Discovering Computers - Chapter 06 Inside Computers and Mobile Devices

Inside Computers
and Mobile Devices

Exploring the
6
Components
Computers and
mobile devices
contain a variety of
components.
“I bought my laptop a couple of years ago, and it appears to be working

well. Although at times it runs a little slow and generates a lot of heat,
I really have not had problems with it. So why do I need to learn about
hardware inside the laptop?”
True, you may be familiar with some of the material in this chapter, but do you know . . .
How to install memory?
How to select the right processor?
What efforts are being made to ensure technology products are made with fair trade
practices?
How you can secure your computers and mobile devices?
Why computers use Unicode?
How to clean a computer or mobile device?
Where you would find a heat sink?
What Moore’s Law predicted?
Which cloud computing services you have used?
How the publishing industry uses technology?
Which media sharing apps are best suited to your needs?
How to conserve battery life on mobile computers and devices?
When you might need an antistatic wristband?
For these answers and to discover much more information essential to this course, read this chapter and visit the associated
Computer Concepts CourseMate at www.cengagebrain.com.
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
248 Chapter 6 Inside Computers and Mobile Devices
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 Describe the various computer and mobile device cases and the contents they protect
2 Describe multi-core processors, the components of a processor, and the four steps in a machine cycle
© Christina Richards / Shutterstock.com 3 Identify characteristics of various personal computer processors on the market today, and describe the
ways processors are cooled
4 Explain the advantages and services of cloud computing
5 Define a bit, and describe how a series of bits represents data
6 Explain how program and application instructions transfer in and out of memory
7 Differentiate among the various types of memory: RAM, cache, ROM, flash memory, and CMOS
8 Describe the purpose of adapter cards, USB adapters, and ExpressCard modules
9 Explain the function of a bus
10 Explain the purpose of a power supply and batteries
11 Understand how to care for computers and mobile devices
Inside the Case

Whether you are a home user or a business user, you most likely will purchase a new
computer or mobile device, or upgrade an existing computer at some time in the future. Thus,
you should understand the purpose of each component in a computer or mobile device. As
Chapter 1 discussed, computers and mobile devices include components that are used for
input, processing, output, storage, and communications. Many of these components are inside
the case that contains and protects the electronics of the computer or mobile device from
damage. These cases, which are made of metal or plastic, are available in a variety of shapes
and sizes (Figure 6-1).
• Recall that the term, system unit or chassis, refers to the case on a desktop that contains and
protects the motherboard, hard disk drive, memory, and other electronic components. Some
desktops have a tower system unit that is a device separate from the monitor. Others that
house the monitor and the system unit in the same case are called an all-in-one desktop.
Peripheral devices normally occupy space outside the system unit and communicate with the
system unit using wired or wireless technology.
• On most laptops, including ultrathin laptops, the keyboard and pointing device often occupy
the area on top of the case, and the display attaches to the case by hinges.
• With a slate tablet, which typically does not include a physical keyboard, the case is behind the
display. Keyboard options for slate tablets include an on-screen keyboard, a wireless keyboard,
or a keyboard that attaches to the slate via a clip or other mechanism. On a convertible tablet,
by contrast, the case is positioned below a keyboard, providing functionality similar to a laptop.
The difference is that the display attaches to the case with a swivel-type hinge, enabling the
user to rotate the display and fold it down over the keyboard to look like a slate tablet.
• Like a slate tablet, the case on a smartphone often is behind the display.
• The case on portable media players, digital cameras, and handheld game devices typically
consumes the entire device and houses the display and input devices.
• With game consoles, the input and output devices, such as controllers and a television, reside
outside the case.
Exploring the Components Chapter 6 249
desktop tower case
all-in-one
desktop case
laptop case slate tablet case convertible tablet case
game console case
portable media player case digital camera case smartphone case handheld game device case
Figure 6-1 Cases for computers and mobile devices are available in a variety of shapes and sizes.
© iStockphoto / Oleksiy Mark; © iStockphoto / Skip Odonnell; © Alex Staroseltsev / Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto / franckreporter; Courtesy of Fujitsu Technology Solutions;
© iStockphoto / Frank Rotthaus; © neelsky / Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto / andres balcazar; © iStockphoto / TommL; © iStockphoto / doram
Internet Research At some point, you might have to open the case on a desktop or access panels on a laptop to
Which laptops are the most replace or install a new electronic component, or hire a professional to assist with this task. For
popular? this reason, you should be familiar with the electronic components inside the case, some of
Search for: laptop market which are shown in Figure 6-2 and discussed in this chapter. Read Secure IT 6-1 for tips related
share to protecting your computers and mobile devices from theft.
video card power supply and fan
battery
integrated sound
ports and circuitry
sound card
processor
inside of desktop inside of laptop
processor
memory module
memory module
heat sink and fan heat sink and fan
Figure 6-2 This figure shows typical components in a higher-end desktop and laptop. Many basic desktops have integrated video and
sound capability, similar to the laptop image shown here.
© Raw Group / Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto / Maisarau; © iStockphoto / RAW_group; © iStockphoto / RAW_group; © iStockphoto / RAW_group; © iStockphoto / Алексей Никончук;
© iStockphoto / PeterPal; © Jiri Pavlik / Shutterstock.com; © saiko3p / Shutterstock.com; © vetkit / Shutterstock.com; © WimL / Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto / Smith Chetanachan; © iStockphoto /
vetkit; © iStockphoto / Tatiana Popova
The Motherboard
The motherboard, sometimes called a system board, is the main circuit board of the computer.
Many electronic components, such as the processor and memory, attach to the motherboard;
others are built into it. Figure 6-3 shows photos of current desktop and laptop motherboards.
On personal computers, the circuitry for the processor, memory, and other components reside
on a computer chip(s). A computer chip is a small piece of semiconducting material, usually
silicon, on which integrated circuits are etched. An integrated circuit contains many microscopic
pathways capable of carrying electrical current. Each integrated circuit can contain millions
of elements such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors. A transistor, for example, can act as an
electronic switch that opens or closes the circuit for electrical charges. Today’s computer chips
contain millions or billions of transistors.
Most chips are no bigger than one-half-inch square. Manufacturers package chips so that the
chips can be attached to a circuit board, such as a motherboard.
SECURE IT 6-1
Securing Computers and Mobile an ear-piercing alarm sounds and a security and other valuables. The attached security
Devices company is alerted. cable can be secured to a stationary
Millions of smartphones, mobile devices, • Tracking software: Many smartphones object, such as a chair or table. Some per-
and computers are stolen in the United and mobile devices have mapping software sonal safes have built-in electronic locks;
States every year, according to some security that shows the approximate location of others can be secured with a combination
experts, and only a small percent of these devices and computers. The owner can issue lock. The safe can be useful in a hotel
devices are recovered. Many devices can commands remotely to have the device room, at the gym, or on campus.
help deter potential thieves and also help play a sound, lock the screen, display a
Have you seen any of these security
trace and recover stolen goods. The follow- message, or erase all personal information.
devices at school or at businesses? What
ing products may be useful in securing and • Asset tags: Metal security plates affixed other measures can organizations take to
tracking hardware. to hardware contain unique bar codes prevent security breaches?
• Clamps, cables, and locks: Lock kits that are registered to the owner and
include mounting plates, glue, cables, and stored in a security
padlocks to protect desktops, monitors, company’s database. If
laptops, and peripheral devices. a lost or stolen device is
recovered, the finder can
• Ultrasonic sensors: Thieves do not
call the phone number
need to remove a computer from an
on the tag, and the
office building or school to commit their
company will notify the
crimes; instead, they can open the case
owner.
on a desktop or server on site and then
Courtesy of SentrySafe
remove a hard disk or other expensive • Personal safes:
component. To prevent such tampering, Protective cases that are
hardware manufacturers have developed approximately the size of
an alarm system to install in the case. If the a cereal box can store a
computer is moved or the case is opened, smartphone, keys, tablet,
laptop motherboard
desktop motherboard
Figure 6-3 A desktop motherboard and a laptop motherboard.

Courtesy of GIGABYTE; © iStockphoto / RAW_group
Processors
The processor, also called the central processing unit (CPU), interprets and carries out
the basic instructions that operate a computer. The processor significantly impacts overall
computing power and manages most of a computer’s operations. On larger computers, such as
mainframes and supercomputers, the various functions performed by the processor extend over
many separate chips and often multiple circuit boards. On a personal computer, all functions of
the processor usually are on a single chip. Some computer and chip manufacturers use the term
microprocessor to refer to a personal computer processor chip.
Most processor chip manufacturers now offer multi-core processors. A processor core, or
simply core, contains the circuitry necessary to execute instructions. The operating system views
each processor core as a separate processor. A multi-core processor is a single chip with two
or more separate processor cores. Multi-core processors are used in all sizes of computers. Read
Ethics & Issues 6-1 to consider whether mass-produced computers are better than custom-built
computers. Read Secure IT 6-2 to learn how chips can help to identify and secure animals.
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-1

