TISSUES a group of closely associated cells that perform related functions and

are similar in structure

Between cells: nonliving extracellular material
4 BASIC TYPES OF TISSUE: FUNCTION

 Epithelium tissue : Covering

 Connective tissue : Support
 Muscle tissue : Movement
 Nervous tissue : Control
EPITHELIA (plural)
EPITHELIUM sheets of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity;
also form most of the body’s glands
Roles: as interfaces and boundaries
Functions: protection, sensory reception, secretion, absorption,
ion transport, filtration, formation of slippery surfaces for
movement
Special characteristics

 Cellularity
 Specialized contacts
 Polarity
o Free upper (apical) surface
o Lower (basal) surface contributing basal lamina to
basement membrane
 Support by connective tissue
 Avascular but inverted
o Without vessels
o With nerve endings
 Regeneration
Classification of Epithelia

 According to thickness
o Simple – one cell layer
o Stratified – more than one layer of cells (which are named
according to the shape of the cells in the apical layer)
 According to shape
o Squamous – wider than tall
o Cuboidal – as tall as wide
o Columnar – taller than wide
Single squamous epithelium
-a single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse
cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia
-allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where
protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae
-located at the kidney glomeruli and corpuscles; air sacs of lungs; lining of
heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of ventral body cavity
(serosae)
Simple cuboidal epithelium
- Single layer of cubelike cells, with large, spherical central nuclei
- Function: secretion and absorption
- Located at the kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands;
ovary surface
Simple columnar epithelium
- Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia;
layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)
- Absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type
propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
- Located at nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to
anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated
variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Single layer cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface;
nuclei seen at different levels; may contain goblet cells and bear cilia
- Secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
- Located at nonciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of
large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper
respiratory tract.
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Thick membrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or
columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in
the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal
cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial
layers.
- Protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
- Located at the nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus,
mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry
membrane
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
- generally two layers if cube-like cells
- functions as protection
- Located at the largest ducts od sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary
glands
Stratified columnar epithelium
- Several cell layers; basal cells usually cuboidal; superficial cells elongated
and columnar
- Function: protection and secretion
- Rarely located in the body; small amounts in male urethra and in large ducts
of some glands
 Transitional epithelium
- Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells
cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamouslike, depending on
degree of organ stretch
- Stretches readily and permits distensions of urinary organ by contained urine
- Lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra

ENDOTHELIUM a simple squamous epithelium that lines the interior of the

circulatory vessels and heart
MESOTHELIUM simple squamous epithelium that lines the peritoneal, pleural and
pericardial activities and covers the viscera
GLANDS formed by epithelial cells
Production and secretion of needed substances
Are aqueous (water-based) products packed into secretory granules
by Golgi apparatus, released from the cell by exocytosis
Classification of Glands

 By where they release their product

o Exocrine: external secretion onto body surfaces (skin)
or into body cavities
o Endocrine: secrete messenger molecules (hormones) which
are carried by blood to target organs; “ductless” glands
 By whether they are unicellular and multicellular
Exocrine glands unicellular goblet cell
scattered within epithelial lining of intestines
and respiratory tubes
product mucin
mucus is mucin and water
multicellular epithelium
walled duct and a secretory unit
examples of exocrine gland products

 Many types of mucus secreting glands

 Sweat glands of skin
 Oil glands of skin
 Salivary glands of mouth
 Liver (bile)
 Pancreas (digestive enzymes)
 Mammary glands (milk)
 Endocrine glands ductless glands
release hormone into extracellular space
hormones are messenger molecules
hormones enter blood and travel to specific
target organs
Epithelial Surface Features Lateral surface

 Adhesion proteins
 Tongue and groove wavy contours
 Cell Junctions
Basal surface

 Basal lamina: noncellular sheet of protein

together with reticular fibers form basement
membrane
Apical surface
Cell Junctions Tight junctions
so close that are sometimes impermeable
Adherens junctions
transmembrane linker proteins
Desmosomes
anchoring junctions
filaments anchor to the opposite side
Gap junctions
allow small molecules to move between cells
Apical Surface Features
Microvilli maximize surface area
-fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane of apical epithelial
cells
-on moist and mucus secreting epithelium
-longest on epithelia that absorb nutrients (small intestines) or
transport ions (kidneys)
Cilia whiplike motile extensions of the apic
al surface membranes
Flagellum long isolated cilium
only found as sperm in human
Four Basic Types of Tissue
1. Epithelium
2. Connective tissue
Connective tissue proper (examples: fat tissue, fibrous tissue of ligaments)
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Blood
3. Muscles tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Connective Tissue originate from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme

most diverse and abundant type of tissue
many subclasses
function: to protect, support and bind together other
tissues
-bones, ligaments, tendons
-areolar cushions; adipose insulates and is food source
-blood cells replenished; body tissues repaired
cells separated from one another by large amount of
nonliving extracellular matrix
Extracellular matrix nonliving material between cells
produced by the cells and then
extruded
responsible for the strength
2 components
1. Ground substance
-of fluid, adhesion proteins,
proteoglycans
-liquid, semisolid, gel-like or very
hard
2. Fibers: collagen, elastic or
reticular
Basic Functions of Connective Tissues
1. Support and binding of other tissues
2. Holding body fluids
3. Defending the body against infection
Macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, WBCs
4. Storing nutrients as fat
Embryonic connective tissues: mesenchyme
-embryonic connective tissue; gel-like ground substance containing fibers; star-
shaped mesenchymal cells
-Gives rise to all other connective tissue types
-Located primarily in the embryo
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar
-gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages,
mast cells, and some WBC
-wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important
role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid
-widely distributed under epithelia of body e.g. forms lamina propria of mucous
membranes; packages organs; surrounds capillaries
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose
-matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells,
have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet
-Provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects
organs
-Located under skin, around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts
Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular
-Network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; reticular cells
lie on the network
-Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types
including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages
-Located at lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen)
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular
-Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell
type is the fibroblast
-Able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural
strength
-Located at dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract; fibrous capsules of
organs and joints
Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular
-Primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastin fibers; major cell type is the
fibroblast
-attaches to muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bone to bones; withstand
great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction
-Located at tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses
Cartilage: hyaline
-amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network;
chondroblasts produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae
-Supports and reinforces; has resilient cushioning properties; resists
compressive stress
-Forms of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint
cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea,
and larynx
Cartilage: elastic
-similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix
-maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility
-supports the external ear (pinna); epiglottis
Cartilage: fibrocartilage
-matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen
fibers predominate
-tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock
-Located at intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; disc of knee joint
Others: bone (osseous tissue)
-hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in
lacunae, Very well vascularized
-located in bones
Others: blood
-red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma)
-transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes and other substances
-contained within blood vessels
Membranes that combines epithelial sheets plus underlying connective tissue
proper
Cutaneous membranes skin: epidermis and dermis
Mucous membranes, or mucosa lines every hollow internal organ that opens to
the outside of the body
Serous membranes, or serosa slippery membranes lining the pleural,
pericardial and peritoneal cavities
the fluids formed on the surface is called a
transudate
Synovial membranes line joints
Four Basic Types of Tissue
1. Epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscles tissue
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
4. Nervous tissue

Skeletal muscle
-long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells, obvious striations
-voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial
expression; voluntary control
-Located in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin
Cardiac muscle
-branching, striated, generally uninucleate cell that interdigitate at
specialized junctions (intercalated discs)
-as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
-the walls of the heart
Smooth muscle
-spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely
to form sheets
-propels substances or objects(foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal
passageways; involuntary control
-located mostly in the walls of hollow organs
Four Basic Types of Tissue
1. Epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscles tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Neurons
Supporting cells
Nervous tissue
-neurons are branching cells; cell processes that may be quite long extend from
the nucleus-containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue are
nonirritable supporting cells
-transmit electrical signals form sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and
glands) that control their activity
-located at the brain, spinal cord and nerves
Tissue response to injury
Immune takes longer and is highly specific
Inflammation nonspecific, local, rapid
inflammatory chemicals
signs: heat, swelling, redness, pain
Repair regeneration
fibrosis and scarring: severe injuries and cardiac and nervous
tissue

Tumors (neoplasms) abnormal growth of cells

Adenoma neoplasm of glandular epithelium, benign or malignant
Carcinoma cancer arising in an epithelium (90 % of all human cancers)
Sarcoma cancer arising in mesenchyme-derived tissue (connective tissues and
muscle)

