GENERAL BIOLOGY

The world is diverse. Yet all organisms are united by a common heritage that began during the early years of our planet. Organisms
share a common chemistry, a genetic code, and basic life processes but what makes different is that all organisms are product of
evolutionary forces which shaped them differently over eons of time.
Living thing are linked in another way. Their existence depends on one another collectively formed a giant web of life
BIOLOGY study of life and is a subject that can help you know more about yourself and your relationship with other living and
non-living organisms and as well as the environment
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
• Living Things Acquire Materials and Energy
• Living Things Respond
• Living Things Reproduce and Develop
• Living Things Have Adaptations
Major fields of Biology
CYTOLOGY study of cells
ANATOMY study of structure
ECOLOGY study of interrelationships between organisms and their environment
PHYSIOLOGY study of functions and activities of organisms
GENETICS study of heredity
TAXONOMY tasso= arrange, classify + nomos=usage, law
Disciplines of identifying and classifying organisms according to rules
CATEGORIES (D-K-P-C-O-F-G-S) also called “taxa”
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
The broadest category is the DOMAIN and the narrowest is the SPECIES. From the most inclusive to the least inclusive taxa:
domain to species.
The system of classification developed by Carolus Linnaeus is a hierarchy or ranking system.

HIERARCHY OF LIVING THINGS

Kingdom- group of related phyla
Phylum/ Division- group of related classes
Class- group of related orders
Order- group of related families
Family- group of related genera
Genus- group of related species
Species- group of organisms possessing certain definite characteristics that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
The Father of Taxonomy is Carolus Linnaeus. He authored the Binomial System of Nomenclature where organisms are given two
names. Their generic name and their species name (specific epithet). The system of naming is called nomenclature. The International
Congress on Nomenclature. These names are called the scientific name and are written in Latin.
Oryza sativa rice
Allium cepa onion
3 DOMAIN Bacteria Archae Eubacteria
5 KINGDOM Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Observing and stating the problem
2. Forming a hypothesis
3. Testing the hypothesis
4. Recording and analyzing the data
5. Forming a conclusion
6. Replicating the work
7. Reporting/ Presentation of the Study
*Make observations-Formulate a hypothesis-Designed a controlled experiment-Collect data-Interpret data-Draw conclusions

BIOLMOLECULES: CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

Organic Chemistry the chemistry of organisms
Inorganic Chemistry chemistry of nonliving world
Organic molecules molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen atoms

Cells of all living things are made up of different types of molecules.

• Micromolecules
• Macromolecules
HOMEOSTASIS- act of maintaining a relatively constant internal environment within an organism’s cells
Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
Metabolism- all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism
Anabolism – process that build up molecules / constructive
Catabolism – process that break down molecules / destructive
Ionic bond - atom form ions by gaining or losing electrons
Covalent bond- atoms share electrons to form a molecule
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Water
• Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
• Acids and Bases
• Salts and Gases

Water the only substance that can exist naturally in all states of matter

Oxygen and carbon dioxide present as gases in the respiratory organs of the organism and in the tissue
fluids such as the blood and lymph

Acids formed by ionic compounds in solutions

release Hydrogen ions (H+) in water (ex. HCl in stomach acid)
Bases formed by ionic compounds in solutions
produce hydroxide (OH-) ions in solution (ex. NaOH in soap & egg whites)

Strong acids and bases can cause severe chemical burns

e.g. battery acid (pH ~ 1.0)

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acid
• Proteins
macromolecules composed of many subunits such as simple sugar, glycerol and fatty acids, nucleotide and amino acid.
these are called macromolecules because of their large size. You are very familiar with these molecules because certain foods are
known to be rich in them. When you digest these foods, they get broken down into the subunit molecules such as fatty acids,
monosaccharides, amino acids.

Carbohydrates composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (1:2:1) Cn(H2O)n

almost universally used as an immediate energy source in living things, but they also play structural roles in a variety of
organisms.
includes single sugar molecules and also chain of sugars. Chain length varies from a few sugars to hundreds of sugars.
The long chains are thus called polymers.
originates as a product of the process of photosynthesis
• Monosaccharides simplest form of carbohydrate
made of one sugar unit
glucose (blood sugar), galactose (milk sugar), fructose (fruit sugar)
chemical formula: C6H12O6
• Disaccharides two monosaccharides joined together
must be broken down (glycosidic bond) into monosaccharides to serve as fuel source
chemical formula: C12H22O11
sucrose = glucose + fructose
lactose = glucose + galactose
maltose = glucose + glucose