Are Mass-Produced Computers Better of computer games or frequently work with Custom-built computers also often do not
than Custom Built? graphics and media software. include recovery media, such as an optical
Before buying a new desktop computer, you When you purchase a custom-built disc, which will restore the computer in
should consider many factors, such as price computer, you may choose its components the event it fails. Custom-built computers
and service packages. If you visit a computer or from a variety of manufacturers. This means instead rely on the media provided by each
electronics store, you will find mass-produced the quality and performance of custom- component’s manufacturer when drivers need
computers designed to meet the needs of built computers can vary greatly based on to be reinstalled.
many consumers. These computers typically the customer’s budget or needs. If you can
provide only a few customization options, research and select a top brand for each
Would you purchase a mass-produced
such as the processor type or hard disk size. component, however, you can create a or custom-built computer? Why? Should
If you want more options, you may consider high-quality computer. vendors be required to provide service for
building your own computer or purchasing a Typically, mass-produced computers offer computer components that are used in
custom-built computer. A custom-built com- service packages that include over-the- custom-built computers? Why or why not?
puter often contains components from several phone technical support and warranties What level of service should vendors of
manufacturers. For example, you can customize on replacement components. A vendor of custom-built computers provide?
a computer’s video and sound capabilities to a custom-built computer may or may not
use a higher-end video card if you play a lot provide the same types of support.
SECURE IT 6-2
Chip Implants Secure Animals’ Identity transponder sends a signal with the chip’s can monitor an animal’s temperature, so that
Millions of dogs and cats are lost each number back to the scanner. a farmer can prevent the spread of disease by
year, and the search for them is traumatic Shelters and animal control centers identifying and removing an ill animal from
for their owners. The animals’ safe return routinely scan runaway pets for chips in a herd. Researchers, including those at the
home may be based on data stored on a an attempt to reunite animals with their U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, also use this
chip that veterinarians have implanted under owners. Most shelters require pets to have technology to track migration of wild animals
the skin, usually at the neck or shoulder the implant before the animals are adopted and fish and to study how these species
blades. or before a once-lost pet is returned to its interact with their environment.
The chip — sometimes called a microchip owner. Some veterinarians also scan new
Do you have or know anyone who has
because it is so small (about the size of a pets for chips to ensure the animal does not
a pet that has been implanted with a chip?
grain of rice) — has a unique number that is belong to someone else.
Why might some people oppose mandatory
registered to the owner’s name and address. Microchips also are implanted or attached
animal chipping? Do you think people some-
It contains an antenna and transponder externally in other animals, including horses,
day might choose to have a chip implanted
encased in a glass tube. The antenna elephants, cows, birds, fish, lizards, and snakes.
to eliminate the need to carry identification?
receives low-frequency radio waves when a Breeders, farmers, and animal associations
Why or why not?
scanning device passes over the chip, and the implant the chips to deter thieves. Chips also
CONSIDER THIS
Are multi-core processors better than single-core processors?
Each processor core on a multi-core processor generally runs at a slower speed than a single-core processor, but
multi-core processors typically increase overall performance. For example, although a dual-core processor does not
double the processing speed of a single-core processor, it can approach those speeds. The performance increase is
especially noticeable when users are running multiple programs simultaneously such as antivirus software, spyware
remover, email program, instant messaging, media player, and photo editing software. Multi-core processors also are
more energy efficient than separate multiple processors, requiring lower levels of power consumption and emitting less
heat inside the case.
Processors contain a control unit and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). These two components Internet Research
work together to perform processing operations. Figure 6-4 illustrates how other devices What is Moore’s Law?
connected to the computer communicate with the processor to carry out a task. When a user Search for: moores law
runs an application, for example, its instructions transfer from a storage device to memory. Data
needed by programs and applications enters memory from either an input device or a storage
device. The control unit interprets and executes instructions in memory, and the arithmetic logic
unit performs calculations on the data in memory. Resulting information is stored in memory,
from which it can be sent to an output device or a storage device for future access, as needed.
The Control Unit

The control unit is the component of the processor that directs and coordinates most of the
operations in the computer. The control unit has a role much like a traffic officer: it interprets
each instruction issued by a program or an application and then initiates the appropriate action
to carry out the instruction. Types of
internal components that the control unit
directs include the arithmetic logic unit,
registers, and buses, each discussed in this
PROCESSOR
chapter.
CONTROL ARITHMETIC
The Arithmetic Logic Unit UNIT LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
another component of the processor,
performs arithmetic, comparison, and
other operations. instructions
data
Arithmetic operations include basic
information
calculations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. Comparison
operations involve comparing one data INPUT OUTPUT
item with another to determine whether data MEMORY information
DEVICES DEVICES
the first item is greater than, equal to,
or less than the other item. Depending
on the result of the comparison, differ- instructions
ent actions may occur. For example, to data
determine if an employee should receive information
overtime pay, software instructs the ALU
to compare the number of hours an
employee worked during the week with STORAGE
DEVICES
the regular time hours allowed (e.g., 40
hours). If the hours worked exceed 40,
for example, software instructs the ALU
Figure 6-4 Most devices connected to the computer communicate with the
to perform calculations that compute the processor to carry out a task.
overtime wage. © Cengage Learning
Machine Cycle
For every instruction, a processor repeats a set of four basic operations, which comprise a
machine cycle (Figure 6-5): (1) fetching, (2) decoding, (3) executing, and, if necessary, (4) storing.
• Fetching is the process of obtaining a program or an application instruction or data item from
memory.
• Decoding refers to the process of translating the instruction into signals the computer can
execute.
• Executing is the process of carrying out the commands.
• Storing, in this context, means writing the result to memory (not to a storage medium).
In some computers, the processor fetches, decodes, executes, and stores only one instruction
at a time. With others, the processor fetches a second instruction before the first instruction
completes its machine cycle, resulting in faster processing. Some use multiple processors
simultaneously to increase processing times.
The Steps in a Machine Cycle
Using a calculator app, Step 1

a student enters a calculation. The control unit fetches
The app sends the calculation the calculation’s
to the computer’s memory instructions and data
for processing. from memory.
10
0x
00 48
48
The results in memory appear
on the screen of the monitor. 4
MEMORY Step 2
Step 4 The control unit decodes the
The results of the calculation 1 calculation’s instructions
are stored in memory. 3
and sends the instructions
and data to the ALU.
PROCESSOR
2
10
0x CONTROL
48 ALU Step 3
UNIT
= 480
The ALU performs
calculations on the data.
0
x 48
100
Figure 6-5 This figure shows the steps in a machine cycle.

© iStockphoto/sweetym; © slavchovr / Shutterstock.com; © Cengage Learning
Registers
A processor contains small, high-speed storage locations, called registers, that temporarily hold
data and instructions. Registers are part of the processor, not part of memory or a permanent
storage device. Processors have many different types of registers, each with a specific storage
function. Register functions include storing the location from where an instruction was fetched,
storing an instruction while the control unit decodes it, storing data while the ALU calculates it,
and storing the results of a calculation.
The System Clock

The processor relies on a small quartz crystal circuit called the system clock to control the
timing of all computer operations. Just as your heart beats at a regular rate to keep your body
functioning, the system clock generates regular electronic pulses, or ticks, that set the operating
pace of components of the system unit. Internet Research
Each tick equates to a clock cycle. Processors today typically are superscalar, which means they What are the fastest
can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle. processor clock speeds?
The pace of the system clock, called the clock speed, is measured by the number of ticks per Search for: fastest processor
second. Current personal computer processors have clock speeds in the gigahertz range. Giga is
a prefix that stands for billion, and a hertz is one cycle per second. Thus, one gigahertz (GHz)
equals one billion ticks of the system clock per second. A computer that operates at 3 GHz has 3 BTW
billion (giga) clock cycles in one second (hertz). System Clock and
Peripheral Devices
The faster the clock speed, the more instructions the processor can execute per second. The
The speed of the system
speed of the system clock is just one factor that influences a computer’s performance. Other clock has no effect on
factors, such as the type of processor chip, amount of cache, memory access time, bus width, and peripheral devices such
bus clock speed, are discussed later in this chapter. as a printer or disk drive.
CONSIDER THIS
Does the system clock also keep track of the current date and time?
No, a separate battery-backed chip, called the real-time clock, keeps track of the date and time in a computer. The
battery continues to run the real-time clock even when the computer is off.
Personal Computer and Mobile Device Processors