Four Types of Animal Tissues

Epithelial Tissue covering
tightly-joined closely-packed cells
one side of epithelium exposed to air or internal fluid, other
side attached to a basement membrane, a dense mat of
extracellular matrix (connective tissue)
covers the outside of the body and lines the internal organs and
cavities
barrier against mechanical injury, invasive microorganisms, and
fluid loss
provides surface for absorption, excretion and transport of
molecules
types: cell shape squamous
cuboidal
columnar
 number of cell layers simple
pseudostratified
stratified
Connective Tissue framework
Main function: binding and support other tissues
Large amount of extra-cellular matrix with fewer cells
Secrete extracellular matrix
Extracellular matrix consists of network of fibers in
liquid, jelly-like or solid matrix
Muscle Tissue movement
Composed of long cells called muscle fibers
Contraction -> movement
Nervous Tissue control
Senses stimuli and transmits signals called nerve impulses
from one part of an animal to another
Consists of a cell body and long extensions called
dendrites (towards cell body) and axons (towards another
cell or an effector)
Integumentary System integument is skin
Skin and its appendages make up the integumentary
A fatty layer (hypodermis) lies deep to it
Two distinct regions: epidermis and dermis
Function
Protection first line of defense against bacteria and viruses
protection underlying structures from Ultraviolet (UV)
radiation and dehydration
Body Temperature Regulation if too hot dermal vessels dilate and vessels carry more
blood to surface so heat can escape
if too cold dermal vessels constrict and prevents heat
from escaping
Vitamin D Production needed for calcium absorption
Sensation sensory receptors
Excretion small amounts of waste products are lost through
perspiration

Structure
Epidermis keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
4 Types
Keratinocytes deepest, produce keratin (tough fibrous protein)
Melanocytes mark dark skin pigment melanin
Merkel cells associated with sensory nerve endings
Langerhans cells macrophage-like dendritic cells
Layers (from deep to superficial)
Stratum basale or germinativum single row of cells attached to dermis; youngest
cells
Stratum spinosum spinyness is artifactual; tonofilaments (bundles
of protein) resist tension
Stratum granulosum layers of flattened keratinocytes producing
keratin (hair and nails made of it also)
Stratum lucidum only on palms and soles
Stratum corneum horny layer (cells dead, many layers thick)
Remember four basic types of tissue epithelium epidermis
connective tissue dermis
muscle tissue
nervous tissue

Dermis strong flexible connective tissue: your “hide”

Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, WBCs
Fiber types: collagen, elastic, reticular
Rich supply of nerves and vessels
Critical role in temperature regulation (the vessels)
Two layers:
papillary areolar connective tissue; include dermal papillae
reticular “reticulum” network of collagen and reticular fibers
Fingerprints, palmprints, footprints

 Dermal papillae lie atop dermal ridges

 Elevate the overlying epidermis into epidermal ridges
 are “sweat films” because of sweat pores
 Genetically determined
Flexion creases deep dermis, from continual folding
Fibers collagen: strength and resilience
elastic fibers: stretch-recoil (striae: stretch marks)
tension lines: (or line cleavage) the direction the bundles of
fibers are directed
Dermis receptive site for the pigment of tattoos
Hypodermis “hypodermis” (Greek) = below the skin
“subcutaneous” (Latin) = below the skin
also called “superficial fascia”
“fascia” (Latin)= band; in anatomy: sheet of connective tissue
fatty tissue which stores fat and anchors skin (areolar tissue
and adipose cells)
different patterns of accumulation (male/female)
Skin Color determined buy amount of melanin in the epidermis of skin
the more melanin, the darker the skin color
-range is from yellowish to brownish

oxygenated blood amount of oxygen dissolved in the

hemoglobin of RBCs (hemoglobin- a
pigment in the RBCs)
 if blood is well-oxygenated, skin will be
pink
if oxygen level in blood is low, skin will
be pale or have a bluish color (cyanosis)
Skin Appendages derived from epidermis but extend into dermis
Include: hair and hair follicles
sebaceous (oil) glands
sweat (sudoiferous) glands
nail

Nails of hard keratin, correspond to hooves and claws, grows from nail
matrix
Hair/Hair follicles complex; derived from epidermis and dermis, everywhere but
palms, soles, nipples, parts of genitalia
“arrector pili” is smooth muscle
Functions warmth less in man than other mammals
sense light touch of the skin
protection scalp