• Polysaccharides made of repeating units of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds

a) storage polysaccharides (starch and glycogen)
b) structural polysaccharides (cellulose and chitin)
Lipids complex and diverse group of naturally occurring organic compounds
low solubility to water
they serve as major components of the plasma membrane in cells.
building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol

• Fats composed of glycerol and three fatty acids = triglyceride

deposited in the adipose tissues
✓ Energy source
✓ Protection
✓ Insulators

• Phospholipids major structural component of cell membranes

made up of glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group

• Sphingolipids comprise a class of lipids that contain organic amino sphingosine.

located mainly in the cell membrane of mammalian cells
serve as structural components as well as adhesion sites for proteins from extracellular tissue
• Waxes simple lipids consisting of alcohol and fatty acid
found as coatings on leaves and stems, thus prevent excessive amounts of water loss
protections of plants from disease and insects
animals: beeswax
prevent their bodies from drying

• Steroids different from the other lipids

contains a large number of carbon-hydrogen atoms
includes cholesterol, sex hormones, adrenocorticoid hormones
Nucleic Acid complex macromolecules which store information that determine the type and structure of all specific proteins
made of nucleotide
each nucleotide is composed of three components: phosphate molecule, 5-carbon sugar (pentose) and a nitrogen-
containing base
polymers of nucleotides with very specific functions in cells

5 nitrogen bases: adenine, guanine cytosine, thymine

DNA - AGCT
RNA - AGCU

pyrimidine - C, T, and U
purine - A and G
• DNA deoxyribonucleic Acid
the genetic material that is transmitted from the parent to the offsprings from generation to generation.
contains all information that programs all cellular activities and characterizes each organism.

located inside the nucleus of a cell (blueprint of life)

• RNA Ribonucleic Acid

Named after the ribose sugar found in the molecule’s backbone
Serve as a genetic messenger
Help make proteins
Three types: mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
PROTEINS vital organic substance in the organism’s body
made of amino acids joined by peptide bond
there are 20 different amino acids
Functions
• Support – some proteins – such as keratin, which makes up hair and nails, and collagen, which lends support to
ligaments, tendons, and skin – are structural proteins
• Enzymes – bring reactants together and thereby speed chemical reactions in cells. They are specific for one particular
type of reaction and can function at body temperature
• Transport – Channel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane allow substances to enter and exit cells. Some
other proteins transport molecules in the blood of animals; hemoglobin is a complex protein that transports oxygen.
• Defense – Antibodies are proteins. They combine with foreign substances, called antigens. In this way, they prevent
antigens from destroying cells and upsetting homeostasis.
• Hormones are regulatory proteins. They serve as intercellular messengers that influence the metabolism of cells. The
hormone insulin regulates the content of glucose in the blood and in cells; the presence of growth hormone determines
the height of an individual.
• Motion- The contractile proteins actin and myosin allow parts of cells to move and cause muscles to contract. Muscle
contraction accounts for the movement of animals from place to place.
 MICROSCOPY
To better observe microorganisms, one must use a microscope, either a light microscope or an electron microscope
The Microscope

• Zaccharias Janssen – 1st compound microscope

• Robert Hooke
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• Joseph Jackson Lister - developed better microscope

1940 - electron microscope

Units of measurement

• 1 micrometer (µm) = 10-6m

• 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9m

Types of microscope as to their source of illumination

LIGHT MICROSCOPE

• The light microscope uses visible light to illuminate cell structures.

• Simple
o short focal length
o only 1 set of lens
o magnification ~300X
• Compound or Complex
o 2 sets of lens
o magnification ~1000X
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

• Electron microscopes use electrons instead of visible light (photons) to image cells and cell structures.
• Electromagnets function as lenses in the electron microscope, and the whole system operates in a vacuum. Electron microscopes are
fitted with cameras to allow a photograph, called an electron micrograph, to be taken.
• The electron microscope. This instrument encompasses both transmission and scanning electron microscope functions.