BTW
The leading manufacturers of personal computer processor chips are Intel and AMD.
Intel and AMD
AMD manufactures Intel-compatible processors, which have an internal design similar to Intel
Technology Innovators:
wprocessors, perform the same functions, and can be as powerful, but often are less expensive. You should be familiar
These manufacturers often identify their processor chips by a model name or model number. with Intel, Gordon
Read How To 6-1 for items to consider when selecting a processor for a computer. Moore, and AMD.
HOW TO 6-1
Select the Right Processor expensive processor than a user who will purchase the most expensive computer
When you are shopping for a new computer, be running many programs and applica- with the fastest processor.
it is important to select one with a processor tions simultaneously.
What type of processor is in your current
that will meet your needs. For example, some 2. Determine your current processor. If
computer? If you were to upgrade your proces-
processors are designed for home users, some you are replacing your existing computer
sor, which one would you choose? Why?
are designed for power users, and others are with a new computer, determine the pro-
designed for mobile users. Performing basic cessor in your existing computer so that
research before you shop for a new computer you can make sure the new processor
can help you select the most appropriate is better and faster than the one in use
processor. The following steps describe how currently.
to select the right processor. 3. Research processor models. While
1. Determine your needs. Think about shopping for computers in your price type of
processor
how you will use your computer and the range, pay attention to the types of pro-
© Cengage Learning
programs and applications you plan to cessors they include. Visit the processor
run. If you will be using your computer manufacturer’s website and verify that the
for basic tasks such as web browsing or processor will meet your computing needs
checking email, you may require a less adequately. It is not always necessary to
In the past, chip manufacturers listed a processor’s clock speed in marketing literature and
advertisements. As previously mentioned, though, clock speed is only one factor that impacts
processing speed in today’s computers. To help consumers evaluate various processors, manu-
facturers such as Intel and AMD now use a numbering scheme that more accurately reflects the
BTW processing speed of their chips.
Nvidia and Qualcomm Processor chips include technologies to improve processing performance (for example, to
Technology Innovators: improve performance of media and 3-D graphics). Some also include technology to track
You should be familiar
computer hardware and software, diagnose and resolve computer problems, and secure
with Nvidia, maker
computers from outside threats. Processors for mobile computers also include technology to
of high-performance
graphics processors, and optimize and extend battery life and integrate wireless capabilities. Smaller mobile devices
Qualcomm, maker of often use more compact processors that consume less power, yet offer high performance.
chips for mobile devices. Read Secure IT 6-3 for tips about recycling computers and mobile devices.
SECURE IT 6-3
Recycling Computers and Mobile however, with electronics recycling, • Secondary market: Amazon, eBay, and
Devices or eCycling, options that include the other websites list thousands of used
Unwrapping a new smartphone or following: devices for sale.
computer and turning it on for the first • Wireless carriers and big box • EPA: The EPA’s website lists several
time often evokes feelings of excitement. retailers: Stores that sell electronics resources to locate electronics donation
American consumers upgrade to new often accept donations or offer buy-back and recycling centers in communities.
smartphones every 21 months on aver- programs. Many of these companies eCycling can help conserve natural resources
age, more often than any other country participate in the Sustainable Materials because precious metals, glass, and solid waste
in the world, so an enormous amount of Management (SMM) Electronics are removed before the shell is taken to landfills.
equipment in working condition is aban- Challenge, which promotes responsible The EPA states that 35,000 pounds of copper,
doned when the new products are acti- electronics recycling by using third-party 772 pounds of silver, 75 pounds of gold, and
vated. The U.S. Environmental Protection certified recyclers. 33 pounds of palladium are recovered from
Agency (EPA) estimates that more than • Not-for-profit organizations: Civic and every 1 million recycled mobile phones.
80 percent of mobile phones find a final community organizations sponsor recycling
resting place in municipal landfills, despite How have you disposed of or recycled
events and then distribute the devices
many state laws that prohibit the disposal your computers and mobile devices? How
to people serving in the military, victims
of electronics in the household garbage. might you encourage your friends to eCycle
of natural disasters, and less fortunate
These older devices can find a new home, or your school to offer eCycling events?
citizens.
CONSIDER THIS
Can you upgrade an existing computer’s processor?
You might be able to upgrade a processor to increase the computer’s performance. Be certain the processor you buy is
compatible with your computer’s motherboard; otherwise, you will have to replace the motherboard, too. Replacing a
processor is a fairly simple process, whereas replacing a motherboard is much more complicated.
BTW Processor Cooling

Mobile Device Cooling Processor chips for laptops, desktops, and servers can generate quite a bit of heat, which could
Mobile devices often use cause the chip to malfunction or fail. Although the power supply on some computers contains a
low-voltage processors, main fan to generate airflow, today’s personal computer processors often require additional cool-
which have such low
ing. Some computer cases locate additional fans near certain components, such as a processor, to
power demands that
they do not require provide additional cooling. Heat sinks, liquid cooling technologies, and cooling mats often are
additional cooling. used to help further dissipate processor heat.
A heat sink is a small ceramic or metal component with fins on its surface that absorbs and
disperses heat produced by electrical components, such as a processor. Many heat sinks have
fans to help distribute air dissipated by the heat sink. Some heat sinks are packaged as part of a
processor chip. Others are installed on the top or the side of the chip (Figure 6-6).
Some computers use liquid cooling technology to reduce the temperature of a processor. Liquid
cooling technology uses a continuous flow of fluid(s), such as water and glycol, in a process that transfers
the heated fluid away from the processor to a radiator-type grill, which cools the liquid, and then
returns the cooled fluid to the processor.
Laptop users often use a cooling pad to help further reduce the heat generated by their
computer. A cooling pad rests below a laptop and protects the computer from overheating and also
the user’s lap from excessive heat (Figure 6-7). Some cooling pads contain a small fan to trans-
fer heat away from the laptop. These types of cooling pads often draw power from a USB port.
Instead of using power, other pads absorb heat through a conductive material inside the pad.
heat sink
fan
heat sink
processor
cooling pad
Figure 6-6 This photo shows a heat sink

being attached to the top of a processor to
prevent the chip from overheating. Figure 6-7 A laptop cooling pad helps reduce heat generated by a laptop.
© Claudio Bravo / Shutterstock.com Courtesy of Targus Group International, Inc; Courtesy of Targus Group International, Inc.
NOW YOU KNOW

Be sure you understand the material presented in the sections titled Inside the Case and Processors as it relates to
the chapter objectives.
You now should know . . .
• Why you should protect the contents of computers and mobile devices (Objective 1)
• How processors in computers and mobile devices operate (Objective 2)
• Which processors might be best suited to your needs, and how to keep processors and other components from
overheating (Objective 3)
Quiz Yourself Online: Check your knowledge of related content by navigating to this book’s Quiz Yourself
resource on Computer Concepts CourseMate and then tapping or clicking Objectives 1–3.
Cloud Computing
Recall that cloud computing refers to an environment of servers that house and provide access
to resources users access via the Internet. Home and business users choose cloud computing for
a variety of reasons:
• Accessibility: Data and/or applications are available worldwide from any computer or device
with an Internet connection.
• Cost savings: The expense of software and high-end hardware, such as fast processors and
high-capacity memory and storage devices, shifts away from the user.
• Space savings: Floor space required for servers, storages devices, and other hardware shifts
away from the user.
• Scalability: Provides the flexibility to increase or decrease computing requirements as needed.
Cloud computing consists of a front end and a back end, connected to each other through Internet Research
a network. The front end includes the hardware and software with which a user interacts to Which companies offer
access the cloud. For example, a user might access a resource on the cloud through a browser cloud computing services?
on a laptop. The back end consists of the servers and storage devices that manage and store the Search for: cloud computing
resources accessed by users. providers
MINI FEATURE 6-1
Cloud Computing Software as a Service

Software as a Service (SaaS) describes a computing
Cloud computing allows companies to outsource, or environment where an Internet server hosts and deploys
contract to third-party providers, elements of their applications. Editing documents or photos, sending email
information technology infrastructure. They pay messages, and managing finances are common consumer
only for the computing power, storage, bandwidth, tasks of SaaS applications. A pioneering provider of SaaS
and access to applications that they actually use. applications for companies is Salesforce, which offers
As a result, companies need not make large invest- customer relationship management (CRM) software.
ments in equipment, or the staff to support it. Read Salesforce users subscribe to modules to handle tasks such
Secure IT 6-4 for issues related to cloud computing as sales and marketing campaigns and customer services.
security.
Consumers and
organizations rely on cloud
computing services to
manage IT infrastructure
© Tom Wang / Shutterstock.com / © Studio 101 / Alamy;

(Infrastructure as a Service),
provide applications
(Software as a Service),
access online data (Data
as a Service), and create
applications using
SaaS application
web-based development running in browser
© Cengage Learning
platforms (Platform as
a Service).
Infrastructure as a Service
Infrastructure as a Service
(IaaS) uses software to emulate hardware capabilities, Data as a Service
enabling companies to scale, or adjust up or down, Government agencies, companies, and social media
storage, processing power, or bandwidth as needed. sites make data available for developers to incorporate
For example, retailers may need to increase these in applications or to use when making business
capabilities to accommodate additional traffic to their decisions and plans. Data as a Service (DaaS) allows
websites during busy holiday shopping seasons. When users and applications to access a company’s data.
the season ends, retailers easily can reduce these Mashups are applications that incorporate data from
settings. multiple providers into a new application. Displaying
Two special cases of IaaS are Storage as a Service homes or crime statistics on a map are examples of
and Desktop as a Service: mashups that require data from real estate, police
• Storage as a Service: Cloud storage providers offer records, and mapping providers.
file management services such as storing files online,
system backup, and archiving earlier versions of Platform as a Service
files. Cloud storage is especially useful to tablet and Application developers need to maintain computers
smartphone users, because it enables them to access running specific hardware, operating systems, develop-
their files on all of their devices. ment tools, databases, and other software. Platform as a
Service (PaaS) allows developers to create, test, and run
• Desktop as a Service: Some companies specify the
their solutions on a cloud platform without having to pur-
applications, security settings, and computing resources
chase or configure the underlying hardware and software.
available to employees on their desktop computers.
These images, or configurations, provide a common Cloud computing services are based on a “pay as
desktop work environment available to employees you go” model. How are cloud services different from
across an entire organization. Because the desktop desktop or mobile applications? What services are
and its applications appear to be installed on the customers paying for from a SaaS provider? Under what
user’s own computer, Desktop as a Service also is circumstances might it be advantageous to purchase an
known as a virtual desktop. external hard disk to store your files on it, rather than
storing them on a third-party server on the cloud?
SECURE IT 6-4
Security Threats in Cloud Storage is relatively anonymous, authorities can have user’s messages. In contrast, law enforcement
A growing number of consumers and difficulty locating the abusers. officials can access email messages stored
businesses are moving their data to the Another concern arises when transferring on the cloud by requesting the information
cloud, but concerns about using online stor- data between a network and the cloud. When from the company that owns the cloud
age services remain. While the cloud offers the data is traveling to or from a computer service. The user might not be notified of
a tremendous amount of storage space at a and the storage service, it is subject to the search until up to 90 days after the
relatively low cost, the security of this data interception. To minimize risk, security experts search occurred; moreover, the search may
and the reliability of cloud companies trigger emphasize that a browser’s web address occur without limitations and may include
concerns. must begin with https, and the data should continuous monitoring of an individual’s
Foremost is the worry about data security. be encrypted and authenticated. email communications.
The Cloud Security Alliance (CSA) warns of Law enforcement’s access to the data
Do you have concerns about the security
hackers who register for the service with a raises another security issue. Email messages
of your data stored on the cloud? What types
credit card or for a free trial period and then stored on a private server belong to the
of information and personal data would
unleash malware in an attempt to gain access company or individual who owns the
you store? Should law enforcement officials
to passwords. Because the registration and computer, so law enforcement officials must
be able to access your data without your
validation procedure for accessing the cloud obtain a search warrant to read a particular
consent? Why or why not?
Data Representation
To understand how a computer processes data, you should know how a computer represents data.
People communicate through speech by combining words into sentences. Human speech is analog
because it uses continuous (wave form) signals that vary in strength and quality. Most computers
are digital. They recognize only two discrete states: on and off. This is because computers are
electronic devices powered by electricity, which also has only two states: on and off.
Bits and Bytes Binary Digit Electronic Electronic