Parts Root imbedded in skin

Shaft projecting above skin surface
Make up of Hair hard keratin
Three concentric layers medulla (core)
cortex (surrounds medulla)
cuticle (single layers, overlapping)
Types of Hair vellus fine, short hairs
intermediate hairs
terminal longer, courser hair
Hair Growth averages 2mm/week
active: growing
resting phase then shed
Hair loss thinning – age related
male pattern baldness
Hair Color amount of melanin for black or brown; distinct form of melanin of
red
white: decreased melanin and air bubbles in the medulla
genetically determined though influenced by hormones and
environment
Sebaceous (oil) glands entire body except palms and soles
Produce sebum by holocrine secretion
Oils and lubricates
Sweat glands entire skin surface excepts nipples and part of external
genitalia
prevent overheating
500 cc to 12 l/day (mostly water)
Humans most efficient (only mammals have)
Produced in response to stress as well as heat
Types
Eccrine or merocrine most numerous; true sweat: 99 % water, some salts,
traces of waste open through pores
Apocrine axillary, anal and genital area only, ducts open into
hair follicles, the organic molecules in it decompose
with time – odor
Modified apocrine glands ceruminous – secrete earwax; mammary – secrete milk
Disorders of the Integumentary System
Burns threat to life catastrophic loss of body fluids
dehydration and fatal circulatory shock
infection
types first degree epidermis: redness (sunburn)
second degree epidermis & upper dermis
(blister)
third degree full thickness (destroying
epidermis, dermis, often part of
hypodermis
Infections
Skin Cancer

Critical Burns over 10 % of the body has third-degree burns

25 % of the body has second-degree burns
Third-degree burns on face, hands, or feet
Tumors of the Skin benign (warts)
Cancer – associated with UV exposure (also skin aging)
aktinic keratosis premalignant
basal cell cells of stratum basale
squamous cell keratinocytes
melanoma melanocytes: most dangerous;
recognition
A – Asymmetry
B – Border irregularity
C – Colors
D – Diameter larger than 6 mm

Skeletal System system of bones, associated cartilages and joints of human body
Can be defined as the hard framework of the human body around which
the entire body is built
Almost all the hard parts of the body are components of the human
skeletal system which is composed of 270 bones at birth – this
total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have
fused together
Parts
Bones tough and rigid form of connective tissue, it’s the weight bearing
organ of the human body and it is responsible for almost all
strength of human skeleton
Cartilages form of connective tissue but it is not as tough and rigid as bone
and the main difference between them is the mineralization factor.
Bones are highly mineralized with calcium salts while cartilages
are not
Joints important components of the human skeleton because they make the
human skeleton mobile. It occurs between “two or more bones”, “bone
and cartilage”, and “cartilage and cartilage”
Ligaments tough, elastic bands of tissue that attach to the ends of bones at
the joints. They keep the joints stable so they cannot exceed their
designed range of motion. Although ligaments are elastic, this
property only persists when the ligament is below a certain length.
Extending the ligament past this length is called hyperextension
and takes months to heal.
Functions
Strength, Support, Shape gives strength, support and shape to the body. Without
a hard and rigid skeletal system, human body cannot
stand upright, and it will become just a bag of soft
tissues without any proper shape
Protection of Delicate Organs in areas like the ribcage and skull, the skeleton
protects inner soft but vital organs like heart and
brain from external shocks. Any damage to these organs
can prove fatal, therefore protective function of
skeleton is very important
Leverage for Movements bones of the human skeleton in all parts of the body
provide attachment to the muscles. These muscles provide
motor power for producing movements of body parts In
these movements the parts of skeleton acts like levers
of different types thus producing movements according
to the needs of the human body.
Production of RBC bones like the sternum, and heads of tibia have
hemopoeitic activity (blood cells production). These are
the sites of production of new blood cells.

