concepts, Box, Lagrangian, Euler, and Gaussian
models were used. They then were narrowed to Gaussian model.

2. Model purpose

Model with specific purpose of regulatory approval was the next criterion. This is related to the aim of
research to suggest suitable model for regulatory purpose in Jakarta.

3. Model specific base parameter

Spatial and pollutant parameters are considered while choosing the model. Model should cover vehicle
emission and include NOx and PM10 in the simulation.

4. Area of study

Model designed for simulating vehicle emission in an urban area is the target of search.

4.2 Strategy for searching the targeted literatures

Studies were conducted using four strategies. Firstly the studies were reading textbooks related to the
air quality control topic to get the basic knowledge of the topic. Studies were then searched in the
Science Direct database which and then continue searched to other journal database such as Web of
Science and Expanded Academic, and to electric journal such as Atmospheric Environment.
Subsequently the search was looking for information from government and organization websites:
Statistic Indonesia, Bappenas, CSIRO, and US EPA. The last was browsing through the search engine
by using keywords that were also used in searching article in the journal database. The keywords are:

(dispersion model) and (air pollution AND dispersion model) and (atmospheric AND dispersion
model)

4.3 Simulation with AUSPLUME

The simulation consists of two steps based on the level of complexity and the results:

1. Simulation to model distribution of concentration by source’s distance and location

The simulation used meteorological data provided by the software. Source details, receptor locations,
land use category, averaging times, and output options were input into the program.

2. Simulation to model concentration contour

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Configuration from the first simulation is modified by changing the receptor, model parameters, and
meteorological data.

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
5.1 AUSPLUME simulation
Simulation with AUSPLUME program was conducted by following guidance from Training Material
prepared by EPA Victoria. Following are the result from simulation:

1. Simulation to model distribution of concentration by source’s distance and location

Results from this exercise are two dimensional graphic and numerical table showing concentrations of
pollutants by distance (Figure 5.1). Further changes in the source information have resulted in
different maximum concentration at different location as well. The changes then was recorded and
plotted into excel spreadsheet to compare the differences in maximum concentration or distance to
maximum by stack’s height.

Figure 0.1 Graphic output of pollutant's concentration and distance

2. Simulation to model concentration contour

Result of this exercise is contour map of concentration distribution of pollutant released from a point
source (Figure 5.2). The concentration of pollutant is diminishing as it travels along the terrain. The
concentration map is circulating the point source wherein the highest and the lowest concentration are
at the centre and the outskirts of the map.
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Figure 0.2 Contour map of pollutant concentration distribution from

source

The program is examined from three aspects:

• Features
The program provide adequate menu to predict pollutant dispersion. Under the Edit menu, users can
input and modified several parameters including source and receptors information, landuse categories,
simulation time, and model parameters. Throughout the program, users can easily modify the
parameters regarding the site’s characteristics.

The program however is not providing an option to simulate line source pollution as well as urban
source. The spatial scale of the program is limited within 50 km from the source.

• Results
The output is a well presentation of pollutant dispersion. It is easy to read the information carried by
the graphic and the map, but slightly difficult to read the output text. The information contained in the
text output is complete nonetheless its layout is too dense in some part and it is not properly tabulated.

• Users
Users can use the program straight away by following instruction without significant difficulties.
However user will have problem to conduct simulation if they do not have sufficient meteorological
data. Meteorological data is required for approximating the dispersion of pollutant along the trajectory
thus it is important to have a reliable data. The quality and quantity of data are related to the result of
simulation. A long record of wind speed and turbulence could reflect closer real condition on the
forecast.
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In case of CALPUFF the model is available for free at Atmospheric Studies Group of TRC company
website. The latest development of the model is available on the website as well so users can easily
update their package. Simulation with CALPUFF was not conducted as time limitation of this subject
and difficulties on following the guidance. Unfortunately the provider does not provide simple training
material for beginner which might troublesome for some people.

5.2 Comparative study of CALPUFF and AUSPLUME

Two models are observed on the appropriateness to be implemented for decision making process in
Jakarta Indonesia. Previously there were studies involving the use of dispersion models, KILDER and
SURASH. These models were used to provide information for developing air quality management
system (AQMS). However the detail description of those models is not available on Indonesian
agencies’ database and websites. Thus the comparison will be focus on two recent and most used
models, AUSPLUME and CALPUFF. The difficulties of having appropriate data have been
encountered when finding data of prior studies in Jakarta using air pollution dispersion model for
literature review. Some data is not available on soft copy format and even on hard copy. The problem
seems to obstruct the development of dispersion model hence a project of building comprehensive data
base should be initiated.

Considering limited data available, the review is excluded prior models that have been used and
assessment of model’s algorithm. In the following subchapter, the two models are reviewed based on
their characteristics and using software quality assessment framework of ISO 9126.