(BIT) Charge State
The two digits, 0 and 1, easily can represent these two states
(Figure 6-8). The digit 0 represents the electronic state of off (absence
of an electronic charge). The digit 1 represents the electronic state of ON
on (presence of an electronic charge).
When people count, they use the digits in the decimal system
(0 through 9). The computer, by contrast, uses a binary system
because it recognizes only two states. The binary system is a number
system that has just two unique digits, 0 and 1, called bits. A bit (short
OFF
for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data the computer can process.
By itself, a bit is not very informative.
When 8 bits are grouped together as a unit, they form a byte. A byte
provides enough different combinations of 0s and 1s to represent 256 Figure 6-8 The circuitry in a computer or mobile
device represents the on or the off states electronically
different characters. These characters include numbers, uppercase and by the presence or absence of an electronic charge.
lowercase letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks, and other keyboard © iStockphoto / rjmiz; © Cengage Learning
symbols, such as an asterisk (*), ampersand (&), and dollar sign ($).
Coding Schemes
The combinations of 0s and 1s that represent uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and
special symbols are defined by patterns called a coding scheme. Coding schemes map a set of
alphanumeric characters (letters and numbers) and special symbols to a sequence of numeric values
that a computer can process. ASCII (pronounced ASK-ee), which stands for American Standard
Code for Information Interchange, is the most widely used coding scheme to represent a set of
characters. In the ASCII coding scheme, the alphabetic character E is represented as 01000101;
the symbolic character '*' is represented as 00101010; the numeric character 6 is represented
as 00110110 (Figure 6-9 on the next page). For a detailed discussion of coding schemes and
8-bit byte for the letter E number systems, read Mini

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 Feature 6-2 (available in the
e-book).
When you press a key
on a keyboard, a chip in
8-bit byte for the symbol *
the keyboard converts the
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 key’s electronic signal into
a special code, called a
scan code, that is sent to
8-bit byte for the number 6 the electronic circuitry in
the computer. Then, the
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
electronic circuitry in the
computer converts the scan
code into its ASCII binary
Figure 6-9 Eight bits grouped together as a unit are called a byte. A byte represents a single
form and stores it as a byte
character in the computer or mobile device.
© Cengage Learning value in its memory for pro-
cessing. When processing is
finished, the computer converts the byte into a human-recognizable number, letter of the alpha-
bet, or special character that is displayed on a screen or is printed (Figure 6-10). All of these
conversions take place so quickly that you do not realize they are occurring.
How a Letter Is Converted to Binary Form and Back

Step 1 Step 2
A user presses the capital letter The scan code for the capital letter
T (SHIFT+T keys) on the keyboard, T is sent to the electronic circuitry in the
which in turn creates a special code, computer.
called a scan code, for the capital letter T.
Step 4 Step 3
After processing, the binary The electronic circuitry in the computer
code for the capital letter T converts the scan code for the capital
is converted to an image and letter T to its ASCII binary code
displayed on the output device. (01010100) and stores it in memory for
processing.
T
Figure 6-10 This figure shows how a letter is converted to binary form and back.
© Chiyacat / Shutterstock.com; © Kitch Bain / Shutterstock.com; © Cengage Learning; Source: Microsoft; © iStockphoto/sweetym
CONSIDER THIS
Why are coding schemes necessary?
Computers rely on logic circuits, which are controlled by electronic switches whose state can be either on or off. Each
switch’s on/off state is represented by one bit, whose value is either 0 or 1. Coding schemes translate real-world data
into a form that computers can process easily.
Memory
Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to be executed by the
processor, data needed by those instructions, and the results of processing the data (information).
Memory usually consists of one or more chips on the motherboard or some other circuit board
in the computer. Memory stores three basic categories of items:
1. The operating system and other programs that control or maintain the computer and its
devices
2. Applications that carry out a specific task, such as word processing
3. The data being processed by the applications and the resulting information
This role of memory to store both data and programs is known as the stored program concept.
Bytes and Addressable Memory

A byte (character) is the basic storage unit in
memory. When an application’s instructions and data
are transferred to memory from storage devices, the
instructions and data exist as bytes. Each byte resides
temporarily in a location in memory that has an
address. Simply put, an address is a unique number seat C22
that identifies the location of a byte in memory. To is empty
access data or instructions in memory, the computer
references the addresses that contain bytes of data.
The photo in Figure 6-11 shows how seats in a seat B21 is
occupied
stadium are similar to addresses in memory: (1) a
seat, which is identified by a unique seat number,
holds one person at a time, and a location in memory,
which is identified by a unique address, holds a single
byte; and (2) both a seat, identified by a seat number,
and a byte, identified by an address, can be empty.
Manufacturers state the size of memory in Figure 6-11 Seats in a stadium are similar to addresses in memory: a
terms of the number of bytes it has available for seat holds one person at a time, and a location in memory holds a single
storage. Common sizes for memory are in the byte; and both a seat and a byte can be empty.
© Getty Images
gigabyte and terabyte range. A gigabyte (GB) equals
approximately 1 billion bytes. A terabyte (TB) is equal
to approximately 1 trillion bytes.
Types of Memory
Computers and mobile devices contain two types of memory: volatile and nonvolatile. When
the computer’s power is turned off, volatile memory loses its contents. Nonvolatile memory, by
contrast, does not lose its contents when power is removed from the computer. Thus, volatile
memory is temporary and nonvolatile memory is permanent. RAM is the most common type
of volatile memory. Examples of nonvolatile memory include ROM, flash memory, and CMOS.
The following sections discuss these types of memory.
RAM
Users typically are referring to RAM when discussing computer and mobile device memory.
RAM (random access memory), also called main memory, consists of memory chips that can be
read from and written to by the processor and other devices. When you turn on power to a
computer or mobile device, certain operating system files (such as the files that determine how
the desktop or home screen appears) load into RAM from a storage device such as a hard disk.
These files remain in RAM as long as the computer or mobile device has continuous power. As
additional applications and data are requested, they also load into RAM from storage.
The processor interprets and executes a program or application’s instructions while the
program or application is in RAM. During this time, the contents of RAM may change
(Figure 6-12). RAM can accommodate multiple programs and applications simultaneously.
How Program Instructions Transfer in and out of RAM

operating system
hard disk instructions
Step 1 RAM
When you start the computer,
certain operating system files
are loaded into RAM from
the hard disk. The operating
system displays the user
interface on the screen.
operating system
interface
browser
hard disk instructions
Step 2
When you run a browser, the RAM
application’s instructions are
loaded into RAM from the
hard disk. The browser and
certain operating system
instructions are in RAM.
The browser window appears browser window
on the screen.
paint application
Step 3 hard disk instructions
When you run a paint application,
the application’s instructions RAM
are loaded into RAM from the
hard disk. The paint application,
along with the browser and
certain operating system
instructions, are in RAM. browser and paint
The paint application application windows
window appears on the screen.
RAM
Step 4
When you exit an application,
such as the browser, its
instructions are removed
from RAM. The browser no
longer is displayed on
the screen.
browser instructions
are removed from RAM browser window no longer
is displayed on desktop
Figure 6-12 This figure shows how program and application instructions transfer in and out of RAM.
© Gilmanshin / Shutterstock.com; © TungCheung / Shutterstock.com; © Vladyslav Starozhylov / Shutterstock.com; Source: Microsoft; © Cengage Learning
Most RAM is volatile, which means it loses its contents when the power is removed from the
computer. For this reason, you must save any data, instructions, and information you may need
in the future. Saving is the process of copying data, instructions, and information from RAM to
a storage device such as a hard disk.
Types of Ram Two common types of RAM are dynamic RAM and static RAM:
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM pronounced DEE-ram) chips must be reenergized constantly or they
lose their contents. Many variations of DRAM chips exist, most of which are faster than the
basic DRAM (Table 6-1).
• Static RAM (SRAM pronounced ESS-ram) chips are faster and more reliable than any
variation of DRAM chips. These chips do not have to be reenergized as often as DRAM
chips; hence, the term, static. SRAM chips, however, are much more expensive than DRAM
chips. Special applications such as cache use SRAM chips. A later section in this chapter
discusses cache.
Table 6-1 Common DRAM Variations