FEATURES OF A GOOD MICROSCOPE

 Adequate magnifying power
 Provide good contrast
 Possess high resolving power
 Serves your purpose
 TYPES OF LIGHT MICROSCOPE

 Bright Field
 Microscope field is brightly lit; objects under study are darker
 Gross morphology

 Dark Field
 Background is black; object bright or luminous
 For specimens that are
- Invisible in the ordinary light microscope
- Cannot be stained by standard methods
- Distorted by staining

 UV
 Make use of shorter wavelength of light (180nm – 400nm)
 Images are made visible by recording on a photographic emulsion or by displaying on a TV screen
 Detection of substances (e.g. DNA)

 Fluorescence
 Modification of UV microscope
 Makes use of fluorochromes (fluorescent dyes)
 Detection of immunological reactions – antigen-antibody reaction

 Phase Contrast
 Detailed examination of internal structure
 Not necessary to fix or stain cells
 Principles is based on variations in the refractive index

 Differential Interference Contrast

 Principle is based on variations in the refractive indices
 Advantage: no diffraction halo associated with phase contrast
 Disadvantage: the three-dimensional appearance may not represent reality
 The same field of
cells of the baker’s
yeast
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae visualized by (a) bright-field microscopy, (b) phase-contrast microscopy, and (c) dark-field microscopy. Cells average 8–10 um
wide

Bright-field photomicrographs of pigmented microorganisms. (a) A green alga

(eukaryote). The green structures are chloroplasts. (b) Purple phototrophic
bacteria (prokaryote). The algal cell is about 15 m wide, and the bacterial cells
are about 5 m wide. We contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in Section
2.5.
 Fluorescence microscopy. (a, b) Cyanobacteria. The same cells are observed by bright-
field microscopy in part a and by fluorescence microscopy in part b. The cells fluoresce red
because they contain chlorophyll a and other pigments. (c) Fluorescence photomicrograph
of cells of Escherichia coli made fluorescent by staining with the fluorescent dye DAPI.

Three-dimensional imaging of cells. (a) Differential interference contrast and (b) atomic
force microscopy. The yeast cells in part a are about 8 um wide. The bacterial cells in part b are 2.2 m long and are from a biofilm that
developed on the surface of a glass slide immersed for 24 h in a dog’s water bowl.
 TYPES OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

 Transmission Electron Microscope

 Examine viruses
 Internal ultrastructure in thin sections of cells

 Scanning Electron Microscope

 Surface features of cells and viruses

 Lacks resolution of TEM but reveals a three-dimensional image

Special EM stains: osmic acid, permanganate, lead, uranium, lanthanum

Electron micrographs. (a) Micrograph of a thin section of a dividing

bacterial cell, taken by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Note
the DNA forming the nucleoid. The cell is about 0.8 m wide. (b) TEM
of negatively stained molecules of hemoglobin. Each hexagonal-
shaped molecule is about 25 nanometers (nm) in diameter and
consists of two doughnut-shaped rings, a total of 15 nm wide. (c)
Scanning electron micrograph of bacterial cells. A single cell is about
0.75 m wide.
Electron micrographs of sectioned cells from each of the domains of living
organisms. (a) Heliobacterium modesticaldum; the cell measures 1 * 3 m. (b)
Methanopyrus kandleri; the cell measures 0.5 * 4 m. Reinhard Rachel and Karl O.
Stetter, 1981. Archives of Microbiology 128:288–293. © SpringerVerlag GmbH & Co.
KG. (c) Saccharomyces cerevisiae; the cell measures 8 m in diameter.
Viruses. (a) Particles of rhabdovirus (a virus that infects plants and animals). A single
virus particle, called a virion, is about 65 nm (0.065 m) wide. (b) Bacterial virus
(bacteriophage) lambda. The head of each lambda virion is also about 65 nm wide.
Viruses are composed of protein and nucleic acid and do not have structures such as
walls or a cytoplasmic membrane.

THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

There are two general categories of microscopes: the light microscope which uses light waves and lenses that are associated
with the light microscope, and the electron microscope which employs electron beams and magnetic fields to produce the image.
A compound microscope is a light microscope that makes use of two sets of lenses namely:
1. The primary magnifiers – the objectives, the lenses of which are immediately next to the specimen being studied; and
2. The secondary magnifiers – the ocular or eyepiece, the lenses of which are immediately next to the eye.
Parts and their Functions:
• The wide base keeps the microscope steady at any position of the stage.
• The arm, fastened to the base through the inclination joint, permits the adjustment of the stage to a desired angle.
• The concave mirror reflects the light into the condenser.
• The iris diaphragm regulates the amount of light entering the condenser. Just below the iris diaphragm is a slot to accommodate
different types of light filters.
• The condenser concentrates the light rays received from the mirror and sends them to the objective.
• The stage is a horizontal platform upon which the specimen to be examined is placed. At the center of the stage is a circular aperture.
• The stage clips hold the slide in place on the stage.
• The objective is that part of the optical system of the microscope which produces the specimen’s initial magnified image (real) within
the body tube.
• The student microscope has three objectives: low power, high power and oil immersion objective.
• The revolving nosepiece to which the objective lenses are attached, allows convenient shifting of the objectives.
• The body tube is a hollow cylindrical tube which light passes from the objective to the eyepiece. The upper portion of the body tube is
called the draw tube.
• The eyepiece or ocular is that part of the optical system through which the specimen is viewed. The intermediate image projected by
the objective is enlarged by the eyepiece. Hence, the term compound microscope is derived from the fact that the specimen is magnified
twice, first by the objective and second by the eyepiece. The final image formed is a virtual image. The magnification of the compound
microscope is, therefore, the product of the magnifying power of the objective and the eyepiece. If the magnifying power of the objective
is 100X and the eyepiece is 10X, the total magnification will be 1000X.