Classification
Long bones are longer than they are wide (humerus of arms,
legs)
Short usually square in shape, cube like (carpals of wrist,
ankle)
Flat flat, curved (parietal bone of skull, sternum)
Irregular odd shapes (vertebrae, pelvis)
Types of Bone Cell
Osteocytes mature bone cells
Osteoblast bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts bone-destroying cells
Break done bone matrix for remodeling and release of
calcium
 *Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Division of Human Skeleton
Axial Skeleton forms the axis of the human body (skull, vertebral column,
thoracic cage)
Skull forms the bony framework of the head. It consists of 22
different bones that are divided into two groups: bones
of the cranium and bones of face
Vertebral Column flexible column if vertebrae, connecting the trunk of
human body to the skull and appendages. It is composed
of 33 vertebrae which are divided into 5 regions:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
Rib Cage bony cage enclosing vital human organs formed by the
sternum and ribs. There are 12 pairs of ribs that are
divided into three groups: true ribs, false ribs, and
floating ribs
Joints or articulation is the place where two bones come together
Fibrous immovable: connect bones, no movement (skull and pelvis)
Cartilaginous slightly movable, bones are attached by cartilage, a
little movement (spine or ribs)
Synovial freely movable, much more movement than cartilaginous
joints. Cavities between bones are filled with synovial
fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones
Types
Hinge allows extension and retraction of an appendage (elbow, knee)
Ball and Socket allows for radial movement in almost any direction. They are found
in the hips and shoulders
Gliding or plane joint slide past each other (mid-carpal in hands & mid-
tarsal joints in the feet)
Saddle occurs when the touching surfaces of two bones have both concave
and convex regions with the shapes of the two bones complementing
one other and allowing a wide range of movement. (thumb)
Appendicular Skeleton skeleton of appendages of human body, it consists of shoulder
girdle, skeleton of upper limb, pelvic girdle and skeleton of
lower limb
Shoulder Girdle it attaches the upper limb to body trunk and is formed by two
bones: clavicle and scapula. Clavicle is a modified long bone
and is subcutaneous throughout its position. It is also known
as the beauty bone. Scapula is a pear shaped flat bone that
contains the glenoid fossa for the formation of shoulder
joint. It possesses three important processes: spine of
scapula, acromion process and coracoid process.
 Skeleton of Upper Limb consists of 30 bones. These are the Humerus, Ulna,
Radius, Carpals (8), Metacarpals (5), Phalanges
(14)
Pelvic Girdle there are two pelvic girdles (one for each lower limb) but
unlike the pectoral girdles, they are jointed with each other
at symphysis pubis. Each pelvic girdle is a single bone in
adults and us made up of three components: ileum, ischium and
pubis
Skeleton of Lower Limb consists of 30 bones. These are the femur, tibia,
patella, tarsals (7), metatarsals (5), phalanges
(14)

Diseases and Conditions of the Skeletal System

Arthritis rheumatoid arthritis usually affects joints symmetrically (on both sides
equally), may initially begin in a couple of joints only and most
frequently attacks the wrists, hands, elbows, shoulders, knees and ankles
Bursitis inflammation of the bursa (fluid filled sac surrounding the joint)
A bursa can become inflamed from injury, infection (rare in the
shoulder), or due to an underlying rheumatic condition
Typically identified by localized pain or swelling, tenderness, and pain
with motion or the tissues in the affected area
Tendonitis sometimes the tendons become inflamed for a variety of reasons, and the
action of pulling the muscle becomes irritating. If the normal smooth
gliding motion of your tendon is impaired, the tendon will become
inflamed and movement will become painful. This is called tendonitis and
literally means inflammation of the tendon. Most common cause is
overuse.Carpal Tunnel Syndrome any condition that causes swelling or
a change in position of the tissue within the carpal tunnel can squeeze
and irritate the median nerve. Irritation of the median nerve in this
manner causes tingling and numbness of the thumb, index, and the middle
fingers, a condition known as “carpal tunnel syndrome”
Osteoporosis means “porous bones” and is affecting men and women. It
is a condition in which bones have lost minerals
especially calcium making them weaker, more brittle, and
susceptible to fractures (broken bones). Any bone in
the body can be affected by osteoporosis, but most
common places where fractures occur are the back
(spine), hips and wrists
Scoliosis abnormal curvature of the spine and in other cases may
result from a degenerative joint condition
Kyphosis with this your spine may look normal or may develop a
hump. It can occur as result of developmental problems;
degenerative diseases, such as arthritis of the spine;
osteoporosis with compression fractures of the
vertebrae; or trauma to the spine. It can affect
children, adolescents and adults.
Lordosis curvature of the back bones (vertebrae) in the lower
back area, giving the child a “swayback” appearance.
Rickets softening and weakening of bones in children, usually
because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency

Muscular System largest system in the body

How it Works when you want to move your arm one muscle contracts and the other
one relaxes. So that makes your muscle pick up your arm. That is
how you pick up weights
What the Muscle is Made of the muscle is made up of small muscle fibers. Connective
tissue is what holds the fibers together so they don’t
fall apart. A stretchable material called tendon is what
connects the muscles to your bones