Name Comments
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) • Synchronized to the system clock
• Much faster than DRAM
DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM) • Transfers data twice, instead of once, for each clock cycle
• Faster than SDRAM
DDR2 • Second generation of DDR
• Faster than DDR
DDR3 • Third generation of DDR
• Designed for computers with multi-core processors
• Faster than DDR2
© Cengage Learning
DDR4 • Fourth generation of DDR
• Faster than DDR3
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) • Much faster than SDRAM
Memory Modules RAM chips usually reside on a memory module, which is a small circuit BTW
board. Memory slots on the motherboard hold memory modules. RAM
Two types of memory modules are SIMMs and DIMMs (Figure 6-13). A SIMM (single High-Tech Talk: How
inline memory module) has pins on opposite sides of the circuit board that connect together to is data written to
and stored in DRAM?
form a single set of contacts. With a DIMM (dual inline memory module), by contrast, the pins
Transistors and a
on opposite sides of the circuit board do not connect and, thus, form two sets of contacts. capacitor create a
Read How To 6-2 on the next page for instructions about determining memory requirements memory cell, which
and installing memory modules. represents a single bit
of data.
memory chips
dual inline
memory module
single inline
Figure 6-13 Memory modules contain memory chips. memory module
© mycola / Shutterstock.com; © TerryM / Shutterstock.com
HOW TO 6-2
Determine Memory Requirements modules are available for purchase in able to locate the slots for the memory
and Install Memory Modules many computer and electronic stores, modules through an access panel.
If you are shopping for a new computer or directly from computer manufacturers, 4. If necessary, remove any existing
looking to upgrade your existing computer, and on various websites. When you are memory modules you no longer need.
be sure that it will have sufficient memory. purchasing memory modules, keep the If clips are holding the memory mod-
When a computer has insufficient memory, following in mind: ule in place, you may need to pull the
its performance can slow significantly. On a. Many types of memory modules are clips away from the memory module
the other hand, it would be an unneces- available. Purchase a type, size, and before removing it. Remove the memory
sary expense to purchase a computer with speed that is compatible with your modules by lifting them out by the side
more memory than you will ever use. The computer. edges.
following steps describe how to determine b. If your computer requires that you 5. Remove the new memory modules from
memory requirements and install memory install memory in pairs, be sure to the packaging.
modules. purchase two memory modules that 6. Slowly and carefully insert the memory
1. If you are upgrading the memory in are the same type, size, and speed. modules into the slots on your com-
your existing computer, determine the c. Do not purchase more memory puter’s motherboard. Be sure they are
following: modules than you have slots available. facing the correct way as you insert
a. Amount of memory currently You may need to remove existing them. The memory modules should
installed memory modules to make room for “click” in place once they are inserted
b. Amount of memory the computer can new memory modules. completely.
support If you are upgrading your existing 7. Close the computer case or any access
c. Type of memory modules currently computer, your next step is to install panel you have opened.
installed the new memory modules. The following 8. Plug in the computer and turn it on.
d. Whether memory modules must be steps describe how to install new memory 9. Check the system information in
installed in pairs modules. the operating system to make sure
1. Turn off and unplug your computer from it is recognizing the new amount of
e. Number of available slots for memory
the power source. If you are using a memory installed.
modules
laptop, remove its battery.
2. Determine the amount of memory your
2. Wear an antistatic wristband to protect How much memory would be
computer requires by checking the
the computer from static electricity. appropriate for your computer based on
memory requirements for the operating
system and programs and applications 3. Remove or open the computer case. If your current computing needs?
you plan to run. You can find the sys- you are upgrading a laptop, you may be
tem requirements, which will specify
the memory requirements, on product
packaging or on a software manufac-
turer’s website. If you are planning to
upgrade your computer and the amount dual inline
of memory you require exceeds the memory module
amount of memory your computer cur-
rently can support, you may need to
purchase a new computer. If you are
purchasing a new computer, view the
computer’s specifications to make sure
it has sufficient memory. Some online
vendors offer a web app that will check
the configuration on your computer to
determine the memory modules that are
© iStockphoto / gabyjalbert
compatible and offer options to you for

purchase.
3. Once you have determined your
memory slot
memory requirements, you are ready to
purchase the memory modules. Memory
Cache
Most of today’s computers improve their processing times with cache (pronounced cash),
which is a temporary storage area. Two common types of cache are memory cache and disk
cache. This chapter discusses memory cache. Chapter 8 discusses disk cache.
Memory cache helps speed the processes of the computer because it stores frequently
used instructions and data. Most personal computers today have two types of memory cache:
Level 1 (L1) cache and Level 2 (L2) cache. Some also have Level 3 (L3) cache.
• L1 cache is built directly on the processor chip. L1 cache usually has a very small capacity. BTW
• L2 cache is slightly slower than L1 cache but has a much larger capacity. Current L2 Cache
processors include advanced transfer cache (ATC), a type of L2 cache built directly on When discussing cache,
the processor chip. Processors that use ATC perform at much faster rates than those most users are referring
that do not use it. to L2 cache.
• L3 cache is a cache on the motherboard that is separate from the processor chip. L3 cache
exists only on computers that use L2 advanced transfer cache.
When the processor needs an instruction or data, it searches memory in this order: L1
cache, then L2 cache, then L3 cache (if it exists), then RAM — with a greater delay in
processing for each level of memory it must search (Figure 6-14). If the instruction or data is
not found in memory, then it must search a slower speed storage medium, such as a hard disk
or optical disc.
PROCESSOR CHIP
L1 cache – part of processor L1 cache – fastest access
L2 cache – part of processor slower access than L1 cache
L3 cache – separate chip

slower access than L1 and L2 cache
between processor and RAM
Figure 6-14 Memory cache
helps speed processing times
RAM slower access than L1, L2, and L3 cache when the processor requests data,
instructions, or information.
© Cengage Learning
ROM
Read-only memory (ROM pronounced rahm) refers to memory chips storing permanent
data and instructions. The data on most ROM chips cannot be modified — hence, the name
read-only. ROM is nonvolatile, which means its contents are not lost when power is removed
from the computer. In addition to computers and mobile devices, many peripheral devices
contain ROM chips. For example, ROM chips in printers contain data for fonts.
Manufacturers of ROM chips often record data, instructions, or information on the chips
when they manufacture the chips. These ROM chips, called firmware, contain permanently
written data, instructions, or information such as a computer or mobile device’s start-up
instructions. Read Ethics & Issues 6-2 on the next page to consider issues related to the
manufacture of computer and mobile device components.
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-2

Should Companies Reveal Which to work long hours in unsafe or unsanitary minerals. By contrast, some companies make
Products They Manufacture Using Fair conditions for little pay. In another example, efforts to obtain materials from ethical
Trade Practices? mining for the raw materials needed to sources. One major technology company
Despite the increased cost, many coffee and manufacture technology components may recently joined the Fair Labor Association,
tea drinkers gladly purchase fair trade prod- occur in areas where military conflict exists. which provides workplace standards for the
ucts. Fair trade labels indicate that the work- Those involved in the military conflict may environment and treatment of workers at all
ers who pick the coffee beans or tea leaves use the revenue from mining this material, stages of product development.
work in humane conditions and receive fair sometimes called conflict minerals, to fund
pay for their labor. the soldiers and continue the discord.
Would you pay more for a fair trade
With respect to technology, several Recently, the U.S. passed the Wall Street smartphone or laptop? Why or why not?
cases of unfair labor practices exist. Some Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Under Are companies responsible for the source
technology manufacturers use products this act, manufacturers must review their of the materials used in their products?
or components that are made in areas of supply sources and provide disclosure if the Why or why not? Should the government
extreme poverty. In these cases, factory materials were mined in areas of conflict. require companies to comply with fair trade
owners coerce workers, including children, These manufacturers, however, are not policies? Why or why not?
punished if they continue to use conflict
Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased electronically and
rewritten. Most computers use flash memory to hold their start-up instructions because it allows
the computer to update its contents easily. For example, when the computer changes from
standard time to daylight savings time, the contents of a flash memory chip (and the real-time
clock chip) change to reflect the new time.
Flash memory chips also store data and programs on many mobile devices and peripheral
devices, such as smartphones, portable media players, printers, digital cameras, automotive
devices, and digital voice recorders. When you enter names and addresses in a smartphone, for
example, a flash memory chip stores the data. Some portable media players store music on flash
memory chips; others store music on tiny hard disks or memory cards. Memory cards contain
flash memory on a removable device instead of a chip. Read Secure IT 6-5 for tips about
protecting data on a smartphone. Read Ethics & Issues 6-3 to consider an issue related to repair
technicians and your data.
SECURE IT 6-5
Wiping Mobile Phone Memory buying or acquiring the phone then can resort to this measure, be certain to watch
If you ever have lent your smartphone to access the sensitive data left in memory. the sales associate perform this action. If your
someone, left it sitting on your desk at Some recyclers claim that 95 percent of mobile phone has a SIM or memory card,
school or work, or placed it in your car’s the mobile phones they receive are not remove and destroy it if you are not going to
center console at valet parking, you might completely cleaned. transfer it to another phone. Employees who
have provided someone access without your Deleting all information from a mobile use their phone to access email messages
consent to all your personal information phone’s memory is a relatively simple process, on corporate servers sometimes are required
stored on that device. A thief can plug a small but it is not a universal procedure. Each to enter a passcode on the phone so that
device, called a Cellular Seizure Investigation device has its own set of steps described in if it is lost or stolen, the data can be wiped
(CSI) stick, into the phone and then the owner’s manual or online. In general, remotely.
download sensitive data in seconds. users must locate their device’s settings
Have you ever wiped the memory of your
While this unscrupulous activity seems area on a menu and then look for a reset
mobile phone? What action would you take if
alarming, a similar action occurs every command. Most electronics manufacturers
you received or bought a used mobile phone
day when smartphone users recycle or post instructions for this process on their
and then discovered the previous owner’s
sell their devices without wiping all their websites. Mobile phone retailers often can
personal information stored in memory?
personal records from memory. A person offer help in clearing personal data; if you
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-3