• The coarse focus knob is used to bring the object into approximate focus. For maximum definition, the fine focus knob is used.
Operation of the Microscope
1. Place the microscope close to the edge of the table. Select a suitable stool so that when looking into the eyepiece, your back
is straight and your neck is bent at the nape.
2. Lower the body tube by turning the coarse focus knob until the 10X or 16mm objective reaches the downward stop.
3. Look through the eyepiece and adjust mirror to the position which provides the brightest and most evenly illuminated field of
vision (the circular area seen in the eyepiece).
4. Place the slide on the stage and fasten it using the stage clips.
5. Position the specimen area of the slide over the center of the stage aperture.
6. Looking through the eyepiece, raise the coarse focus knob until the image appears. Focus sharply as possible.
7. Adjust the fine focus knob to sharpen the image in the center of the field of vision.
8. When a feature on the specimen is to be examined at a higher magnification, move the slide so that the feature is centered in
the field of vision. The higher the power of the objective, the lesser is the area to the specimen surface included in the field of
vision. Shift the high power objective into place and adjust with the fine focus knob.
9. Keep your eye at a certain distance from the eyepiece. Be relaxed when looking into the eyepiece and keep both eyes open.
Care of the Microscope
• Keep the microscope clean, dry and free from dust.
• When carrying the microscope, grasp its arm with one hand and the bottom of the base with the other hand.
• Avoid jarring the microscope
• Never touch the lenses with your fingers. Wipe dirty lenses gently with lens paper.
• Do not allow the objectives to come in contact with any liquid except immersion oil for the 1.8mm objective.
• Clean the oil immersion objective immediately after it has been used by removing the oil with lens paper. Dried oil on the
objective is removed by moistening the lens with xylol and then drying immediately with lens paper. Xylol is corrosive so the
lens should be wiped dry right away.
• Never force adjustments on the microscope. All adjustments should work freely and easily.
• Avoid unnecessary turning of the coarse and fine focusing knobs.
• Do not allow alcohol or xylol to come in contact with the lacquered parts.
• Before returning the microscope, see to it that the 16mm objective is in place, the body tube is fully lowered and the concave
mirror is turned upside down or vertically for double-sided mirrors.
CELL
Robert Hooke named cells as animalcules by observing a thin slices of cork
Anton van Leeuwenhoek perfected the construction of the compound microscope
Matthias Schleiden botanist concluded that plants are composed of cells and formulated the plant cell theory
Theodore Schwann zoologist concluded that animals are composed of cells and formulated the animal cell theory
Rudolf Virchow pathologist concluded that all cells must come only from preexisting cells

CELL THEORY
Tenets of Cell Theory

• All living things are made of cells.

• Smallest living function and structure of all organisms is the cell.
• All cells arise from preexisting cells,

Modern Cell Theory

• The cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
• All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
• All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside the cells. (movement, function, etc.)
• Cell activity depends on the activities of subcellular structures within the cells (organelles, nucleus, plasma membrane)
 Cell Types

PROKARYOTIC CELLS

• No membrane bound nucleus

• Nucleotide= region of DNA concentration
• No membrane bound organelles

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

• Nucleus bound by membrane

• Include fungi, protists, plant, and animal cells
• possessed many organelles

Cell Structure All cells have: on outermost plasma membrane

genetic material in the form of a DNA
cytoplasm with ribosomes
Nucleus Formed of (1) nuclear envelope (2) chromatin (3) nucleolus (4) nucleoplasm
nuclear envelope a double membrane with many pores
a). outer membrane
b). inner membrane
c). nuclear pores- provides communication between nucleus and cytoplasm
chromatin formed of DNA
euchromatin-extended active chromatin
heterochromatin- condensed inactive chromatin

functions: carries genetic information

directs protein synthesis
nucleolus it is a spherical dark basophilic mass not surrounded by a membrane
usually one
function: formation of ribosome RNA (rRNA), which is responsible for protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm
nucleoplasm it is a clear fluid medium in which all the contents of the nucleus are embedded
function: provides a medium for movements of 3 types of RNA (ribosomal, messenger and transfer
RNA) from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
 Functions: it is essential for the vitality and division of cell
it is the site of storage of genetic information
it is the site of formation of the 3 types of RNA