5.3 Model’s basic features versus Jakarta characteristics

Both AUSPLUME and CALPUFF is the recent model widely used to model air pollution for
regulatory application (Holmes & Morawska 2006; Ng 2005; OFCM 2007). Table 5.1 presents
comparison of both models. AUSPLUME use Gaussian plume concept while CALPUFF basis the
model on Lagrangian puff concept. Since CALPUFF was not originally designed for simulating small
or local area, its implementation requires an adjustment. The puff mode should be change to slug
mode to allow the model calculate emission as slugs in near receptor field. In contrast, AUSPLUME
has flexibility to model urban area like Jakarta and particularly has option to model vehicle emission
source using volume source option.

Input for both programs in general is similar, except that CALPUFF requires more sophisticated data
of meteorology. It requires three dimensional, time dependent and spatial varying meteorological data
set from some stations across the domain whereas plume model only requires single surface station’s
data set. Although the meteorological data set is different in complexity, simple data from
AUSPLUME can be used for modeling air pollution in CALPUFF with screening mode (Ng 2005;
NIWAR 2004). Limitation in causality effects, low wind speeds, complex terrain, and non-uniform
atmosphere condition are issues for AUSPLUME that can be solved by advanced dispersion model
such as CALPUFF. Utilization of CALPUFF in Jakarta however will have problem in data availability
similar to case study in Bangkok which share similar characteristics of developing countries.

Output of AUSPLUME is easily to interpret while CALPUFF result requires advanced processing
using CALPOST. It is important to have result that is easy to read and understand as government
agency requires quick and accurate result to make a decision.
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Table 0.1 Characteristics of AUSPLUME and CALPUFF

Model Algorithm Purpose Input Output

AUSPLUME Gaussian Regulatory Meteorological data, source and Formatted data containing
plume purpose receptors information, landuse pollutant concentration, distance
category, averaging time, and from source, and wind speed and
model parameters. direction. Graphical and contour
map of pollutant concentration.

CALPUFF Lagrangian Regulatory Geophysical and meteorological Unformatted data files containing
puff purpose data (three dimensional, hourly gridded fields of time-averaged
and spatially varying data set), concentrations, time-averaged dry
single station and multiple deposition, and time-averaged
stations data source, and source wet deposition.
and emissions data.

Related to implementation of model in Jakarta, both program are also reviewed based on criteria of
source and spatial scope as well as meteorological condition. Comparison of both models is presented
in the following table.

Table 0.2 Comparison of AUSPLUME and CALPUFF against basic

parameters of Jakarta

Criteria Jakarta characteristics AUSPLUME CALPUFF

Source type Coastal and urban areas with flat Able to model flat terrain. Line source Able to model flat and complex terrain
terrain. Main pollutant source is emission is modeled using volume as well as urban source. Line source
vehicle emission. PM10 and NOx source emission. Can model emission is modeled through volume
are the highest pollutants. particulate matter as well as NOx and source feature. Predicting particulate
SOx. matter and secondary pollutants
concentration.
Spatial scope Total area is about 661 km2 with Model near-field receptor, Long range transport pollutants of
West to East length is 35 km. approximately 50 km from the source. more than 50 km.

Wind speed Calm weather with average wind Minimum wind speed of 0.5 to 1 m/s More sensible on modeling calm and
speed of 1.5 m/s. low wind speed.

Table 5.2 presents features of both programs compared to the real condition in prospective application
site, Jakarta. AUSPLUME meet all requirements as well as CALPUFF. AUSPLUME can model line
source emission, which is the main problem in Jakarta, by using volume source feature as described in
the manual. Conversely using AUSPLUME for sources near coast where the receptors are located at
downwind from the sources should be avoid or caution as this condition cause model underperforms
(Hurley, Hill & Blockley 2005). CALPUFF meet all the criteria especially it can model the urban and
line sources (Cohen et al. 2005; Rajni Oshan 2006). The model however is attributed for long range
trajectory prediction and very calm wind while the area is not as wide and the wind is not that calm,
thus it may out perform in some criteria. Moreover CALPUFF requires complex data set of
meteorology, geography, population and traffic volume (Ritsmitchai 2001) which is slightly difficult
to obtain in Jakarta.

5.4 Software quality assessment

Software quality is assessed using ISO 9126 The Standard of Reference. This standard provides
framework to evaluate software quality based on six characteristics. Detail of ISO 9126 is provided in
Appendix D.
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The framework from ISO 9126 is used for evaluating AUSPLUME and CALPUFF with regards to
their suitability to Jakarta. From six characteristics, four is chosen based on its importance for the use
in Jakarta. Maintainability and portability are not too significant on implementation of the model in
Jakarta as these characteristics related to further software improvement performance.

The four characteristics combined with cost variable, are tabulated and weighted in Table 5.3. Cost is
important factor to include since government decision based on not only the quality of software but
also the affordability to have the software license. Weighting is nominated based on significance of
each criteria developed from subcharacteristics with regards to Jakarta condition. Easy installation of
the program for instance has less significance compare with data availability. Installation can be
technically solved but complex data might difficult to be prepared.

Table 0.3 Software selection matrix

Characteristics RW Sub-characteristics RW Criteria RW

Suitability 10 Does the software do the required task? 10

Functionality 20
Compliance 10 Does it result can be used for regulatory application? 10
Reliability 20 Maturity 20 Is it continuously developed? 20
Understandability 5 Is it easy to understand the user manual? 5
Learnability 5 Is it easy to go through the training manual? 5
Does the software easily to install? 1
Usability 20
Does the required data easily available? 4
Operability 10
Does the data easily to input? 3
Does the result easily to interpret? 2
Time behaviour 8
Does the running process take hours? 8
Efficiency 20 Does it work on standard computer (RAM, processor, and
Resource behaviour 12 12
hard disk) ?
Does the cost affordable according to user's financial
Cost 20 License cost 20 20
condition?
Total 100 100 100

Weighted score is then calculated from individual score and relative weighting to a single score for
each software. The equation for calculating weighted score is presented below and the result is
presented in Table 5.4.

∑ (RW × Score )
i i
100
Weighted score = i =1
× %
n
5
∑ RW
i =1
i

where:

Symbol Description
RW i Relative weighting of ith criteria
Score i Score for ith criteria
n Total number of criteria
 17

Table 0.4 Weighted Score of AUSPLUME and CALPUFF

Score
Criteria RW
AUSPLUME CALPUFF
Does the software do the required task? 10 5 50 5 50
Does it result can be used for regulatory application? 10 5 50 5 50
Is it continuously developed? 20 5 100 5 100
Is it easy to understand the user manual? 5 3 15 3 15
Is it easy to go through the training manual? 5 5 25 3 15
Does the software easily to install? 1 5 5 5 5
Does the required data easily available? 4 5 20 3 12
Does the data easily to input? 3 4 12 3 9
Does the result easily to interpret? 2 4 8 3 6
Does the running process take hours? 8 4 32 4 32
Does it work on standard computer (RAM, processor, and
12 5 60 5 60
hard disk)?
Does the cost affordable according to user's financial
20 4 80 5 100
condition?
Total 100 457 454
Weighted total score out of 100 91.4 90.8

AUSPLUME has a slightly higher score than CALPUFF. The individual score was given based on
actual simulation and peer review of the softwares. CALPUFF provides more complex features than
AUSPLUME however the user’s guide is difficult to follow especially for new user as similar problem
found by Allwine (1998). A revision had had been suggested however user’s guide is difficult to
understand without proper guidance from experts. Guidance understanding is affecting the use of
software especially input data and result interpretation. CALPUFF moreover requires three-
dimensional time-varying wind fields’ data meaning additional time for pre-processing the data.
AUSPLUME user manual is difficult to follow but the training manual was helpful to understand the
simulation. The process of input data and result interpretation are easier for new user.

Considering cost of license, CALPUFF offers better deal with free software available to download
from TRC Company website. AUSPLUME on the other hand costs AU$ 1,089 (including GST) for
personal user and AU$ 1,320 for multiple user, or approximately IDR 9 million and IDR 11 million
respectively. The price is not too expensive and affordable for government budget however free
software would be more attractive. Government might prefer to use CALPUFF for trial simulation as
any faultiest or unsatisfactory result would not cost much.

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Air pollution dispersion model is essential tools on developing air quality management system,
particularly in Jakarta which has been regarded to have bad air quality due to congestion emission.
AUSPLUME is an air dispersion model that has been developed and used in Australia. Another most
common model is CALPUFF which is used by US EPA for regulatory application.

Each model has benefits and drawbacks compared to the characteristics of the study area of Jakarta.
Based on characteristics of study area, CALPUFF might be outperform the needs while AUSPLUME
is sufficiently meet the requirements. In addition to comparison of characteristics, both models are
reviewed using standard of reference to evaluate software quality published in ISO 9126. A weighting
matrix of software selection is built and the weighted score for each software reflecting software
conformance to the requirement. AUSPLUME is slightly better than CALPUFF with score of 91.4 to
90.8.
 18

Regarding all advantages and disadvantages of both models, AUSPLUME would be more suitable for
implementation in Jakarta based on characteristics and software features compliance, availability of
supporting data, and affordable cost of license. CALPUFF should be considered for long term use
when the scope of simulation might be extended to a wider area, an island or a country for instance.
Thus further research on extending the scale of air dispersion modeling and software performance
would be an advantage. Development of meteorological database should be reviewed to improve
performance of selected software.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am beholden to Dr. Lu Aye for his guidance, careful supervision, and support since the beginning of
the research. It has been a privilege and a valuable opportunity to have his advices and counseling. I
sincerely thank you for being an inspiring supervisor.

I have been fortunate to have knowledge from Dr. Bob Fuller throughout the series of research topic
class and discussion.

Eventually I am indebted to all my colleagues for cheering and giving assistance throughout the
research and writing process. I am gratitude to have your beautiful friendships along the journey.

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