Should Repair Technicians Be Required To obtain a private investigator license, hardware maintenance and repair does
to Hold a Private Investigator License? a technician must obtain a criminal justice not need a license under the revised law.
In one state, computer repair technicians are degree or serve as an apprentice for a private Some technicians claim that the law still is
required by law to obtain a private investi- investigator. This process takes up to three years too broad, as during the course of routine
gator license if they review or analyze data and is costly. Many smaller computer repair repairs or maintenance, technicians often
on computers that they repair. The interpre- companies claim that, if enforced, this law will unintentionally uncover personal data.
tation is that the technician is performing put them out of business. Larger companies are
an investigation, in a sense, when business not as vulnerable because they sometimes have
Should states require computer repair
managers and parents hire them to analyze employees, or can afford to hire employees, technicians to have a private investigator
the computer usage habits of employees with private investigator licenses. license? Why or why not? Should the govern-
or children. Technicians who violate this After technicians filed several lawsuits, ment consider a different type of certification
requirement, along with customers who hire the state government amended the law to for computer repair technicians who must
technicians in violation, are subject to fines require licenses only for those investigating review or analyze customer data? If so, what
and jail time. data. That is, a technician who performs should be required for the certification?
CMOS
Some RAM chips, flash memory chips, and other memory chips use complementary
metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS pronounced SEE-moss) technology because it provides high
speeds and consumes little power. CMOS technology uses battery power to retain information
even when the power to the computer is off. Battery-backed CMOS memory chips, for example,
can keep the calendar, date, and time current even when the computer is off. The flash
memory chips that store a computer’s start-up information often use CMOS technology.
10 million
operations = 1 blink
Memory Access Times
Access time is the amount of time it takes the processor to read data, instructions, and
information from memory. A computer’s access time directly affects how fast the com-
puter processes data. Accessing data in memory can be more than 200,000 times faster
than accessing data on a hard disk because of the mechanical motion of the hard disk.
Today’s manufacturers use a variety of terminology to state access times (Table 6-2).
Some use fractions of a second, which for memory occurs in nanoseconds. A nanosecond
(abbreviated ns) is one billionth of a second. A nanosecond is extremely fast (Figure 6-15).
In fact, electricity travels about one foot in a nanosecond.
Table 6-2 Access Time Terminology

Term Abbreviation Speed
Millisecond ms One-thousandth of a second Figure 6-15 It takes about
one-tenth of a second to blink
© Cengage Learning
Microsecond µs One-millionth of a second your eye, in which time a

Nanosecond ns One-billionth of a second computer can perform some
operations 10 million times.
Picosecond ps One-trillionth of a second © iStockphoto / drbimages; © iStockphoto /
drbimages
CONSIDER THIS
What if a manufacturer states access times in megahertz instead of fractions of a second?
Some manufacturers state access times in MHz; for example, 800 MHz DDR2 SDRAM. If a manufacturer states access
time in megahertz, you can convert it to nanoseconds by dividing 1 billion ns by the megahertz number. For example,
800 MHz equals approximately 1.25 ns (1,000,000,000/800,000,000). The higher the megahertz, the faster the access
time; conversely, the lower the nanoseconds, the faster the access time.
While access times of memory greatly affect overall computer performance, manufacturers and retailers often list
a computer’s memory in terms of its size, not its access time. For example, an advertisement might describe a
computer as having 8 GB of RAM.
NOW YOU KNOW

Be sure you understand the material presented in the sections titled Cloud Computing, Data Representation, and
Memory, as it relates to the chapter objectives.
• Which cloud computing service is best suited to your needs (Objective 4)
• How your computers and mobile devices represent data (Objective 5)
• How memory on your computer or mobile device works with your programs and applications (Objective 6)
• When you are using RAM, cache, ROM, flash memory, and CMOS (Objective 7)
Quiz Yourself Online: Check your knowledge of related content by navigating to this book’s Quiz Yourself
resource on Computer Concepts CourseMate and then tapping or clicking Objectives 4–7.
Adapters
Although the circuitry in many of today’s computers integrates all the necessary functionality,
some require additional capabilities in the form of adapters. Desktops and servers use adapter
cards; mobile computers use USB adapters and ExpressCard modules. Read How To 6-3
to learn about ports you might consider including in a computer or mobile device that can
eliminate the need for adapters.
HOW TO 6-3
Determine Which Ports You Need a laptop to a monitor that has an HDMI • Other Input, Output, and Storage
on a Computer or Mobile Device port, your computer or mobile device should Devices: If you plan to connect other
When purchasing a computer or mobile have a port capable of HDMI output. devices such as a keyboard, mouse, exter-
device, it is important to make sure it has • Networking: If you plan to connect your nal hard disk, or printer, look at the cable
the correct ports so that it can connect your computer or mobile device to a wired that connects this device to the computer,
peripheral devices. The following list will help computer network, and make sure your computer has a port
identify the ports you need on a computer or it should have an that will accept the connector on the
mobile device. Ethernet port to cable. In many cases, these devices will
• Display Devices: If you plan to connect which you can connect to your computer using a USB
your computer or mobile device to a display connect network Ethernet connection. Make sure your computer
port has a sufficient number of USB ports to
device such as a monitor or projector, make cables.
sure your computer or mobile device has support the devices you want to connect.
• Audio: If you plan to connect your
a port that is compatible with the display If you are unable to connect a computer
computer or mobile device to an
device. For example, if you plan to connect with enough USB ports, you can purchase
audio output device such as speakers,
a USB hub.
headphones, or earbuds, your computer or
VGA port mobile device should have a port for audio
output.
audio USB ports

ports
DVI port
In addition to the devices discussed
above, what other devices might you connect
HDMI port
to your computer or mobile device?
© paulrommer / Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto / Günay Mutlu; © WitthayaP / Shutterstock.com; © ludinko / Shutterstock.com; ©WitthayaP / Shutterstock.com; © ludinko / Shutterstock.com
Adapter Cards
An adapter card, sometimes called an expansion card or
adapter board, is a circuit board that enhances the functions
of a component of a desktop or server system unit and/or
provides connections to peripheral devices. An expansion slot video card
is a socket on a desktop or server motherboard that can hold
an adapter card. Figure 6-16 shows a variety of adapter cards
in expansion slots on a desktop motherboard.
sound card
Two popular adapter cards are sound cards and video cards.
A sound card enhances the sound-generating capabilities of
a personal computer by allowing sound to be input through
expansion slots motherboard
a microphone and output through external speakers or
headphones. A video card, also called a graphics card, converts
computer output into a video signal that travels through a Figure 6-16 Cards inserted in expansion slots on a desktop
motherboard.
cable to the monitor, which displays an image on the screen. © Olga Lipatova / Shutterstock.com
Table 6-3 identifies the purpose of some adapter cards.
Sometimes, all functionality is built in the adapter card. Table 6-3 Adapter Cards
With others, a cable connects the adapter card to a device,
Type Purpose
such as a digital video camera, outside the computer.
Today’s computers support Plug and Play technology, which Bluetooth Enables Bluetooth connectivity
means the computer automatically can recognize peripheral MIDI Connects to musical instruments
devices as you install them. Plug and Play support means you
Modem Connects to transmission media, such as cable
can plug in a device and then immediately begin using it. television lines or phone lines
USB Adapters and ExpressCard Modules Network Provides network connections, such as to an
Because of their smaller form factors, mobile computers Ethernet port
typically do not have expansion slots. Adapters for mobile Sound Connects to speakers or a microphone
computers are in the form of a removable flash memory device. TV tuner Allows viewing of digital television broadcasts
Two popular adapters for mobile computers are USB adapters on a monitor
and ExpressCard modules. A USB adapter, which is a dongle
USB Connects to high-speed USB ports
that plugs into a USB port, enhances functions of a mobile
© Cengage Learning
computer and/or provides connections to peripheral devices Video Provides enhanced graphics capabilities,
(Figure 6-17). An ExpressCard module is a removable device, such as accelerated processing or the ability
to connect a second monitor
about 75 mm long (approximately 3 inches) and 34 mm wide
(approximately 1.3 inches) or L-shaped with a width of 54 Video capture Connects to a video camera
mm (approximately 2 inches), that fits in an ExpressCard slot
(Figure 6-18). USB adapters and ExpressCard modules can be used to add memory, communica-
tions, multimedia, security, and storage capabilities to mobile computers. Read Ethics & Issues 6-4
on the next page to consider whether manufacturers should eliminate proprietary connectors.
two sizes of
ExpressCard modules
Figure 6-18 ExpressCard modules, which are available in two sizes, fit in an
Figure 6-17 A USB adapter inserts into a ExpressCard slot.
USB port on a computer or mobile device. Courtesy of USB Implementers Forum Inc; Courtesy of USB Implementers Forum Inc; Courtesy of USB Implementers
© vetkit / Shutterstock.com; © vetkit / Shutterstock.com Forum Inc; © Cengage Learning
ETHICS & ISSUES 6-4

Should Manufacturers Eliminate with connectors used with prior iPhone also will enable users with different phone
Proprietary Connectors? models. Critics argue that requiring cus- models to share connectors. The environment
If you need to replace the cable that connects tomers to purchase proprietary connectors will benefit because fewer outdated or
your mobile device to a USB port, you might unnecessarily increases the cost of purchasing incompatible cords will be discarded into
have a choice of many makes, models, and or upgrading a mobile device. landfills. Further, the manufacturing process
prices. Some devices, however, require the The International Electronics Commission will generate less waste because fewer cords
use of proprietary connectors, limiting your (IEC) is working to make micro USB the will be required.
options to those manufacturers who make universal connector standard for charging
connectors that match the port on your mobile devices. This type of universal
Should customers pressure manufacturers
mobile device. standard has several advantages. It will save to use a universal connector standard? Why
When Apple released the iPhone 5 in customers money because they will not have or why not? Would you consider the con-
2012, for example, it required the use of a to purchase a new connector with their nector type when purchasing a new phone?
proprietary connector that was incompatible new phone, even if it is a different brand Why or why not?
of phone. A universal standard connector
Unlike adapter cards that require you

to open the system unit and install the
processor card on the motherboard, you can change
a removable flash memory device without
having to open the system unit or restart
the computer. This feature, called hot
plugging, allows you to insert and remove
a device while the computer is running.
Buses
As explained earlier in this chapter, a
bus
computer processes and stores data as a
series of electronic bits. These bits trans-
fer internally within the circuitry of the
computer along electrical channels. Each
channel, called a bus, allows the various
devices both inside and attached to the
system unit to communicate with each
other. Just as vehicles travel on a highway
to move from one destination to another,
bits travel on a bus (Figure 6-19).
memory
Buses are used to transfer bits
chips from input devices to memory, from
memory to the processor, from the
Figure 6-19 Just as vehicles travel on a highway, bits travel on a bus. Buses are used processor to memory, and from memory
to transfer bits from input devices to memory, from memory to the processor, from the to output or storage devices. Buses
processor to memory, and from memory to output or storage devices.
Courtesy of Intel Corporation; © Cengage Learning consist of a data bus and an address bus.
The data bus is used to transfer actual
data, and the address bus is used to transfer information about where the data should reside
in memory.
Bus Width
The size of a bus, called the bus width, determines the number of bits that the computer can
transmit at one time. For example, a 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits (4 bytes) at a time. On a
64-bit bus, bits transmit from one location to another 64 bits (8 bytes) at a time. The larger the
number of bits handled by the bus, the faster the computer transfers data. Using the highway
analogy again, assume that one lane on a highway can carry one bit. A 32-bit bus is like a 32-lane
highway. A 64-bit bus is like a 64-lane highway.
If a number in memory occupies 8 bytes, or 64 bits, the computer must transmit it in two
separate steps when using a 32-bit bus: once for the first 32 bits and once for the second 32 bits.
Using a 64-bit bus, the computer can transmit the number in a single step, transferring all 64
bits at once. The wider the bus, the fewer number of transfer steps required and the faster the
transfer of data. Most personal computers today use a 64-bit bus. BTW
In conjunction with the bus width, many computer professionals refer to a computer’s word Cyborg Technology
Innovative Computing:
size. Word size is the number of bits the processor can interpret and execute at a given time.
That is, a 64-bit processor can manipulate 64 bits at a time. Computers with a larger word size with this cyborg
can process more data in the same amount of time than computers with a smaller word size. In technology, which
most computers, the word size is the same as the bus width. operates at several
hundred hertz.
CONSIDER THIS
How is bus speed measured?
Every bus also has a clock speed. Just like the processor, manufacturers state the clock speed for a bus in hertz. The
higher the bus clock speed, the faster the transmission of data, which results in programs running faster.
Types of Buses
A computer has a system bus, possibly a backside bus, and an expansion bus.
• A system bus, also called the front side bus (FSB), is part of the motherboard and connects the
processor to main memory.
• A backside bus (BSB) connects the processor to cache.
• An expansion bus allows the processor to communicate with peripheral devices.
desktop power
When computer professionals use the term, bus, by itself, they usually are referring to the supply
system bus.
Power Supply and Batteries

Many personal computers plug in standard wall outlets, which supply
an alternating current (AC) of 115 to 120 volts. This type of power is
unsuitable for use with a computer or mobile device, which requires a
direct current (DC) ranging from 5 to more than 15 volts. The power
supply or laptop AC adapter converts the wall outlet AC power into DC
power (Figure 6-20). Different motherboards and computers require
different wattages on the power supply. If a power supply is not provid-
ing the necessary power, the computer will not function properly. laptop AC
adapter
Built into the power supply is a fan that keeps the power supply cool.
Some have variable speed fans that change speed or stop running, depend-
ing on temperature in the case. Many newer computers have additional
fans near certain components in the system unit such as the processor,
hard disk, and ports. Some users install more fans to help dissipate heat
generated by the components of the computer.
Some external peripheral devices, such as a cable modem, speakers, or a
printer, have an AC adapter, which is an external power supply. One end of
the AC adapter plugs in the wall outlet and the other end attaches to the
peripheral. The AC adapter converts the AC power into the DC power Figure 6-20 Examples of desktop power supply
that the peripheral requires, and also often charges the battery in a mobile and laptop AC adapter.
© robootb / Shutterstock.com; © iStockphoto / Freer Law
computer or device.
CONSIDER THIS
How many fans are in a desktop case?
Most have at least three fans: one in the power supply, one in the case, and one on the processor heat sink. In
addition, you also might find a fan on a video card or other adapter card. While some computers contain fans that are
designed to be quiet or operate in quiet mode, others allow you to turn off noisy fans until they are needed. You also
can purchase programs that slow or stop the fan until the temperature reaches a certain level.
smartphone
laptop battery
battery
Mobile computers and
devices can run using either
a power supply or batteries.
The batteries typically are
rechargeable lithium-ion batteries
(Figure 6-21). Read How To 6-4
for tips on conserving battery life
of mobile computers and devices.
Some mobile devices and comput-
Figure 6-21 Rechargeable batteries for mobile computers and devices. ers, such as some ultrathin laptops,
© Thejipen / Dreamstime.com; © Anaken2012 / Dreamstime.com
do not have removable batteries.
HOW TO 6-4
Conserve Battery Life of Mobile how long to charge the battery before its keep the display as dim as you can without
Computers and Devices first use. having to strain your eyes.
As consumers rely on mobile computers • Charge the battery only when it is drained • Download and install an app that will
and devices more and more every day, it is completely. Many batteries on computers inform you which other apps are running
increasingly important for the battery life on and mobile devices can be charged only and consuming battery life. If an app does
these devices to support high usage demands. a certain number of times before they fail not need to run, you should exit it so that
Unfortunately, battery life on these devices completely. For this reason, you should the app does not consume your battery.
often is not sufficient for many users to make charge batteries only when absolutely • Avoid turning your mobile computer or
it throughout the day with moderate activity necessary. device on and off multiple times per day.
on their devices. For this reason, it is impor- • When you charge your mobile computer or The power-saving features on mobile com-
tant to conserve battery life so that a mobile device, try not to unplug the battery char- puters and devices often require less power
computer or device can remain functional ger until the battery is charged completely. than turning on your computer or mobile
until it is possible to connect it to a battery device from a powered-off state.
• Use the battery charger supplied with the
charger. The following list contains sugges-
mobile computer or device. Connecting • Turn off automatic app update capabilities
tions for conserving battery life on mobile
inexpensive battery chargers from other on your phone or mobile device, so that your
computers and devices:
vendors may damage the battery. device is not constantly checking for new
• When you first obtain a new mobile • If you are using a laptop or tablet, disable apps and downloading them to your device.
computer or device or purchase a new Wi-Fi and Bluetooth unless you are using
battery for your computer or mobile device, them. What other ways can you think of to
charge the battery completely. Most new conserve the battery life on your mobile com-
• Adjust the display’s brightness. Brighter
mobile computers and devices will indicate puter or device?
displays consume more battery life, so
Internet Research CONSIDER THIS

How effective are solar
How often do batteries for mobile computers and devices need to be replaced?
chargers?
Battery life depends on usage. While some may last several years, you may need to replace a battery much sooner than
Search for: portable solar
that. When the battery no longer can hold a charge, you should replace it with a battery made by, or recommended by,
charger reviews
the manufacturer of the computer or device.
MINI FEATURE 6-3
Proper Care for • If the computer or mobile device has an air vent
where a fan removes heat from the computer or
Computers and Mobile mobile device, make sure the vent is free of dust
Devices and debris. A blocked vent can prohibit heat from
escaping, which ultimately can cause the computer
Taking proper care of computers and mobile devices or mobile device to overheat. If the air vent is dirty,
not only will help prolong their life, but also keep them contact a trained professional to have it cleaned
running optimally. Caring for a computer or mobile properly. Improperly cleaning an air vent can result
device requires both that the hardware be kept in good in more debris entering the computer or mobile
condition and that the programs, apps, and data on the device.
device are maintained properly.
Hardware Maintenance
Before performing any of the following steps to care
© Raw Group / Shutterstock.com