Cytoplasm composed of:

organelles- they are the specialized structures, essential for vital processes of the cells
inclusions- they are not essential for the vitality of cells and maybe present or absent (lipids, glycogen, and pigments
like melanin and lipofuscin)
Cytoplasmic organelles:
Membranous: cell membrane
mitochondria
endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
lysosomes
secretory vesicles
Non-membranous ribosomes
centrioles
cilia and flagella
filaments (actin, myosin, intermediate)
cytoskeleton (actin and intermediate filaments and microtubules)
Cell Membrane Chemical structure:
phospholipid molecules arranged in two layers
protein molecules peripheral and integral protein
carbohydrate molecules attached to either lipids or proteins (glycolipids or glycoproteins) forming
the surface or cell coat (Glycocalyx)
a).protection of the cell
b).cell recognition and adhesion
Mitochondria each mitochondrion is rod-shaped
the wall is composed of 2 membranes
the outer is smooth, the inner is folded to form cristae
the cavity is filled with mitochondrial matrix, which contains enzymes. Also contain its own DNA.
functions: generation of ATP- source energy for the cell
can form their own proteins and undergo self-replication

Chloroplast present in plants and some photosynthetic bacteria

solar energy capturing organelle

Endoplasmic Reticulum it is a system of communicating membranous tubules, vesicles, and flattened vesicles (cisternae)
Rough ER membranous sheet of flattened tubules and vesicles with ribosomes on the surface

functions:

synthesis of proteins by ribosomes on its outer surface

transfer vesicles transfer the formed protein to Golgi

Smooth ER membranous tubules and vesicles, with no ribosomes on the surface
functions

• synthesis of lipids and cholesterol

• synthesis of steroid hormones, e. g. cortisone
• helps muscle contraction, by acting as a calcium pump
• detoxification of drugs and toxins
Golgi Apparatus the secretory apparatus of the cell
consists of stacked saucer-shaped flattened vesicles
each vesicle has 2 faces:
convex (forming) face, receives transfer vesicles
concave (mature) face, forms secretory vesicles
functions:

• sorting. modification and packaging of proteins

• secretory vesicles formation
• formation of lysosomes

Lysosomes the digestive apparatus of the cell

contain hydrolytic enzymes
originate from the mature surface of the Golgi apparatus, while their hydrolytic enzymes are formed in the rough ER
function: intracellular digestion of ingested material or old organelles
Ribosomes basophilic cytoplasm is due to numerous ribosomes
consist of ribosomal RNA, combined with proteins
formed of 2 subunits
free in the cytoplasm (may form polyribosomes) or attached to rER
function: protein synthesis

Cytoskeleton filaments and fibers

made of 3 fiber types: microfilaments
microtubules
intermediate filaments
functions: mechanical support
anchor organelles
help move substances

Vacuoles membrane bound storage sacs

more common in plants than animals
contents: water | food | wastes
Cell Energy: Photosynthesis and Respiration
ATP is a nucleotide composed of the nitrogen-containing base adenine and the 5-carbon sugar ribose
(together called adenosine) and three phosphate groups. ATP is called a “high-energy” compound
because a phosphate group can be easily removed.

Functions: Chemical work – ATP supplies the energy needed to synthesize macromolecules that make
up the cell
Transport work – ATP supplies the energy needed to pump substances
across the plasma membrane.
Mechanical work – ATP supplies the energy needed to permit muscles to
contract, cilia and flagella to beat, chromosomes to move, and so forth.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS The Light Reactions and the Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)

LIGHT REACTIONS During photosynthesis light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP
and glucose
autotrophs (plants, algae and some bacteria)
heterotrophs (animals, fungi and some bacteria)
Photosynthesis involves the use of light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose
The Light Dependent Reactions Light energy is converted into chemical energy which is temporarily stored in ATP and
NADPH
The Light Independent Reactions Sugars are formed using carbon dioxide and the chemical energy stored in ATP and
NADPH
CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an orderly set of stages that take place between the time a eukaryotic cell divides and the time the resulting daughter
cells also divide. When a cell is going to divide, it grows larger, the number of organelles doubles, and the amount of DNA doubles as
DNA replication occurs. The two portions of the cell cycle are interphase which includes a number of stages, and the mitotic stage,
when mitosis and cytokinesis occur.
4 phases of cell cycle
 G-1
 S
 G-2
 M