Characteristics
Excitability ability to respond to a stimulus (nerve impulse)
Contractibility muscle fibers that are stimulated by nerves contract (become
shorter) and causes movement
Extensibility ability to be stretched
Elasticity allows the muscle to return to its original shape after it has been
stretched
Functions movements of body parts
stability and posture
heat production
circulation
help in digestion

Types of Muscle cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle voluntary movement of skeletal parts
spans joints and attached to skeleton
multi-nucleated, striated, cylindrical fibres
Characteristics most attach to bones by tendon
cells are multinucleate
striated – have visible binding
voluntary
cells surrounded by bundle by connective tissue
Cardiac muscle main muscle of heart
pumping mass of heart
critical in humans
heart muscle cells behave as one unit
heart always contracts to its full extent
Characteristics has striations
usually has a single nucleus
 joined to another cardiac muscle cell
involuntary
found only in the heart
Smooth muscle line walls of viscera
found in longitudinal circular arrangement
alternate contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle in the
intestine
leads to peristalsis
Characteristics has no striations
spindle-shaped cells
single nucleus
involuntary – no conscious control
found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
Diseases Myopathies Chronic fatigue syndrome Muscular dystrophy
Fibromyalgia Compartment syndrome
Your heart and tongue is a muscle. There are about 600 muscles in the human body.
They are made up of fibers and the muscular system is the largest system in the
body. Muscles weigh half the amount of your body. The tendon is what holds the
muscle in place. The fiber bundle is what holds the fibers together just like
connective tissue.
Invertebrates simply animals without backbone (insects and flatworm)
Vertebrates animals that have their unique backbone with spinal cord
(humans, snakes)

Digestive System
Mouth or oral cavity, inside are many accessory organs that aid in the
digestion of food – tongue, teeth and salivary glands. Teeth chop food
into smaller pieces. Ehich are moistened by saliva before the tongue and
other muscles push the food into the pharynx
Pharynx or throat, is a funnel0shaped connected to the posterior end of the
mouth. The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed
food from the mouth to the esophagus
Esophagus located in throat near the trachea (windpipe), it receives food from
your mouth when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular
contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to your
stomach
Stomach a hollow organ (container) that holds food while it is being mixed with
enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable
form. Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and
powerful enzyme that are responsible for the breakdown process
Small intestines a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet long
that is part of the gastrointestinal tract. These folds are used
to maximize the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients
Pancreas secretes digestive enzymes that break down protein, fats and
carbohydrates. It also makes insulin secreting it directly to the
bloodstream
Liver main function In digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed
from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small
intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition,
the liver is the body’s chemical “factory”
Gallbladder storage sac for excess bile. Bile made in the liver travels to the
small intestine via the bile ducts. If the intestines doesn’t need it,
the bile travels into the gallbladder, where it waits the signal from
the intestines that food is present
Large intestine absorb water and contains many symbiotic bacteria that aid in the
breaking down of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients.
Feces in the large intestine exit the body through the anal canal
Rectum receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is
stool to be evacuated, and hold the stool until evacuation happens.
When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a
message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents
can be released or not
Anus opening at the far end of the digestive tract through which stool leaves
the body. It is formed partly from the surface layers of the body,
including the skin, and partly from the intestine. It is lined with a
continuation of the external skin. A muscular ring (anal sphincter) keeps
the anus closed until the person has a bowel movement
Common Diseases
Peptic Ulcer Disease peptic ulcer or stomach ulcer is a break in the lining of the
stomach, first part of the small intestine, or occasionally
the lower esophagus. An ulcer in the stomach is called gastric
ulcer and in the first part of the intestines is known as
duodenal ulcer
Gallstones cholelith is a stone formed within the gallbladder as a
concretion of bile components. Lithiasis (stone formation) in
the gallbladder is called cholelithiasis. It may pass into
other parts of the biliary tract such as the cystic duct and
common bile duct
Lactose intolerance inability of adults to digest lactose, a sugar found in milk
and to a lesser extent dairy products causing side effects,
it is due to a lactase deficiency or hypolactasia
Constipation refers to bowel movement that are infrequent or hard to pass
Diarrhea condition of having atleast three loose or liquid bowel
movements each day, often lasts for a few days and can result
in dehydration due to fluid loss
The digestive system is an intricate part of the human body that helps break down
food into a liquid so it can be easily transferred and absorbed by the entire body.
It is made up of the digestive tract (a series of hollow organs joined in a long,
twisting tube from the mouth to the anus) and other organs that help the body break
down and absorb food.

Organs that make up the digestive tract are the mouth, large intestines (also called
colon) rectum, and anus. Inside these hollow organs is a lining called the mucosa.
In the mouth, stomach, and small intestine, the mucosa contains tiny glands that
produce juices to help digest food.
Two solid digestive organs, the liver and the pancreas, produce digestive juices
that reach the intestine through small tubes called ducts. The gallbladder stores
the liver’s digestive juices until they are needed in the intestine.
Invertebrate Digestive Systems
Extracellular digestion grasshoppers have alimentary canals with specialized
compartments for digestion, their food is broken down
in their digestive tract
Intracellular digestion rather than their individual cells
Vertebrate Digestive Systems
Monogastric: Single-chambered stomach
Consist of one stomach chamber and humans and many animals have them
Mammalian Digestive System (non-ruminant)

 Humans
 Herbivores
Ruminants (multi-chambered organ) herbivores cow, sheep, goat

Circulatory System humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system
this means that circulating blood is pumped through a system
of vessels
this system consists of the heart (pump), series of blood
vessels and the blood that flows through them
Heart in the walls of the heart, two layers of tissue form a
sandwich around a thick layer of muscle called myocardium
contractions of the myocardium pump blood through the
circulatory system
the heart contracts about 72 times per minute
pumps about 70 mL of blood with each contraction
the right and left sides of the heart are separated by a
septum, or wall
the septum prevents the blood mixing of oxygen rich and oxygen
poor blood
on each side of the septum are two chambers: the upper chamber
(receives blood) is the atrium and the lower chamber (pumps
 blood out of heart) is the ventricle, with a total of 4
chambers (2 of each)
Pathway of Blood deoxygenated blood passes from the right atrium into the right
ventricle and then goes to the lungs
From the lungs, blood moves back toward the heart into the
left atrium to the left ventricle and then passes into the
aorta to go to the rest of the body
Valves as the heart contracts, blood flows into the atria and ten
out through the ventricles
Flaps of connective tissue, called valves are located between
the atria and ventricles
Blood moving keeps the valves open
When the ventricles contract, the valves close which prevent
blood from flowing back into the atria
There are also valves that stop blood from re-entering the
ventricles after the blood has left
This system of valves keeps blood moving in one direction
which increases the pumping efficiency of the heart
Heart beat heart muscles are composed of individual fibers
Each atrium and ventricle contracts as a unit
Each contraction begins with a group of cardiac muscle cells
in the right atrium known as the sinoatrial node (SA node)
Because the SA node paces the heart it is known as the
pacemaker
The impulse spreads from the pacemaker to the rest of the
atria
From the atria, a signal is sent to the atrioventricular node
and then to a bundle of fibers in the ventricle
When the ventricle contracts, blood flows out
Blood vessels as blood moves through the circulatory system it moves through
3 types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, veins
Arteries large vessels
Carry blood from heart to tissues of body
Carry oxygen rich blood, with the exception of pulmonary
arteries
Thick walls-need to withstand pressure produced when heart
pushes blood into them
Capillaries smallest blood vessels, walls are only one cell thick and
very narrow
 Important for bringing nutrient and oxygen to tissues and
absorbing CO2 and other waste products
Veins returned blood to the heart after passing through the capillary systems
Walls contains connective tissue and smooth muscle
Largest veins contain one way valves that keep blood flowing toward heart
Many found near skeletal muscles. When muscles contract, blood is forced
through veins
Blood Pressure the force of the blood on the wall of the arteries produced by the
heart
Blood pressure decreases as the heart relaxes, but the rest of the
circulatory system is still under pressure
When blood pressure is taken, the cuff is wrapped around the upper
portion of the arm and pumped with air until blood flow in the
artery is blocked
As the pressure in the cuff is relaxed, 2 numbers are recorded
Systolic pressure first number taken, is the force felt in the
arteries when the ventricles contract
Diastolic pressure second number taken, is the force of the
blood on the arteries when the ventricles relax
Disorders
Atherosclerosis fatty adipose (plaque) in walls of arteries
Deposits can obstruct flow of blood which can raise blood pressure
Increases risk of blood clots, if clot breaks free it can obstruct
blood flow to tissues
Heart Attack due to atherosclerosis, coronary arteries may become blocked (blood
can’t get to heart muscle)
Heart muscle begins to die due to lack of oxygen
Stroke blood clot may break free and block a vessel leading to the brain
Brain cells are starved of oxygen and nutrients
Loss of function may occur
Can cause paralysis, loss of ability to speak or death
Blood composed of plasma and blood cells (RBC, WBC and platelets)
plasma straw colored, 90% water, 10% dissolved gases, salts,
nutrients, enzymes, hormones, wastes and proteins
plasma proteins (albumins, globulins and fibrinogen)
albumins and globulins transport substances such as
fatty acids, hormones and vitamins
fibrinogen responsible for blood’s ability to clot
 RBCs most numerous type, transport oxygen, get color from
hemoglobin, disk shaped, made in red bone marrow,
circulate for 120 days
WBCs guard against infection, fight parasites, and attack
bacteria
Number of WBC’s increases when body is fighting
Lymphocytes produce antibodies which fight pathogens and
remember them
Platelets aid the body in clotting, small fragments, stick to
edges of broken blood cell and secrete clotting factor
to help form clot
Blood Clotting Problems
Hemophilia genetic disorder that disrupts clotting
People must be very careful to avoid injury
Can be treated by injecting extracts that contain the missing
clotting factor
Respiratory System respiratory apparatus, ventilator system is a biological
system consisting of specific organs and structures used for
the process of respiration in an organism. Involved in intake
and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism
and the environment


Respiration is a life process common to both plants and animals. In this process,
there is an exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. In your body, oxygen is
continuously supplied to your body cells and is transported through your blood
stream. Oxygen is then used to oxidize or “burn” food materials in every living
cell. After the cellular breakdown of food, carbon dioxide is released by your
cell. This gaseous waste is again picked up by your blood and is expelled from your
body system.

Functions Oxidation of food by living cells.

Transport of oxygen to the body
Exchange of gases between your blood and lungs
The “BREATHING” process.

Phases in Respiration
External Respiration exchange of gases between atmosphere and the blood, this
involves the lungs
Internal Respiration exchange of gases between the blood and body tissues, it
occurs in every living cells
Breathing and Respiration inspiration and expiration
Parts
Nose involve in air intake where they are warmed and humidified.
Tiny hairs called cilia filters out dust and other particles
 present in the air and protects the nasal passage and other
regions of respiratory tract
Trachea windpipe that filters the air we inhale and branches into the
bronchi
Bronchi two air rubes that branch off of from the trachea and carry
atmospheric air directly into the lungs
Lungs main organ of respiratory system, site in body where oxygen
is taken into the carbon dioxide is expelled out. The red
blood cells present in the blood picks up the oxygen in the
lungs and carry the lungs and to distribute the oxygen to all
body cells that need it. The red blood cells donate the oxygen
to and picks up the cells and picks up the carbon dioxide
produced by the cells.
Alveolus tiny sac like structure present in the lungs which the gaseous
exchange takes place
Diaphragm Breathing begins with a dome-shaped muscle located at the
bottom of the lungs which is known as diaphragm. When we
breathe in the diaphragm contracts and flatten out and pull
downward. Due to this movement the space in the lungs
increases and pulls air into the lungs. When we breathe out,
the diaphragm expands and reduces the amount of space for the
lungs and forces air out.
Diseases

Disorders of the respiratory systemcan be classified into four general areas:

Obstructive conditions (e.g.,emphysema,bronchitis,asthma)

Restrictive conditions (e.g.,fibrosis,sarcoidosis, alveolar damage,pleural

effusion)

Vascular diseases (e.g.,pulmonary edema,pulmonary embolism,pulmonary hypertension)

Infectious, environmental and other "diseases"

Obstructive Conditions

Bronchitis an inflammation of the bronchi, the large airways inside the lungs.
(Bronchiolitis is the inflammation of the bronchioles, the small
airways.) The inflammation causes these passages, or bronchial
tubes, to increase their production of mucus that is thick and
yellow or grey in color, which is then coughed up. Bronchitis may
be either acute or chronic.
Emphysema is difficulty breathing due to air trapped in the lung, resulting
in reduced lung capacity. *Treatment may be medical and include
oxygen support, medication and respiratory therapy. Of course
stopping smoking is always recommended. Surgical treatment by
cutting out damaged portions of the lungs and reducing lung volume
is also effective

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. The disease

manifests as recurrent attacks of wheezing, coughing and
shortness of breath.