for your computer or mobile device, turn off and unplug
the device from its power source. If the computer or
mobile device has a removable battery, you also should
remove the battery. All hardware maintenance should be
performed in an area that is clean and free from clutter.
• Use a damp cloth to gently clean the screen. Do
not use any special cleaners to clean the display, as
they may damage the display. Water is sufficient to Software Maintenance
remove dust and most dirt. Read How To 6-5 on the Maintaining the software on your computers and
next page for additional ways to protect screens and mobile devices can help them run optimally. While no
replace them if necessary. specific recommendation exists for the frequency with
• If the computer or mobile which you should perform the following actions, you
device has a keyboard, use should do so if you begin to notice a decline in your
a can of compressed air to computer or mobile device’s performance.
free the keyboard from any • Uninstall programs and remove apps you no longer
dirt and debris that might need on your computer or mobile device. These pro-
interfere with the operation grams and apps may consume a significant amount
of the keys or pose a risk of of space on your storage medium and decrease the
getting inside the computer. performance of your computer or mobile device. More
When using compressed air, information about uninstalling programs and remov-
hold the can upright, and not ing apps can be found in How To 4-3 on page 185.
at an angle, when dispens-
• If you are using a desktop or laptop, defragment the
ing the air. Holding the can
computer’s hard disk should you notice a decline in
© iStockphoto / jfmdesign
at an angle can cause the

the computer’s performance. More information about
can to dispense a very cold
defragmenting your computer’s hard disk can be
liquid instead of air, which can
found in How To 4-4 on page 187.
damage components in your
computer or mobile device. • Install programs and apps only from reputable software
manufacturers. In addition, make sure you are install-
• When you insert media
ing the program or app from the original installation
such as an optical disc, be sure the media is clean.
media, the software manufacturer’s website, or from
Inserting dirty media can damage a computer or
your mobile device’s app store or marketplace. You
mobile device’s internal components.
also should read reviews for programs and apps before
• If you are transporting a laptop, be sure to store it you download and/or install them to make sure the
in a case with plenty of padding. If you are using program or app will meet your needs.
a mobile device, such as a tablet or smartphone,
protect it with a case. A case will better protect the In addition to the methods mentioned in this
device in the event you drop it and may make it mini feature, what other ways can you care for your
easier for you to grip the device while using it. computer or mobile device?
CONSIDER THIS
How does an antistatic wristband work?
When working with electronic components, such as a motherboard, you should wear an antistatic wristband. An
antistatic wristband is a bracelet designed to protect electronics from an electrostatic discharge by preventing a
buildup of static electricity on a user. The wristband has an attached clip that you connect to any bare metal surface,
which acts as a ground.
HOW TO 6-5
Protect and Replace Screens professional. In addition, the exact the assembly. If the display assembly is
One way to protect the screen on your mobile steps to replace a broken screen can connected to the mobile device with a
device is to use a screen protector. A screen vary with each device. If the steps for cable, carefully disconnect the cable.
protector is a thin plastic film that adheres your device vary from the steps listed 6. Unpack the new screen and connect it
to the screen of your device. While screen below, follow the instructions from to the mobile device, connecting any
protectors may not protect the screen if you your device’s manufacturer. necessary cables.
drop your device or an object impacts it with 1. Back up the data on your mobile device 7. Reassemble the mobile device, reconnect
excessive force, it will protect the screen from before starting a screen replacement. the power source and/or the battery, and
minor scratches obtained through normal use. While a successful screen replacement turn on the device.
Screen protectors often can be purchased should not threaten the data, it is a good
from the same place you bought your mobile idea to keep a backup in case a problem
Why might you replace a cracked screen
device and also are available online. If you arises unexpectedly.
instead of replacing the entire mobile device?
cannot find a screen protector that is the 2. Turn off the mobile device and disconnect
exact same size as the screen on your mobile it from all power sources. If the device
device, you can purchase a larger one and uses a removable battery, remove it.
then trim it to fit your screen. 3. Protect your hands and eyes before
In the event the screen on your mobile beginning glass replacement.
om
device breaks, the following steps will guide 4. If possible, carefully remove all pieces of
erstock.c
you through the process of replacing it. broken glass. Consider using compressed
Even if your device continues to work with
a / Shutt
air to remove any dust.
a broken screen, you still should replace
5. Remove the display assembly. Refer to
y Arkush
it as soon as possible to avoid injury.
your device’s documentation for informa-
NOTE: Screen replacement should be
tion about removing the display. You may
© Andre
attempted only by advanced users.
need a small, nonmagnetic screwdriver
If you are uncomfortable following
and/or metal or plastic tool to remove
these steps, seek help from a trained
NOW YOU KNOW

Be sure you understand the material presented in the sections titled Adapters, Buses, and Power Supply and
Batteries, as it relates to the chapter objectives.
• When you would use an adapter card, a USB adapter, and an ExpressCard module (Objective 8)
BTW • How your computer uses buses (Objective 9)
Robot • Why your computers and mobile devices need power supplies or batteries (Objective 10)
Innovative Computing: • How to care for your computers and mobile devices (Objective 11)
with one type of Quiz Yourself Online: Check your knowledge of related content by navigating to this book’s Quiz Yourself
humanoid robot, which resource on Computer Concepts CourseMate and then tapping or clicking Objectives 8–11.
is powered with a
rechargeable lithium-ion
battery.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the various components inside computers and mobile devices. It
discussed types of processors, steps in a machine cycle, and processor cooling methods. You
learned about advantages and services of cloud computing. The chapter discussed how memory
stores data and described various types of memory. You learned about adapters, buses, power
supplies and batteries, and ways to care for computers and mobile devices.
Test your knowledge of chapter material by accessing the Study Guide, Flash Cards, and
Practice Test apps that run on your smartphone, tablet, laptop, or desktop.
TECHNOLOGY @ WORK
Publishing pay to download and read content, although is not true. Libraries are able to check out
Today, virtually any material that you read some items are available for free. simultaneously only the number of copies,
exists in electronic form. In publishing’s Programs and apps, including web apps, or licenses, of the e-book they purchase. For
early years, and before computers existed, also are enabling individuals to publish example, if a library purchases two licenses
authors and writers recorded content using a content themselves. Individuals easily can of an e-book, only two copies of that e-book
typewriter, which then would be duplicated publish content to a blog on the web, or can be checked out simultaneously. If a third
and bound into a publication. When word they can use an app to create and publish an user wants to check out this e-book, he or
processors were introduced, writers not only e-book for others to purchase and download. she must wait for one copy to be returned.
could type their work, but also were able to Many libraries also are taking advantage Read Ethics & Issues 3-3 on page 124 for a
apply basic formatting and check their spell- of advances in technology by enabling users related discussion.
ing. While typewriters and word processors to check out books electronically. Similar Technology has greatly improved the
performed their tasks adequately, they pale to a print book, library patrons can reserve publishing industry. Not only is content
in comparison to the extent to which today’s an e-book on their computer or mobile published more quickly and in an easily
computers and mobile devices have improved device. When the e-book is available, it will accessible form, but it also now is less prone
the publishing process. download to the user’s computer or mobile to errors because the development process is
Before computers and other related device automatically. When the e-book is due much more streamlined.
technological advances, publishing a book or when the user decides to return the book,
would be a very long process. After the it will remove itself from the user’s computer In what other ways do computers and
authors wrote a manuscript, it was converted or mobile device. While many people believe technology play a role in the publishing
into a form that was ready to print; the that libraries can check out unlimited copies industry?
printing process then could take several of the same e-book simultaneously, this
weeks to complete. Today, authors can use
programs and apps to write material in
a format that will require minimal, if any,
conversion before it is ready to print.
Many book, magazine, and newspaper
publishers are turning away from the
print medium and encouraging consumers
to read content electronically. In fact,
some publishers are turning exclusively
to publishing in electronic form and
abandoning the print medium altogether.
As mentioned previously in this book, you
can read book content or magazine and
newspaper articles either on the web or
using an e-book reader. Content on the
© geophoto / Alamy
web usually is available free or for a fee. For

example, some newspapers allow people
to read articles for free, while others may
charge a digital subscription fee. If you are
using an e-book reader, you often have to

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Inside Computers

and Mobile Devices

“I bought my laptop a couple of years ago, and it appears to be working

© Christina Richards / Shutterstock.com; © TungCheung / Shutterstock.com; © vetkit / Shutterstock.com; Courtesy of

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Inside the Case

desktop tower case

laptop case slate tablet case convertible tablet case

game console case

heat sink and fan heat sink and fan

Figure 6-3 A desktop motherboard and a laptop motherboard.

ETHICS & ISSUES 6-1

The Control Unit

The Steps in a Machine Cycle

Using a calculator app, Step 1

Figure 6-5 This figure shows the steps in a machine cycle.

The System Clock

Personal Computer and Mobile Device Processors

BTW Processor Cooling

Figure 6-6 This photo shows a heat sink

NOW YOU KNOW

MINI FEATURE 6-1

Cloud Computing Software as a Service

© Tom Wang / Shutterstock.com / © Studio 101 / Alamy;

Bits and Bytes Binary Digit Electronic Electronic

8-bit byte for the letter E number systems, read Mini

How a Letter Is Converted to Binary Form and Back

Bytes and Addressable Memory

How Program Instructions Transfer in and out of RAM

Table 6-1 Common DRAM Variations

compatible and offer options to you for

L1 cache – part of processor L1 cache – fastest access

L2 cache – part of processor slower access than L1 cache

L3 cache – separate chip

ETHICS & ISSUES 6-2

ETHICS & ISSUES 6-3

Table 6-2 Access Time Terminology

Microsecond µs One-millionth of a second your eye, in which time a

NOW YOU KNOW

audio USB ports

ETHICS & ISSUES 6-4

Unlike adapter cards that require you

Power Supply and Batteries

Internet Research CONSIDER THIS

MINI FEATURE 6-3

© Raw Group / Shutterstock.com

at an angle can cause the

NOW YOU KNOW

web usually is available free or for a fee. For

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