You will notice that most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase. This is the time when a cell performs its usual functions, depending on
its location in the body. The amount of time the cell takes for interphase varies widely. Some cells, such as nerve and muscle cells,
typically do not complete the cell cycle and are permanently arrested. These cells are said to have entered a Go stage. Embryonic cells
complete the entire cell cycle in just a few hours. For adult mammalian cells, interphase lasts for about 20 hours, which is 90% of the
cell cycle. Interphase is very busy and consists of three stages referred to as G1, S, and G2.
Cell biologists named the stage before DNA replication G1, and they named the stage after DNA replication G2. G stood for “gap”, but
now that we know how metabolically active the cell is, it is better to think of G as standing for “growth”. Protein synthesis is very much
a part of these growth stages.
G1 Stage
 the first gap period and the longest phase
 the cell increases in volume by imbibing water and nutrients and building new protoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles
 secretion granules, storage granules and cell wall materials are also elaborated
S Stage
 DNA replication or synthesis is the most important activity in the cell
G-2 Stage
 second gap period
 characterized by the synthesis of RNA and proteins necessary for chromosome synthesis and for the mitotic spindle
 Shorter than the G-1 and S Phases

M phase (Mitosis)
 Substages:
 - Prophase
 - Metaphase
 - Anaphase
 - Telophase
Prophase
• DNA molecules thicken by coiling on themselves several times to form dense chromosomes.
• The nucleolus gradually disappears.
• The nuclear membrane breaks down during late prophase
Metaphase
• spindle fibers appear
• the chromosomes now arrange themselves on the equatorial plane of the cell
• chromatids attach to the spindle fibers
Anaphase
• Chromatids separate and begin to move to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase
• the divided chromosomes have reached the opposite poles of the cell
• the chromosomes aggregate and begin to uncoil into long, thin chromatin strands
• the nuclear envelope and the nucleolus re-form
• the cell returns once again to G1 of the cell cycle
Cytokinesis
• a new cell wall, called the cell plate, starts to form between the separated nuclei.
- Involves the phragmoplast, consisting of a band of microtubules that re-forms perpendicular to the cell plate and many small
membrane-bound vesicles.
 Meiosis 2n (diploid) n (haploid)
Meiosis
 Special kind of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms, whereby the chromosome number of the cells is reduced to half
its usual number.
 For the production of male and female gametes.
 Preceded by G-1,S and G-2 phases.
 Consists of two nuclear divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
2 Phases Meiosis I (reductional) Meiosis II (equational)

Meiosis I (Reduction division)

 Prophase I
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I
 Telophase I
Prophase I
 Nuclear membrane starts to fragment
  Chromosomes condensed and coiled
Metaphase I
 Nuclear membrane disintegrates
 Spindle appears
 Bivalents move to the metaphase plate
Anaphase I
 Chromosomes move from the metaphase plate to the poles
 Homologues segregate from one another so that each anaphase group is composed of a haploid number of chromosomes
 Accounts for the reductional phase
Telophase I
 Chromosomes regroup
 Coiled structure begin to relax
 Cytoplasm is divided and in some species the nuclear membrane is formed
 Interkinesis occurs before the cell proceeds to the next stage

Meiosis II (Equational Division)

 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase II

Prophase II Prophase II is Similar to mitotic prophase except that it has half the chromosome number. During prophase II, each dyad
is composed of one pair of chromatids attached by a common centromere.

Metaphase II During metaphase II, the centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate. Then the centromere divides.

Anaphase II During anaphase II the chromatids of each dyad are pulled opposite poles.

Telophase II Telophase II reveals one member of each pair of homologous chromosomes present at each pole as the number of
dyads is equal to the haploid number. Each chromosome is referred to as a monad. Not only has the haploid state been
achieved, but most monads that have been involved in crossing over display a combination of maternal and paternal
genetic information.

As a result, the offspring produced by any gamete will receive from it a mixture of genetic information of
originally present in his or her grandparents. Following cytokinesis in telophase II, potentially four haploid
gametes may result from a single meiotic event.
Spermatogenesis takes place in the testes
Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries